Sociology

Synopsis
According to Tucker  Collins (2009), male athletes possess a significant advantage over their female counterparts due to the virilizing effect of hormones, for instance, testosterone. The participation in sport is therefore highly influenced by gender, but this classification is complex. According to the authors, various techniques have been tried, but none of them turned out to be conclusive. These include the embarrassing physical examination of genitalia, genetic screening, endocrinological and gynecological exams. Whether or not intersex athletes should be allowed to compete under female categories is another complex issue which has not reached agreement among the sporting bodies.

Historically, disorders of sex development (DSD), for instance, genitalia abnormalities, have led to incidences of men disguising as female athletes to compete in female sporting categories (Tucker  Collins, 2009). The sex verification procedure was therefore introduced to address this problem. The sex-chromatin test, first used by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), identified the number of X and Y chromosomes in athletes. Two X-chromosomes defined the athlete as female, and one X and one Y chromosome set as a male. This test was, however, inconclusive when conducted on individuals with DSD. A person with only one X chromosome or two X and one Y chromosome was identified as female. The former are males with a female appearance, and the latter, infertile men (Tucker  Collins, 2009).

Furthermore, there are individuals who are referred to as XY females. They have a female appearance, lead a women lifestyle, but have male chromosomes, clearly, an advantage in competitive sport. Consequently, the issue of sex verification is complex and has been shrouded secrecy, primarily due to medical confidentiality.

Discussion
Based on the realities of DSD, the IOC has not identified an athlete deliberately misrepresenting their gender (Tucker  Collins, 2009). According to the Canadian Academy of Sports Medicine, individuals who have been raised as females starting from childhood should be allowed to compete as females, irrespective of their chromosomal or hormonal sex. Besides, women whose physique has developed substantially whether from physical training or genetic abnormalities, should be allowed to compete as females (Tucker  Collins, 2009).

Jenkins (2005) cites an example of five female record holders who dropped out before their first test with unexpected illness. Others were sisters Irina and Tamara Press who suddenly announced their retirement. In 1967, the IAAF introduced the sex chromatin test and in the same year, Ewa Klobukowska failed the test and was banned from the international competition.

Kirby  Huebner (n.d.) offer an insight into the issues of sex, gender and sexuality. According to the authors, it is accepted that the biological characteristics determine the individuals sex. However, the way an individual presents him or herself to the world may be in disagreement to the sexual identity. Such individuals will be labeled as gender-blenders, cross-dressers, or transvestites. Sexuality also takes the form of heterosexuality, homosexuality, and bisexuality. This sexual identity may evolve from one form to another during an individuals lifetime.

In competitive sports, female athletes are placed in the stereotypic feminine events, and when they perform well, eyebrows are raised, and the feat invites scrutiny. Such is their lot that comments, like She throws like a boy are common, leading to the controversial sex verification tests (Kirby  Huebner, n.d.).

According to the authors, there are disadvantages for the women athletes who undergo these tests. One is the unreliability of test results. For instance, the Spanish hurdler Mario Patino passed the test in 1983, but failed another test in 1985. She was subsequently barred from competitions. The other negative effect takes the form of stigma and trauma. An athlete who has failed a sex verification test is not only barred from future competitions, but the society does not regard her as a true female (Kirby  Huebner, n.d.).

However, mens disguising as female athletes has not been shown to be relevant. In addition, the media attention and the possible exposure by fellow athletes makes it difficult for males to pose as female athletes. To level the playing field and remove discriminatory sex verification, the authors recommend that the IOC should place a cap on chromosome levels for male athletes. The best alternative, however, would be the ban of hormonal investigations by the sporting body as all other international sporting bodies would likely do the same.

The views of Kirby  Huebner (n.d.) are supported by those of Young  Wansley (2005) who support the view that a certain form of the cultural hegemony has been sustained by the Olympic Games the authority of men over women evident in such practices as the IOCs gender verification and channeling women into Female appropriate sports. Thus, norms, values and interests of the dominant group become imposed on all social classes (Characteristics of Sport Stratification). However, transgendered athletes have won some gains.

Renee Richards, a professional tennis player and transgendered athlete, was allowed to compete in the U.S. Open by the U.S. Supreme court in 1977. Further, transgendered athletes were allowed to compete by the IOC after 2004 as long as their gender was legally recognized, and they underwent the genital reconstructive surgery and two years of hormone replacement treatment to remove any advantage in strength and size. This policy is, however, contradictory in light of the crackdown on steroid use by athletes (Minigh, 2007).

The concept of hegemony as espoused by Gramsci is evident at the IOC. According to Gramsci, ideas and ideologies must be involved in a class struggle (Stillo, n.d.). Gramsci held that the domination by the elite is determined by, among others, the intellectual and moral leadership. However, subordinated groups accept this domination for reasons of their own (Strinate, 1995, p.166 cited in Stillo, n.d.).

Hegemony means that a dominant group has succeeded in persuading the other classes to accept its own moral values and it emerges out of social struggles to influence peoples minds (Stillo, n.d.).
At the IOC, the moral leadership has taken the form of subjugating female athletes by requiring them to undergo the sex verification. This test is only conducted on female athletes whose numbers do not lend sufficient weight to offer any opposition. It is discriminatory and leads to trauma and ostracization of female athletes who do not pass the test (Kirby  Huebner, n.d.). Further, the stigma attached to disorders of sexual development is so severe that female athletes or transgendered athletes cannot voice their concerns due to the ensuing embarrassment.

This is a divisive point in the society. It stands to reason that biology cannot be circumvented and will take its natural course, either toward a female with a female sexual identity and female gender identity, a male with a male sexual identity and male gender identity, or an individual with gender anomalies. The latter is a reality which is increasingly accepted by sporting bodies, for instance, the Canadian Academy of Sports Medicine (CASM) whose opinion is that those raised as females from childhood should be allowed to compete as females in international sporting events (Tucker  Collins, 2009).

Recommendations
The male cultural hegemony that is evident in the running of sporting events in the IOC is a disadvantage for the female athletes. Only female athletes are required to undergo sex verification and the associated trauma and stigma lends doubt that the solution will emerge from female athletes. Their voice is subdued due to the embarrassment that can result in such a campaign. Consequently, the solutions must involve all who participate and support the Olympic Games.

Possible solutions emerge after critically analyzing disorders of the sexual development and evaluating them against recommendations by Kirby  Huebner (n.d.). The authors support the view that the IOC should place a cap on chromosome levels for male athletes in order to level the playing field. DSDs are biological and emanate from birth. Individuals raised with such anomalies are therefore at a disadvantage and society should find the means to accommodate the reality that for these individuals to compete equitably, then restrictions imposed on them should be accompanied by restrictions specific to male athletes. If the IOC is to conduct sex verification testing on female athletes, it must also test for chromosome levels on male athletes and impose restrictions on excess levels.

The Canadian Academy of Sports Medicine offers the best possible solution when it recommends that gender inclination should not be a barrier to inclusion in female competitive sport. What matters is the individuals perception of gender orientation. If raised as a female from birth and recognized as such legally, then sporting bodies should allow the individual to compete as a female athlete (Tucker  Collins, 2009).

The above two solutions can, however, co-exist. The IOC should recognize that the sexual development disorders do exist and accommodate such individuals in sport, and embrace those whose gender orientation is part of their unique identity.

At issue, however, is the will to accept solutions that will recognize transgendered athletes. Perhaps society can borrow from Hoovers (1996) view on constructivism. According to the author, human learning is built upon previous learning. Thus, it is constructed and not transmitted. This opinion should guide those who advocate for the sex verification. The groundwork that must be laid to sway their opinion needs to be based on education in issues to do with disorders of sexual development. Merely transmitting information on this subject is not enough, but rather, acquainting them with solid scientific fact and the social dimensions involved.

The IOC is a world sporting body was formed to come up with a compromise. Its role, just like that of religion, has a reach that touches every individual on this planet. Consequently, what it advocates affects the whole humankind. It must therefore not be seen to promote male cultural hegemony to the detriment of women. It must instead espouse democratic values so often taken for granted.

The gains won by such athletes as Renee Richards, the transgendered professional tennis player, must be built upon by the IOC and not be dependent upon litigation. She was only allowed to compete in the U.S. Open after intervention of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1977 (Minigh, 2007). Other athletes have not been as lucky, and many have been banned from international competitive sports for life, for instance, Ewa Klobukowska of Poland, who in 1967 failed the sex chromatin test during the European Cup Finals (Jenkins, 2005). The body should also borrow a leaf from Australia where discrimination in sports on sexual grounds is prohibited in six states (Transgender, 2010). The norms, values, and interests of a dominant group must not become imposed on all social groups (Characteristics of Sport Stratification, n.d.).