Sociology

The requirement to state ones racial background in formal applications as practiced on the undergraduate common application form, and in national census, brings to the fore the question of whether such considerations and questions are necessary. While some people may argue that this information is important for the collection of information for statistical reasons, others may frown upon it and dismiss it as a discriminatory practice aimed at certain ethnic or racial groups.

Whereas the common application form for admission into undergraduate studies in an American college indicates that this section is optional, in my opinion, some of the affected individuals may still feel that the sheer inclusion of the section is in itself already discriminatory.

However, it is also apparent that without such information, it would be impossible to have accurate information on the distribution, settlement patterns and statistical data concerning certain groups of people. This may subsequently make the inclusion and provision of essential services to the particular group difficult or impossible, a typical aspect of discrimination. As such, collection of information on an individuals ethnic background and race is in fact intended to place the needs and concerns of the minorities on the map, for equal service provision, equitable planning and resource allocations, including protection and affirmative action. Indeed, how people report themselves racially provides information needed to implement and enforce important legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act (J., Lee, and F., D., Bean (2003), Beyond Black and White Remaking Race in America, pg 95).

In the book, Beyond Black and White Remaking Race in America, the authors point out that nearly 7 million Americans, representing 2.4 percent of the nations population, were recorded as being multiracial (pg 94).

From such findings, it is clear that the American population is witnessing the emergence and growth of a multiracial group of people, typically comprised of the people born by parents of mixed racial backgrounds like a black father and a white mother, an Asian mother and an African American mother, and so on.

It is documented that before the year 2000, filling out application forms like the one for admission for undergraduate studies in American colleges was challenging, because there was no provision of individuals with mixed parents in terms of ethnicity, yet the question required a response. Such an applicant was forced to choose one of either black or white in case the individual had parents from both racial backgrounds. Due to increased intermarriages, especially after the repeal of laws prohibiting marriage between people of different racial backgrounds in America, there has been a rise in the number of people of mixed race, leading to the emergence of a group similar to, but not exactly the typical racial groups of white, black, Indian and the like.

Actually, social scientists generally agree that race is not a biological category, but a social and cultural construction, meaning that racial distinctions have not existed since time immemorial, are not rooted in biology and are not fixed (J., Lee, and F., D., Bean (2003), Beyond Black and White Remaking Race in America, pg 96). The emergence of a new race, the multiracial, as witnessed in the United States should therefore not come as a surprise. Rather, it can be viewed as the result of socio-cultural construction in the present day American society.

Consequently, all signs indicate the emergence of new racial categories in America, which are unique on their own right. These are broadly the offspring of parents from the various different racial backgrounds that constitute the nation of America, who have intermarried to give rise to the new category, the multiracials. It appears that increases in intermarriage and the growth of the multicultural population reflect a blending of races and the shifting of color lines (J., Lee, and F., D., Bean (2003), Beyond Black and White Remaking Race in America, pg 98).

One might therefore argue that if racial boundaries are fading, the use of racial categories ought to be abandoned, and policy made without such considerations, especially in public official documents. This, arguably, would lead to an end of racial discrimination. Nevertheless, the other school of thought may maintain that the information is vital since color discrimination is still prevalent in America today, and intermarriages are skewed and not necessarily growing at the same rate among all the different races. Therefore, this question is still necessary to furnish planning and relevant authorities with information, particularly focusing on disadvantaged and minority groups, especially those that are having a lower rate of intermarriages with other races like the blacks.

In conclusion, it is apparent that while sections about race and ethnicity issues on application forms and national census are justified, some people feel that they are not necessary. This feeling is understandable, considering that it may pass for discrimination. In my opinion, as long as the information is strictly used for the benefit of the respondents as opposed to their disadvantage, it is necessary to include the questions of race and ethnicity. However, the issue of ensuring that the information is not used to the disadvantage of the affected people arises.

In his famous autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, a former slave recounts how an ignorant human being born into slavery can escape and become a positive role model for other people suffering in a variety of ways.  As a student from the Middle East this book reflected some of my own personal experiences, fears, and hopes for a more harmonious world in the future.  The three aspects of the book that strike me as the most profound are the episodes of violence to control human beings, the personal pride that remains despite the violence, how education is treated as a tool to escape ignorance and oppression. The book is, in my view, mostly about the origination of resistance, under what conditions it arises as a function of a genuine personal pride, and the necessity of education in maintaining a resistance posture in the face of adversity. From an enforced ignorance that seeks to prevent resistance from ever arising to brutal physical beatings intended to temper the resistance impulses when they do become manifest, Douglas eventually experiences through education a spiritual awakening which causes him to question the morality and the proffered justifications for slavery in a manner which still resonate today among a diverse global population.

My interest in this book was instantly captured as Douglass describes the conditions of slave life as constituting, essentially, a world of darkness.  This darkness, in turn, is characterized by a lack of knowledge about the most mundane facts such as birthdays, by a lack of power to affect the way farms are operated or slaves employed, and by a shocking violence that meets any slaves attempt to behave in ways not specifically prescribed by the white masters.  Regarding his own origins, for example, Douglass knows very little.  He does not know his date of birth and while he remembers his mother whom had died he is not sure about his fathers precise identity.  Douglas notes that this ignorance is deliberately imposed and maintained.  At one point, for example, he writes that The white children could tell their ages. I could not tell why I ought to be deprived of the same privilege. I was not allowed to make any inquiries of my master concerning it HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod97002098(Douglass 1).  The first condition of slave life is thus one of imposed ignorance.  Even where a white owner might know the facts sought by the slave, Douglass believes that these facts will not be forthcoming.  He considers this type of enforced ignorance to be one means through which the white masters keep the slaves ignorant, uneducated, and docile.  This is a very interesting observation, that people in power want to keep other people ignorant, because it shows that knowledge is power.  The same principles that Douglass writes about might be applied today to events around the world in which people in power also try to keep most people ignorant by withholding the true facts.  This might be applied with respect to the Wall Street bailouts, armed conflicts around the world, or even substandard relief efforts in Haiti.  Douglass writes about a universal conflict between a minority group in power and a majority group deliberately kept ignorant and in the dark.

In addition to slaverys explicit policy of enforced ignorance, another significant condition of slave life that shocked was its extraordinarily violent nature.  It was the norm rather than the exception for masters to resort to extreme physical violence in order to encourage conformity or to punish nonconformity.  In illustrating this type of extreme physical violence, Douglass describes a Mr. Plummer who was a miserable drunkard, a profane swearer, and a savage monster. He always went armed with a cowskin and a heavy cudgel. I have known him to cut and slash the womens heads so horribly, that even master would be enraged at his cruelty, and would threaten to whip him if he did not mind himself.  HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod97002100(Douglass 3)

Despite the occasional rebukes for excessively violent behavior, the violence never really seems too far away.  The second condition of slave life, as expressed so vividly in Douglasss narrative, is the constant threat of extreme and vicious physical violence.  Even the occasional master who cringes when seeing or hearing about these types of violence ultimately tends to consider such violence a necessary means for keeping the slaves in line.  Slaves are to know their place and not to question or criticize authority.  The white owners are portrayed like all knowing gods and the blacks are like work animals.  A white owner, in this context, would no more ask his horse whether it is ready to plow the fields then he would ask a black slave with an illness if he is ready for a sixteen hour work day with little food and little rest.  It is therefore amazing, given these conditions, that Douglass is able to retain his self-respect and to development a very well-rounded personal pride.  His strength in this respect deeply affected me as I read the book.

Finally, I was impressed by Douglasss efforts to improve his understanding of his condition as a slave through education.  Education, for him, is as powerful a weapon as the whip for the slave owner. It is while living with Master Hugh that Douglass notes that During this time, I succeeded in learning to read and write HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod97002119(Douglass 22).  Although some people throughout history may have considered experience without literacy to constitute an adequate education, Douglass feels that the two can not be separated and I agree.  More specifically, he feels that an enlightened experience requires literacy and education.  Reading books is extraordinarily important in Douglasss view because it allows him to seek answers to his oldest questions and it also allows him to explore notions of slavery and freedom in more depth.  In describing his teacher at the time, his mistress, he comments rather sarcastically that She was an apt woman and a little experience soon demonstrated, to her satisfaction, that education and slavery were incompatible with each other HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod97002119(Douglass 22).  Douglass comes to learn that someone or some group of people are trying to hide important knowledge from him and he becomes even more determined to discover this forbidden knowledge.  Education is therefore a means to an end.  Education is the means to ending slavery and securing individual freedom.  Again, this type of theme impresses me because it can be applied in modern times sadly, institutionalized education at times does not seem to effect the kind of change envisioned by Douglass.  Individual education, on the other, may perhaps help to change the world for a better future.

In conclusion, Douglasss life in my view illustrates how an individual quest can change the way people think and behave.  From a child born into slavery, who didnt even know his birth date, he emerged into one of the worlds greatest proponents of individual dignity, freedom, and liberty.  Douglass proves that education demands a critical mind, that a critical mind can discern between truth and self-serving lies, and that it is sometimes necessary to put beliefs to the test in the form of action.  Douglass experiences beatings, painful separations, jail, and constant hardship and, yet, he persists and prevails.  His persistence is perhaps just as noble as his written words.  Frederick Douglass remains a great inspirational figure for all people who feel abused, oppressed or shielded from knowing the true conditions in which they exist as human beings.

Sociologists describe coherent power-elite as a relatively small though closely knit group of politicians, military and economic men who are perceived as the center of political power and wealth and often tend to dominate and control major institutions in the United States (Mills, 1956). Their opinion and actions greatly influence decisions of American policy makers. Although their interests are congruent they benefit to a large extent the populous in terms of employment and governance.

However, they can establish machinery that covers their operations and decisions because their interests do not lie in their own submission to popular consent. They concentrate on securing and strengthening their hold on power, wealth and influence and hence seek by all means the submission of the citizens through manufacturing consent on policies that only benefit them and when they seem to be failing, they resort to coercive means. This has led to the decline of the power of politics making the formal political mechanics in America weak.

Military-industrial complex is the physical relationship between military, governments and industrial support obtained from commercial sectors in the production of military technology and weapons. It tries to marshal political support for increased and continued military spending in training, facilities, equipment and weapons by the national government (Mills, 1956). Military-industrial complex has entrenched and expanded America into a powerful federal state through the pursuant of social and national security. However, it has resulted in rent seeking, moral hazard and political corruption. The growth of this relationship evidently has increased the militarization of American society by perpetuating excessive military spending and hindering arms reduction efforts hence endangering the principles of democracy by altering the domestic order.

Divorce is the disbanding of marriage and completely doing away with all obligations between the married parties. Nowadays, divorce rate is increasing alarmingly due to cultural changes which lead to abhorring of family morals. Due to poor parenting, most young couples anticipate for typical marriages and end up divorcing as parents fail to salvage the relationships. Mostly, couples focus on their individual needs neglecting their partners desires. Many couple strives to amass wealth quickly and end up being frustrated and consequently separate (Raffel, 1998).

Many married people have had sex with different partners before they got married and whenever a domestic problem arises, one tends to think of the pleasures with the previous partner in compromise of the other. Divorce is very real for individuals who do not show regret for their deeds. In most cases, couples cheat on their partners and fail to sacrifice for their marriages hence continuity is not rife. More so, many married people are products of separated parents and they have minimal expectations of their marriage to last long (Raffel, 1998). According to Raffel (1998), poverty leads to divorce due financial constraints and worlds materialistic nature. Separation is also common amongst couples lacking team building skills as there is poor communication between the partners. Ruthless and hostile individuals end up separating due to violence (Raffel, 1998).

The rate of divorce can be reduced in the near future. The most important aspect of saving marriages is through communication between the partners. This helps to know the cause of the problem and understanding the happenings so as to reach an amicable solution. It is important to be composed, rational and sensible when faced with irritating marital problems (Onipede, 2007).

In order to save threatened marriage, it is advisable that a partner spends some time away from the other. Though hard, it minimizes quarrelling from time to time, allows partners to think and they may start missing each other (Onipede, 2007).

Always and whenever possible, sweet talk your partner. This will make the partner feel appreciated and wanted. It is nice to keep on complimenting each other (Onipede, 2007).
         
Divorce rate can be reduced and the social benefits are welcome. Stopping divorce helps avoid hurting the feeling among the partners since it is very painful. It also leads to improved living standards of the couple since there is sharing of the budget and reduces the cost of separation process. Reducing divorce means that children will get good parental care and reduce their suffering. Reducing divorce would mean that many people will have improved associations with their churches. Reducing divorce may also reduce cases of sexually transmitted diseases as one is bound tom having defined sexual partner and this may also reduce prostitution (Raffel, 2010).

Capitalism is an economic system where the factors of production are owned and controlled by a central government (Schumpeter, 1992). Socialism is a system where the community collectively owns and controls the factors of production and their distribution. In a socialistic economy, the government controls the production and distribution of products. The private enterprises have no control over production (Targ,  Polychroniou, 1996).

Socialism ensures equal distribution of resources in the country compared to capitalism which concentrates wealth to a few individuals. Capitalism increases the efficiency in production since resources are easily managed than in a socialistic economy (Targ,  Polychroniou, 1996).

The United States will lose by reduction in the efficiency of production. This will reduce the quality and quantity of products produced by the economy. The gains from a socialist economy are that there will be equality in distribution of resources and the gap between the rich and the poor will be reduced (Targ,  Polychroniou, 1996).

The greatest advantage of the socialist economy is the elimination of social classes which are created by the big gaps between the rich and the poor. The greatest disadvantage is that a socialism economy does not produce goods effectively. The private sector is more effective than the government. The control of the economic activities by the government has many loopholes which reduce the efficiency in production (Targ,  Polychroniou, 1996).

Conclusion
The United States should evaluate its decision to move to a socialists economy. Socialisms is a better strategy when the country has adequate resources to support the citizens and has good mechanisms of controlling all the factors of production. A capitalism system is suitable in an economy with inadequate mechanisms to control the operations of the private sector.

The Conners is a typical American working class family struggling to survive in the fictional town of Lanford, Illinois. Roseanne applies for a job at Wellman Plastics and gets accepted, along with her sister Jackie and friend Crystal. Jackie has a relationship with Booker, the companys foreman. Dan is employed in a construction firm. He faces a tough relationship with his negligent father. Bev and Al, the protagonists parents, consider moving to Lanford, but decide to abandon it. Darlene, a natural born lesbian struggles with her femininity as she enters the puberty stage. Becky has problems with Chip, her boyfriend. A tornado strikes the town. The Conners barely survives the onslaught. The new foreman at Wellman Plastics is tough and cruel. Roseanne leads other workers in an organized strike. Eventually, they quit their jobs.

Roseanne and Jackie struggle to find new jobs. Jackie becomes a police officer. Roseanne is irregularly employed. His final job is at the parlor shop, sweeping the dirty floors. Arnie, Dan friend, likes Roseanne. The Conners then celebrate Halloween. At a thanksgiving dinner, Dans father is having a passionate conversation with Crystal. Jackie is serious with her new boyfriend. Becky rebels against Roseanne. Roseanne discovers her unique ability to write. She fixes up the basement to serve as the writers den.

There are four social issues identified in the sit-com. Here are as follows 1) working class attitude, 2) irregularity of employment among working class people, 3) fragility of family relationships, and 4) identity confusion. Working class individuals are described as industrious, organized, family-oriented, and to some extent overtly productive. Roseanne is a member of this group  a girl who takes up several jobs to support her family. Employment for this group is more or less irregular. The reason is quite obvious. Most of them only finished high school or second-year college. The viable jobs available are usually menial in orientation. Hence, after the so-called regular work period, the worker usually faces the possibility of being fired. The prospect of finding stable jobs is uncertain since menial jobs are usually periodic.

Family relationships are fragile. Dan for example seldom congratulates or commends his father because of the astringent relationship between them. The same case can be said of Becky. Becky sees herself as a self-sufficient individual who does not need the advice or help of either Roseanne or Dan. Parental authority is just a social construction, and as such, for Becky, it is bound to be broken in the near future.

Identity confusion is also a problem. Darlene thinks herself as a mature male, capable of challenging the strength or position of other males. Indeed, when she enters the puberty stage, she is bound to accept the inevitability of being a female. This perception of being a male is the result of incomplete social learning. As Darlene grows, she becomes more and more acquainted with the opposite sex. Many of her friends are male. Her classmates are predominantly males. She has crushes with the girls of the town. Perhaps, this personality mishap is caused by a hedonistic view of reality. In any case, one can only assume that she has a problem with accepting reality  the reality that she is a female.

These social problems are evident in the sit-com. They are the conditions which shape mentalities and working attitudes. Moreover, it is often attitude which defines the character of an individual.

CDC has considered domestic violence as a disease. Percentage of Americans involved in domestic violence represents 10 of the population. A relationship between a dominant partner and a weak partner in marriage exists when domestic violence is taken into account. Psychological and social theories have been outlined in this paper highlighting various factors that increase domestic violence thus polarity in marriages.

Introduction
Also referred to as spouse abuse, child abuse, intimate partner violence and domestic abuse, domestic violence has been defined in many ways that argue that domestic violence is inclusive of various patterns of abusive behaviors used by one or both partners involved in an intimate relationship. Intimate relationships can be marriage, cohabiting, dating or family and friends. Physical aggression and threats are known forms of domestic violence. Many variables have been defined that do not make domestic violence a crime and these depend on local situations, and severity of situation. Abuse has been frequently associated with alcohol and drug abuse.
Documentation, perception as well as awareness of domestic violence vary from one country to another.  It is reported that only one-third cases of domestic violence are reported in United States and United Kingdom.

Domestic Violence In Relation To Social and Psychological Theories
Many causes of domestic violence have been defined in relation to psychological and social theories. Psychological theories analyze personality traits and mental characteristics of an offender. External characteristics as family structure, income and finances, stress and social learning are studied and analyzed in social theories.

Psychological theories
As observed, 80 of men involved in domestic violence cases exhibit psychopathological symptoms including many kinds of personality disorders. Percentage of occurrence of psychopathological diseases in men is generally lesser, 10-25 in a population but in cases where violence becomes severe reaching its chronic stages, psychopathology in these men increases as high as 100.

As mentioned, personality traits are analyzed in psychological theories. These traits include sudden bursts of anger, lesser and poor self-esteem and poor impulse control. In some cases, it has been argued that personality traits and psychopathologies are only factors that increase violent traits in men. In addition, it has been seen that children who face abuse are likely to become more violent in their adulthood. Researches show that there is a high occurrence of psychopathology among abusers. Men who are seen to be involved in abusing their wives develop borderline personalities earlier in their lives.

It has been argued that very less work has been done on psychological theories in relation to domestic violence and theories that have been so far presented fit only 10 of violent men. Thereby much more importance has been given to social theories that fully represent factors involved in domestic violence.

Social theories
This set of theories represents external factors involved in domestic violence as family structure, and stress.

Resource theory
In 1971, William Goode coined the theory stating a fact that decision powers within families are derived from resources that a person in a relationship brings in. It directly refers to dependency of women on their spouses for financial stability and economic well-being. Women in houses are generally responsible for upbringing their children and managing households thereby they have fewer options but to depend on husbands for their economic stability. Thereby they are deemed unable to leave their marriages. These kinds of couples face more conflicts as man of the house is under economic pressure thereby dependence increases these conflicts.

On the contrary, couples less dependent on each other face lesser conflicts as responsibilities in a house are equally divided. However, in these cases, theory suggests that in order to gain power and control, spouse may resort to abuse by making use of physical abuse, emotional abuse, threatening to take away children and intimidation.

Social learning theory
This theory is a derivation from work done by Cornell Montgomery. Theory suggests that people learn new things from reinforcements or punishments, often referred to as observational learning of social factors surrounding a person at a time. In relation to family violence, it has been argued that higher incidents of domestic violence are associated with situational factors along with contextual factors.

Contextual factors include characteristics of the couple involved, histories of stress and occurrences of violence in family as well as aggressive personality.

Situational factors include substance abuse and financial conditions of a family. Social learning theory has suggested that certain factors contribute higher in creating violent behaviors than others and roles of marital instability have been discussed.

Social learning theory has openly rejected an idea that violence and aggression are natural and acceptable. Issues related to gender attributes have been discussed as it is known that males have more tendency of becoming violent and aggressive.

Marital power theory
This theory argues that power in a house falls into three categories, power processes, power outcomes and power bases. Dominance of one partner over another is dependent on which partner provides resources, financial and economic stability in house. This can be linked to argument given in resource theory. Power processes argue interaction techniques used by partners in order to gain dominance over another partner and these techniques include assertiveness, manipulation, problem solving as well as negotiation. In a house, one partner makes decisions in various household issues refers to power outcomes. Thereby as a conclusion, it can be argued that partner who lacks decision making capabilities and lacks power to  introduce resources in house is weaker thus, is vulnerable.

Traumatic bonding theory
This social theory in detail, explains many reasons of women staying with men who are violent with them. In this case, two main features have been explained. Power imbalance in a relationship is an important factor that makes a violent partner feel powerful emotionally. Another factor that has been discussed includes intermittent nature of abuse. Theory asserts a fact that relationships, tends to polarize with time. Dominator and the powerless create poles in a relationship thereby the powerless is increasingly dependent on dominator for financial and economic stability as well as shelter.
Legitimacy of love and relationship is cemented because of positive displays of love as well as affection in moments between violence and abuse. In this case, Stockholm syndrome has been brought to attention in which weaker partner is greatly thankful to dominating partner for smallest kindness and gratitude exhibited.  In this case, victim rationalizes all acts of violence and in order to please dominating partner, any anger against violence is denied. World is imagined through eyes of an abuser.  

Causalist view of domestic violence
This view is representative of Bancrofts cause and benefit theory. Cause and effect theory suggests that abuse is a reward of dominant person in the family and according to the perpetrator, this reward is better than just exercising power over weaker partner.  In some cases, it has been observed that abusers can gain control over themselves but in most of the cases, fail to do so.

Conclusion
Along with terms as family violence that are used broadly, intimate partner violence is more synonymously used. Domestic violence is a problem that needs to be researched with relevant and applicable psychological theories. It has been suggested by Centre for Disease Control and Prevention that domestic violence is a disease that has affected approximately 10 of US population that equals 32 million US citizens.

Wherever we go to nowadays, we can see many Asians around since they have immigrated into America due to better opportunities or for some other reasons. They can adapt well into the American culture, considering that American culture is very different from theirs. The culture of America can even be regarded as entirely opposite to the Asian culture and yet the Asians that are seen today seem to fully adapt into their surroundings and environment without the slightest tendency of a culture shock. Perhaps, this can be attributed to the fact that the American culture have reached many other countries in the world that cultural diffusion takes place and that American influences are not uncommon. In fact, what Asians see in their hometowns are also some of the things that they see and experience when they arrive in America.

Of course, these conclusions are merely based on my observations and experiences. For example, there was a time when I went to the mall and saw that this Asian family were out shopping. I observed that the young kids were more Americanized in their clothing and language while the parents were still showing tremendous Asian roots like they were very fussy concerning their children while the children wanted to leave their parents and explore the mall on their own. This can be just the attitude of how teenagers are with their parents but somehow, that situation was different since there was obvious defiance from the children for their independence and yet they still showed their defiance with politeness and decorumvalues which seems to be in abundance with Asians. Asian culture are different with American culture that it is a norm within their circles to show respect toward their parents or elderseven movies continuously portray show this. This is perhaps the reason why we fail to comprehend the culture of the Asians because it is very different from ours we value independence and individuality too much for us to fully appreciate their own beliefs.

The new book argues that much of what we attribute to gender discrimination can also be viewed as asymmetries of communicative style. One reason why the glass ceiling exists is that promotion within firms is based on certain expectations of how people will talk -- decisively, in a take-charge manner -- that are gender-biased. Women are more interested in getting the job done than they are in boasting about their accomplishments. Women not only fail to brag, they also tend not to demean others. As Tannen says of herself, I am always careful not to make anyone look bad. No wonder women are stopped before they reach the top.  (Tannen, 1991)

Some women do reach the top, but this does not put an end to the problems that flow from the incompatibility between womens way of talking and corporate culture. A boss exercises authority, but the very notion of authority is associated with maleness. Women respond to the authority that they possess by downplaying it. If, on the other hand, they relish in their power, they are accused of being a Dragon Lady, of denying their femininity. The result is a classic Batesonian double bind.
Unlike private relationships, where people have more power to determine together the nature of their interaction, someone who takes a job is entering a world that is already functioning, with its own characteristic style already in place. That world is, from top to bottom, biased against female conversational styles. Women apologize more than men. They speak more indirectly. They tend not to dominate meetings. They are left out of the sports talk and the dirty jokes. Their concerns about sexual harassment make men wary of them. Great gains have been made by women in the world of work, but if these different evaluations of conversational style are allowed to persist, those gains will go for naught. (Tannen, 1994)

What to do I would not advise women to adopt mens styles to succeed -- although, in some cases, in some ways, this might work. The fault lies not in men and women, nor even in sexism. The fault lies in our cultures valuation of mens way of speaking more than womens. Hence we must revise our institutions to give more recognition to womens ways of talking. What we need is a kind of communicative affirmative action, procedures that will distribute equally the opportunity to speak.
Riding in the vehicle with her spouse, Jack, Martha is fuming. But its not because Jack doesnt understand which district road to take to come to their destination. Theyve been going by car aimlessly for 30 minutes and shes angry because Jack denies inquiring somebody which way to go. Through her feminine filter, Martha understands that if she were going by car, she would have halted and inquired for main headings the instant she recognized she didnt understand which way to go. The twosome would currently be enjoying themselves in the solace of their friends dwelling room. Since inquiring for main directions doesnt make her painful, not inquiring doesnt make sense to Martha and is a source of pointless stress. But in her husbands world, inquiring for help is painful, so aimlessly driving is not only reasonable it really makes him seem better and less stressed.

Why do men oppose inquiring for info, and just as significant, why it is so frequent women dont, even when they seem its the right thing to do- Dont overlook the basics. Men believe in status women believe in relationship. When you relay information, the piece of information is identical to the message. But lets state, like Martha and Jack, neither individual has the information. Inherently for men, who has the information is one step up on the hierarchy ladder by virtue of being more knowing (and thus more competent). So by not inquiring for main headings and finding his own way, Jack is respecting the self-reliance he perceives as essential for his self-respect. The alternative is very easy, worth the cost of additional time spent.

Deborah Tannens Asymmetries Men and Women conversing at Cross-Purposes chapter 2 of You dont Understand (1991) by the same author, impersonates what is routinely called the Difference form in the study of gender and sex in language. She supports that females get together in a world of connections in which intimacy is key and where individuals discuss convoluted systems of companionship trying to minimize dissimilarities, to come to agreement, and to bypass the look of superiority while males function in a world of status where independence is key because a prime means of setting up rank is telling other ones what to do and taking instructions is a marker of reduced status (Tannen, 1991, p.214).

By their very setting, meta-messages (the note concealed under what we gladly communicate), are tricky to converse about. Mostly, we dont understand they exist So when Martha begs to understand why Jack wont easily inquire for main headings, Jack answers solely in periods to Marthas face-value information. Theres no issue in asking, Jack may say. After all, the individual we halt on the road may not understand and will likely give us the incorrect directions. By this time, Martha may be doubly irate. Not only are they trashing precious time, Jacks answer makes wholeheartedly no sense. How expected is it that a localized is going to give them incorrect directions- Even if that that did occur, how would their position be any different. In Marthas world, when an individual doesnt understand certain thing, she would easily state, I dont know. But in Jacks brain, that would be humiliating and all the more cause why an outsider would make certain things up. This would lead them farther astray.

Talk at this position will only propel a larger wedge between Martha and Jack. When they reach at their place travelled to, their ride over annoyance may stay with them all eveningor longer. For numerous twosomes, battles over main headings are common. To the span that giving information (directions or a pattern of direct help) is of use to another, this connection strengthens human bonds. However, when the position is seen as off-balance, or asymmetrical it conceives hierarchy.
Tannen discerned that,

For males, conversation is the way you negotiate your status in the group and keep people from pushing you around you use talk to preserve your independence. Females, on the other hand, use conversation to negotiate closeness and intimacy talk is the essence of intimacy, so being best friends means sitting and talking. For boys, activities, doing things together, are central. Just sitting and talking is not an essential part of friendship. Theyre friends with the boys they do things with. (Tannen, 1991, p.186)

The issue is that up to date societies characterize women as having power if they can overwhelm men, therefore inherently accepting the detail that their power arrives to them with esteem to men and, more significantly, with esteem to overwhelming what is seen as the superior, or better, assembly  men  and, because overwhelming an inferior assembly does not brandish any openly exceptional power, men do not have to be characterized as having overwhelm women to be depicted as successful. (Tannen, 1994) Thus, founded on the insight of up to date humanity  which encompasses women, as women themselves purchase gladly into the concept that they are empowered by overwhelming male obstacles  men are better to or superior over, women.

Conclusion
Tannen makes the issue that both sexes need to realize the inherent dissimilarities in their connection methods in order that they dont anticipate the impossible. There is middle ground where men and women can rendezvous and find understanding. Women should discover that the kind of intimate converse they have with their girlfriends should stay just that. Trying to turn your man into a woman companion will generally go incorrect because men, in general, dont conceive sentiments of closeness in that way. Men, too can realize that when their woman is conversing, she is trying to attach to him--shes not just conversing to converse, neither is she endeavoring to readjust the rank of their relationship. By distributing more of himself he displays her, in a way she can realize that hes not impelling her away that he does really love her and desire to be close to her.

Masturbation has been there for a long time only that people would rather pretend that it does not exist than face the embarrassment that is associated with it. There are many myths of masturbation for example, it is said to cause impotence and insanity. Such myths make masturbation a taboo hence most of the people who have been doing it try all they can to keep it a secret. However, people have become more informed and now seek to know the side effects of masturbation. Many parents have come to accept it to be like a rite of passage which introduces their children to sexual discovery and exploration and sexuality in general. They take it to be normal, healthy and a way to relieve sexual frustrations (Clinard  Meier, 2007). People are more open about the issue and there have been cases of mothers who even buy dildos for their daughters. Medical research shows that masturbation does not have negative physical or mental side effects not unless it is taken to the extremes.
This paper will talk about masturbation and will try to find out how can it lead to other acts especially criminal deviant behavior.

Causes of masturbation
The major causes of masturbation are for example inadequate parental guidance and attention. According to Clinard  Meier (2007), most masturbators come from broken homes that are characterized by parental neglect. This makes the children to be lonely and try to seek company or attention. Once they fail to get, they become their own company and do things that would give them pleasure. They end up forming a habit out of it and eventually, it can become a disorder since a child may be unable to stop. It becomes a part of the childs life and it soon starts interfering with the rest of his life and there sets in anxiety syndrome. Another major cause is sexual abuse by relatives or family members. These are the people that children trust most. For reasons like sexual starvation, older children or even adults might seek sexual stimulation from innocent children. Once the children are introduced to the behavior, they might do it even in the absence of the people who initiated it and might be unable to stop. Limited social interactions and loneliness also make people to do what they can in order to enjoy their own company. They may indulge in masturbation as a way out (Clinard  Meier, 2007).

Other causes include infestation by rectal worms which give an irritation hence resulting into penis erection, reading amorous literature, watching pornography, eating stimulating diets excessively and chronic constipation (Teslaar, 2008).

Effects of masturbation
Research indicates that masturbation in young children does not have major effects and therefore it should be ignored. Warning young children would make them conscious and embarrassed and this might make them to feel guilty about a natural thing. This is a behavior that is usually out grown as the children grow older. However, when children are made aware that what they are doing is wrong, they feel guilty. These feelings tend to become worse when combined with the fear of being caught. They can even lead to anxiety which may lead to deviant behavior (Clinard  Meier, 2007).

Psychologists and sociologists claim that masturbation is a normal practice since it is a way of seeking sexual pleasure and exploration. It has not been found to have negative effects physically or mentally. However, excessive masturbation can cause problems like broken marriages, loneliness and stress among others. These only happen when the masturbators have let the practice to interfere with their lives. According to medical research, there is no normal and abnormal masturbation. The only thing which would make masturbation to be abnormal is the intensity and frequency with which it is done. Increased frequency and intensity may lead to penis and urethra injuries. The friction that comes with it may cause skin irritation. It is also said to lead to overproduction of sexual hormones which can make the brain to malfunction. On the other hand, it can become a psychological issue in that it may lead to an obsession and addiction. When these happen, then masturbation can be said to be abnormal. When a person who had graduated to a level whereby they are depending on masturbation in order to function normally, counseling is definitely needed. This can then be referred to as the deviant side of masturbation (Bockting  Coleman, 2003).

However, there is no direct relationship between masturbation and criminality. As observed earlier in the causes of masturbation, there are major links between the social causes of masturbation and criminality. Issues like parental negligence, stress, broken families, parents who are abusing drugs among other social factors are related to criminality. The same factors are said to contribute to masturbation. This means that these are the factors that relate the two social issues otherwise they are not related. People have different ways of coping with life stressing issues. Some may go ahead and indulge in drug abuse, violence, suicide, criminal acts and solitude among others. However a person copes with the stress has impacts on his life. A person may have more than one way to cope with it, for example, one may be a violent criminal. On the other hand, one may abuse drugs and be a loner. When a person combines loneliness with any other thing, this person is likely to masturbate as a way to console himself and enjoy his own company. This is where a person can be a criminal who masturbates. It is the only thing that can link masturbation and criminality otherwise they are not related (Clinard  Meier, 2007).

Some people claim that masturbation can lead to deviant behavior. Sociologists and psychologists claim that it is not true. Masturbation is normal and therefore has no effects to the masturbator. Due to societal norms however, it is considered embarrassing and therefore in most cases it is not exposed to the public. Just like any other thing, when a masturbator goes to the extreme, then they are likely to be unable to stop. This in combination of being caught leads to anxiety and stress. The way a person behaves when he has these might then deviate from the norms. There is however no direct connection between masturbation and deviant behavior (Bockting  Coleman, 2003).

Conclusion
There are many myths overcrowding the issue of masturbation. People should seek information in order to dispel the untruthful myths. Hiding information about masturbation makes people fail to masturbate while they would have wanted to. Instead of deciding out of fear, children and even adults should know what it entails and its side effects so as to make informed choices in life.

Introduction
The United States since its inception  the signing of the Declaration of Independence  promises equality. Ironically the very issue of equal rights has been one of the most hotly disputed questions in the American history. According to Segal (2009), it is usually seen that the governments of industrialized nations are actively involved in social welfare. However, the extent of involvement in terms of both capital spending and the policies varies widely among such countries. Despite the many social welfare programs available and the money spent, Unites Stares is considered usually to be a low social-spending country as compared to European countries and Japan. This has prompted many social policy writers to tag United States as a reluctant welfare state (p. 10). Nevertheless, considering that the inception of US is extremely recent as compared to most industrialized nations, it can safely be argued that the country has come a long way since its beginning.  Indeed, the system of welfare that existed in America during the 18th and 19th century was extremely primitive and poles apart from the contemporary welfare system. In a little less than two and a half centuries, United States has implemented thousands of social-welfare policies at both state and federal levels (Jasson, 2008, p. 9). The origin of a social welfare system for the poor and underprivileged sections of the society can be traced back to the American Civil War. The end of Civil War not only saw the implementation of one of the first social welfare policies, but was also instrumental in building a social conscience within the population of the country who had so far been mostly apathetic to the conditions of those less privileged than them.

This paper traces the ideologies that came into existence during the Civil War and how they helped in creating the basis of the social welfare system as we know today. The paper starts with a brief understanding of the state of social welfare in US prior to the Civil War. Then the Civil war itself is described in terms of the common belief system that existed in the society at that time such as various political, social, and economical viewpoints. The change of these ideals is an important aspect of the Civil War, which is discussed in details in the next section. Finally the impact of the Civil War on the social conciseness of the society is discussed along with a description of some landmark welfare policies developed after the Civil War paving the way to the social welfare policy system that exists today.

A brief outlook of social welfare in America prior to the Civil War
Initially, the concept of social welfare in United States simply meant direct aid to the poor, which was based on a British tradition known as Elizabethan Poor laws. The laws had a distinction between worthy and unworthy poor, the family being primarily responsible to care for its members, only residents being eligible for assistance. Further, such assistance was only given when dire necessity required it and would be terminated when the recipient either became employed or was married to someone employed. The tradition was brought to America, then known as the colonies, and became fundamental to American social welfare. Since, the colonial America placed stress more on self-sufficiency than support, the public wholeheartedly supported these laws. (Segal, 2009, p. 28) Nevertheless in a glaring case of inequality, slaves had no legal claim to social welfare support.

Neither did the Native American people, usually considered by colonists as deterrents to the growth of colonial empire, who ought to have accepted defeat gracefully. As Jansson points out, the policies of the white settlers towards these two classes of people were extremely oppressive even considering that their only precedent was the earlier brutal colonisation of parts of America by Spanish Invaders. These oppressive inequalities set stage for the racial conflicts that continue even today (2008, p. 86).
Colonial society also developed the ideology regarding women, where they were considered to be subordinate to men who were in charge.  Further, the husband at least had to be a free labourer, failing which the entire family came to be classified along with people of colour as the unworthy poor. The system affirmed a hierarchy that was allegedly natural regarding the position of men and women, each have well-ordered tasks and responsibilities. Slaves were to work for their masters and only free labourers could improve their station in life without challenging the elite class. In many ways, the system did run smoothly. However, it led to stigma and severe punishment to those who stood outside it  women who did not conform to family ethic and the unworthy poor (Blau  Amramovitz, 2007, p. 239).

The colonial America laid emphasis on individualism. Hence, even after the American Revolution in 1776 and the formation of an independent government in U.S., the emphasis was on limited governance. Because of an aversion to the British governance system, especially taxes, the central government was weak as were its local jurisdictions. In fact, in 1800s federal government did not even have explicit powers to develop and implement social policies by the Constitution. A positive result of this was the emergence of non-governmental social welfare agencies.  Post-colonization, care from sources other than families was accepted as a legitimate way to treat social problems (Jansson, 2008, p. 85-86). A peculiar trait of both the colonial period and the pre-Civil war period was an extremely strong religious background which influenced the way early Americans viewed social problems. This meant that individual behaviour was considered to be the root of all problems. Poverty was viewed as an individual condition and hence a personal and not a societal failure. Hence, the assistance given to unemployed was extremely limited. (Segal, 2009, p. 30)

The predominant beliefs during the Civil War period
The American Civil War plunged the new nation into social unrest brought about because of regional nationalism and economic disparity. The situation was extremely dynamic in terms of social, economic and political beliefs, each of which will be discussed here.

Social
The period from the end of the American Revolutionary War to the end of the Civil War is the period when the Industrial Revolution came to America. Industrialization brought people from all parts of the country together, which led to a change in social relations (Blau  Amramovitz, 2007, p. 243). This is an important point because prior to this the American society was almost entirely local and regional, especially in the matters concerning the social welfare of those in need. This being the case, social welfare policy changed too. As is seen earlier, during the period prior to the Civil War, all the social welfare programs were under the control of private charity groups and local governments. During this period, however, the Federal Government made a brief foray into providing actual social welfare benefits for the first time. This was because the War saw immense casualties, and hence the government had to step in to address social problems  a completely new concept for the nation, though it did not last very long. The social beliefs that were carried from the Civil War period, chiefly the ill feelings between the North and the South, continue to affect the social beliefs even today. (Griess, 2002, p. 4)

The primary reason that brought about the Civil War had been slavery, which officially ended as a result of the War. But this did not directly give any benefit to the African Americans, who while were technically free but were still heavily oppressed, racially abused and at the very least severely exploited. While the slaves were freed, there were no provisions to grant them land, education or even material possessions, which meant that they barely had any chance to be included in the societal system that existed during that time. (Jansson, 2008, p. 142) In other words, the social values and structural systems remained the same even after the War. The condition of women became somewhat better post the Civil War. Women were drawn out of their homes during the war  a situation that ultimately provided them with a stronger place on the social structure. The primary areas of work for women during and immediately after the war were in social welfare services and public health careers. (Segal, 2009, p. 31)

Economic
Civil war led to enormous loss of life and property, where the combatants on both sides were ironically both American. To put this in context, the American losses in this were larger than those in the two World Wars combined. Cities such as Atlanta and Richmond were destroyed. The progress achieved in the year prior to the war was undone due to the destruction of industrial plants and railways. The abolition of slavery alone amounted to a confiscation of real property worth billions of dollars. North too suffered materially, however, the political outcome ensured that it would achieve long-term benefits. The war accentuated the early substantial regional differences within United States, and laid the foundations for the industrial expansion for several decades. (Jenkins, 1997, p. 144-145)

The economic conditions of the country became better after the Civil War. While, it did lead to a higher standard of living and an further improvement in the condition of women, the same could not be said about the conditions of African-Americans and specially the Native Americans. The American Indian culture was decimated by the Anglo Indians post the Civil War. Ironically this was due to better economic conditions, which in turn led to expansion in West Country involving railways. The 1887 Dawes Act destroyed the Native American culture by dividing native land among individuals. Needing resources, several Native Americans either sold their land for little money or were cheated out of it. The cultural degeneration of Native Americans continued when government in the name of social welfare created boarding schools run by missionary groups, which American Indian children were forced to attend and hence lost contact with their family, community and culture. (Segal, 2009, p. 31). The new America post the Civil war was marked by savage class conflicts, extreme polarization of wealth, immoderation and endemic political violence. The radical economist Henry George in 1879 famously argued that the American progress seemed intimately and necessarily based upon poverty (Jenkins, 1997, p. 147)

Political
The Civil War period was actually an adjustment of the economic, political and military spheres of the economy in an expanding and ever increasing territory. After the American Revolution, several decentralized, scattered local and regional elite circles had been created. The period immediately preceding Civil war, saw a division and further differentiation between the northern and southern states. The Civil War itself led to the rise and empowerment of the economic and industrial institutions a result of which was the creation of big trusts that eventually became even more powerful than the political institutions. The economic elite became stronger than the political elite until the end of the Great Depression. (Hess, 2000, p. 71-72)

Interestingly the political debate between the Northern and Southern America was not as one-sided as merely abolition of slavery. It strangely did not arise from any welfare notions on the part of employers in either the North or the South. Both sides had different kinds of enterprises and so the labour system was under dispute, not slavery itself. Southerners required large permanent workforce all-year round because the production of cotton demanded it. The textile factories in the North needed less land, hired and fired based on the changing economic conditions and hence took no responsibility for their workers when they did not actually pay them. Northerners balked at the idea of one person owning other, while Southerners condemned the work for wages system, which used labourers when it was convenient and then fired them to fend for themselves, when they were not required. (Jansson, 2008, p. 141)

This debate had critical implications for social welfare. If the new states grew cotton and had slaves, then their economic system could not absorb poor and the unemployed of the eastern cities. The Northerners on the other hand used the frontier as a safety value to diffuse discontent and offer a chance at upward mobility. The South did not have a much of a public welfare system. This was because the wealthy accepted the responsibility for taking care of people working under them, especially the poor white people. Had slavery been allowed in the new states, poor white people of the east would have no place to go and the pressure for substantial social reforms would intensify. As the great political issue of the era at the time, slavery was closely related to social welfare. (Blau  Amramovitz, 2007, p. 244)

Major Social and economic Movements Post the Civil War
Social Movements
The most significant social movements of this era speak about the issues of race, gender and class. The demand for womens suffrage was placed on the public agenda for the first time in 1848. In cities, the upper-class social reformers initiated new social welfare organizations such as Association to Improve the Condition of the Poor in 1843, frightened by the trade union movement. Nevertheless all such social movements were restricted to White population, who were considered to be worthy. The African American community was largely ineligible for aid, and the federal government too disclaimed it had any responsibility for social welfare for African Americans throughout this era. Most white charities too excluded them. African Americans instead drew on a long tradition based on cooperative practices of family and tribe. As a community under siege, it was not wealthy, but what individuals had, they usually shared. (Jansson, 2008, p. 85)

Civil War Pension System
As is seen above, even after the Civil War the social-welfare systems were run by affluent and social conscious people, not the government. An exception to this was the Civil War Pension system, which while is remarkable in its own right, is also consequential to the later social policy developments in the United States. The pension program was seen more in political and moral than in socio-economic terms.  Originally, the federal government paid pensions only to the veterans who had been disabled in the battles of the Civil War and to the dependents of the soldiers in the war. But later, the Civil War pensions were changed into de factor old-age and disability pensions that provided coverage for some one million elderly Americans. The related laws introduced Americans to the idea of a large-scale federal old-age program, and this created the precedent of social welfare programs to come. (Blau  Amramovitz, 2007, p. 247)

Ideological changes post the Civil War
Though Civil War was fought to free the slaves, their condition hardly improved following the war. Several Northern philanthropic institutions were destroyed as an aftermath of the war. Government did step and started the American Freedmen Inquiry Commission in 1862 to develop the needs of freed slaves. However, the legislators were more in favour of running the Bureau as a charity institution to freed slaves, and not as a true social-welfare commission to improve the socio-economic conditions of slaves. The Congress was reluctant to show favouritism to African Americans and declined to place the Commission as a part of the government. It was ultimately placed as a part of the War Department, which meant that it was not a permanent entity, and indeed was dismantled in 1872. Even during the course of its existence, no funding was allocated to the Commission, and Northern philanthropic societies were expected to finance its operations. (Hess, 2000, p. 72 Jansson, 2008, p. 142-143)

American industrialization reached its peak following the Civil War, in large part as a direct consequence of the war itself.  The war time contracting had allowed individual businessmen to accumulate substantial fortune that could now be invested in other concerns. Further, the destruction of Southern plantation interests permitted Congress to erect high tariff barriers to protect the US industry. Hence, the legal and political environment post Civil War till the Great Depression in 1930 was extremely friendly to industry and opposed to even modest forms of regulation or restriction.  (Jenkins, 1997, p. 168) This lack of restriction had far reaching social consequences. The workers, especially blacks, had no protection against exploitation yet again, and the corporations had full rights to them, even to the extent that the governmental regulation was viewed as an infringement of corporate civil rights. A famous example is the 1905 Supreme Court ruling, according to which New York had no power to regulate the maximum working hours of employees. The social welfare took a severe backseat and suggested that efforts to assist the poor and the inadequate were not only useless but a harmful interference in the proper course of social development. Post Civil War, the socially reformist movement were seen to be interventionist even on the part of the government, and met with total failure in their interest to improve the socio-economic conditions of the general population. (Seale, 2009, p. 35)

The post-War period, while was a period of economic prosperity, also led to disproportionate economic growth, renewal of immigration, increased industrialization, urbanization and western expansion. The combination of these factors laid the foundation for intensified economic disparities, poverty, regional differences, and racial strife. The high level of unemployment and the large number of disabled war veterans challenged the erstwhile American belief in individualism and the availability of work for anyone who wanted it. People started to accept the possibility that there might be structural reasons beyond the control of individuals that contributed to poverty. Societal structure and system failure, instead of system failure, were seen as a possible contribution to poverty.
The severe disparities gave rise to a tremendous need for social welfare intervention and recognition of the large-scale need of the underprivileged population groups. Social responsibility too began to emerge during this period. Out of this period came the seeds of government-supported social series and federal social welfare policies. However, the inability of the government to control the rampant exploitation by industrialists demonstrated the weakness of the government in face of the affluent industrial societies. As a result there were glaring deficiencies in the governmental social reform, which laid the foundation for the partial governmental support to social welfare that exists even to the present day.

Conclusion
The Civil War decided the issue of slavery, though only in a technical sense. The clearest indication of a change in policy was that the Northern labour system would prevail rather than the Southern. As is discussed, the Northern system was a wage-based system, which while did not encourage slavery, and did not have any provisions concerning the responsibility of the workers working in industry. The government too was both powerless and apathetic to the condition of workers. All these conditions led to the oppression of workers and the existence of a wholly capitalist economy. However, the era also saw the government implementing social policies to help war veterans and people displaced by the war  a precursor to the present day social welfare system. Nevertheless, the government still seen to be immensely under the pressure of corporate sector (the present-day Health Bill is a classic case), as it was in the years post the Civil War, though the number of policies have increased immensely. This is probably why the adage of being a resultant welfare state still sticks to the country, which arguably and ironically  is the only superpower of the present day world.

Description of current account and capital account relevant to the balance of payments table.

Balance of Payments
A countrys balance of payment record is an archive of transactions made with other countries of the world. This comprises of imports and exports of goods and services along with other transfers of funds into and out of the economy such as payments and receipts of loans, dividends, interest, aid and other investments. Generation of funds is recorded as a positive while the use is recorded as negative which means that after the inclusion of all the relevant transactions the sum of balance of payments table must always be zero. (Mankiw, 2008)

Current Account
Current account is one of the two major components that make up the balance of payments table. It reflects the net income of an economy. Sum of three factors make up the current balance. First is trading account. It includes imports and exports of goods and services with other countries. Exports are recorded as positive while imports as negative. Second is the factor income which includes interest and dividend paidreceived on loans and investment. Third factor is the transfer payments which significantly comprise of foreign aids and grants. Excess of inflow from these transactions over the outflow creates a current account surplus. If the scenario is reverse it is called a deficit. (Mankiw, 2008)

Capital Account
Capital account can be said as mirror image of current account and shows how the ownership of the asset changes between a nation and the rest of the world. The effect of any activity in the capital account is reflected in the current account. Capital account has three components. First is the foreign direct investment such as setting up manufacturing plants and machinery. Capital account increases when foreigners invest in a country and decreases when locals invest in other countries. Second is portfolio investment which includes sale and purchase of bonds and shares. Third is other investment which reflects exchange of liquidity among local and foreign banks in form of deposits and loans. This investment gives advantage when interest rates and exchange rates among countries fluctuate. The amount of profit from FDI, interest and dividends from portfolio and other investments are later reflected in the current account. (Mankiw, 2008)

Analyzing human dilemmas, it coincides with the conflict surrounding the ability of individuals to create actions in accordance to their cognitive abilities (rational) or emotional capacities. Under this process, the ability to create a sound decision making becomes a problem particularly during times that conflicting perspectives are apparent. Seeing this, one applicable solution can revolve around the ability for individuals to determine their established principles and take into consideration the value of choices made. In here, setting a balance not only revolves around ethical and moral concerns that matter but also on its capacity to align with either the rational or emotional perspective.

In terms of tasks and relationship, a potential problem can be seen if the capacity to apply particular tasks hinder or impede the development of relationship. In here, a particular choice must be made or sacrificed in order to achieve specific goals. Given this challenge, providing solutions can be rooted in the ability of individuals to understand the nature of the task. Since these two ideas are both distinct with one another, there must be a clear focus on prescribing what appropriate actions to take (The Learning Eye, 2006). Such dimensions then allow people to balance the corresponding clash between relationships and tasks and further an appropriate stance in handling these two ideas together.

Empowerment and control are also two opposing ideas that if not addressed can lead to conflict and dilemmas. Its challenge lies on the ability of imparting these two ideas together since empowerment focuses more towards expanding capabilities towards achieving a common goal while control prefers adherence to the status quo and what is proven to be effective (Library Bytes, 2006). Seeing this, fostering solutions should come from the ability to determine the fundamental aspect of any endeavor or goal. In here, it considers what are the most appropriate directions can individuals or groups do in order to preserve continuity and adaptability. Such aspect then brings about lessening the questions surrounding the impact of these two ideas.

In the aspect of getting results and building capacity, the corresponding dilemma here revolves around the two processes getting mixed up and interchanged accordingly. Since these two ideas vary in its direction and implementation, there needs to be careful analysis made on what particular area best fits the individual or group setting. To actively solve this problem, people must lay down what prospect or direction they seek to take. For individuals who choose task results, they must focus on enhancing and optimizing the work processes and the related patterns of production. On the other hand, if the goal is towards building capacity, consideration must be made towards expanding the dimensions that work is facilitated and made (e.g. education, training, organizational changes).

The problem revolving that can be seen between having a shared vision and diversity involves around treating these two ideas independently. In this process, these ideas are taken and approached differently by organizations which then cause clashes towards inputs and particularly decision making. At the same time, it also induces an environment that is oriented towards individualism and undermines the interplay among a diversified group. To equally address this challenge, organizations or institutions need to understand that these two ideas can be synchronized and correspond with one another (Wang and Rafiq, 2009). This means that aligning perspectives to both induce individual and collective inputs must be necessary to sustain further growth. To achieve this, particular expectations towards behavior and actions must be made to sustain these ideas and guide individuals towards what direction a particular organization seeks to tread.

Lastly, problems also revolve in areas surrounding the self and team interests. In here, the dilemma arises when individuals strive for their own personal gain rather than the needs of the overall group. In here, the common notions of selfishness and inability to relate with other people are often the hindrance that induces such actions among people (Todd Coaching, 2009). Applying change and solutions to these realities surround the ability of organizations to identify what is the real direction of any goal or endeavor. If it entails the use of the self in the process, then it must properly be coordinated. The same process goes for pursuing team interests. Seeing this, the dilemma and appropriate solution here involves not mainly on what people seek to pursue but rather the inability to establish sufficient ideas and process on how to achieve this. That is why the solution entails determining the dynamics involved in each action that the organization seeks to administer.

Smedley Butler was nothing short of a gifted war veteran. His services were rendered at a time when America was under intense physical strain, ranging from the Spanish-American War, the Philippine War, the battle at Honduras and the resistance in Mexico in late 19th to early 20th century. He proved to be a devout American citizen as a soldier, lieutenant, General and then Major General throughout his 33 years and four months in service (Butler) and was the most decorated soldier America has ever produced at the time of his demise in 1940 (Shetterly). He led army men into battle several times, fought with valor and winning a record number of medals in the process, courtesy of his audacious display of camaraderie in World War I. It was not until he retired in 1931 that he started being truly vocal about his humanitarian side, declaring his own war against capitalism and fascist ideologies that according to him were the real reason countries engaged in war in the first place. His credibility as an anti-war spokesman stemmed mainly from his outstanding fulfillment of marine duties.

List of Achievements
Butler was a celebrated army veteran. He joined the army on his own accord in 1898 going against his fathers wishes at a time when he was too young, had to bluff his way in and only had a few months till he graduated, displaying a deep sense of patriotism (Schmidt). For his efforts in the army he was awarded two Medal of Honors during the course of his service, a feat achieved by a mere 19 people in total and one Marine Corps Brevet Medal, and considering how only 2 others marines have ever managed to receive both the Marine Corps Brevet and the Medal of Honor together, that alone put him in an exclusive league on its own (Shetterly). His practical experience extends further with him being appointed as the Director of Public Safety in Philadelphia, a post he actively served for 2 years. For his rather audacious war time performances, he came to be known as The Fighting Quaker and Old Gimlet Eye (Zabecki). His adherence to the American flag and his loyalties to his job could hardly be doubted. He once led a platoon while stationed at Nicaragua while running a 104 degree fever. His list of awards include the Army Distinguished Service Medal, the Navy Distinguished Service Medal and the French Order of the Black Star (United States Marine Corps). Butler was continually promoted in ranks throughout his years in service and ended up as a Major General in 1929. It was his interaction with the Chinese on a foreign peacekeeping mission in the late 1920s, his experiences in World War I and the many wars he fought prior to those that began to alter his views about the way American leaders handled the intricacies of war (Zabecki).

Butlers Socialist Views
After having fought a number of wars throughout the turn of the 19th century and witnessing the whole aura of battle first hand for 33 years and some months, Butler began advocating against the fascist system of government that seemed to be engulfing American ideologies. His own views regarding the concept of war began to change developing into more sound criticisms of American foreign and military policies by the late 1920s (Zabecki). His more than occasional finger pointing at the adherence to fascist culture the American leaders seem to have generated did not win him any courtesy points with President Herbert Hoover either. However, that did not hinder Butlers movement and in 1931, he openly criticized Mussolini (the Italian Prime Minister) and his war loving antics, thereby inviting strict repercussions and a court-martial. He voluntarily retired from the army as a result in 1931, and began a campaign in strict defiance of his soldierly loyalties to subjugate and disarm the country as much as possible (Zabecki).

According to Butler, war is a business that is only sponsored by and profited big American Corporations who lured individuals to fight for the country on the ticket of patriotism. He himself proclaimed to have fallen victim to the same lure. His anti-capitalist views led him to stipulate in his book, I served in all commissioned ranks from second lieutenant to Major General. And during that period I spent most of my time being a high-class muscle man for Big Business, for Wall Street and for the bankers. In short, I was a racketeer for capitalism (Butler). At one instance, he blamed a few Fascist business men to have conspired to overthrow President Roosevelt with his help. The matter was brought to Congress but was largely dismissed (Schmidt).

Conclusion
Even though the media was unfavorable to Butler, he acquired considerable support for his views amongst the American public and developed a strong feeling of dissent for war craving business-oriented fascist think tanks generating a level of awareness that reformed social order. His book War is a Racket surfaced as a result of his lectures to veterans, churches, etc where he referred to wars he had engaged in such as World War I and deemed them a creation of Pro-Fascist businesses, demanding that the benefiters should pay back the public all that they gained from wars. Major General Smedley Butlers efforts thus instigated that stir which enables the Americans of today to question the dubious nature of capitalism.

In every society there are people who are disadvantaged in one way or another. One group of those who are disadvantaged are those who are mentally incapacitated or mentally challenged. Due to their condition, this group of people is denied some of the opportunities that other people in the society enjoy. This discussion looks at sterilization of mentally ill people. The question that this discussion seeks to address is whether is it is fair and right to coerce ladies who are mentally challenges to undergo the procedure of sterilization because of their condition (Moya, W. 2005). This discussion will also seek to find out if this procedure is a violation of human rights that are enshrined in the constitution.

The sterilization of mentally ill people began in German during the Nazi regime. It was argued that that this procedure was necessary to prevent defective genes from being spread to future generations. The decision by Nazi of Germany to have people with abnormalities sterilized was borrowed from the United States of America where between the years 1907 and 1939 more than 30,000 people were sterilized  against their will because of their mental condition. This was mainly done to people incarcerated in prisons or institutions of mentally disabled people. However Germany goes on record as one of the countries that carried out massive sterilization of mentally challenged people during Hitlers regime (Mappes, T. 2001).

There are various pros and cons of carrying out such a procedure. Some of them are discussed below According to those who champion for sterilization of mentally disabled people this procedure is important as people who are mentally challenged may not be able to care for their off springs if they were allowed to reproduce. This would mean that the work of caring for the young ones would be left to their parents who may also be mentally challenged. This would therefore mean that their off springs would have to be surrendered to the state. It is also argued that by sterilizing mentally challenged people there would be a considerable reduction in the number of people who are mentally challenged as the genes would not be allowed to spread
(Allen. R. 2005).

Further argument in support of this procedure is that there will be less people in the society who will need to be cared for and thus this procedure will reduce the burden of caring for the mentally disabled in the society. However, those who argue against this practice equally have their reasons ( HYPERLINK httpwww.uky.eduClassesPHI305.002ret.htm httpwww.uky.eduClassesPHI305.002ret.htm). Firstly they argue that sterilization of mentally challenged people is a violation of their rights as human beings and a violation of Bill of Rights as enshrined in the constitution. It is grossly unfair to force any person to undergo this medical procedure against their will. This procedure should only be carried out with the full consent of a person. Furthermore, it is not always the case that a mentally handicapped person will always give birth to an offspring who is mentally handicapped. It is therefore fair that mentally challenged people be given an opportunity to give birth (Moya, W. 2005).

It is further argued that this procedure could lead to loss of potential generations who may have great intellectual capacity. By sterilizing mentally handicapped people we are condemning other generations to come and thus denying the society a generation of people with great potential. Again by denying the mentally challenged people an opportunity to procreate, we reduce the diversity of the society. A diverse society is one that has people who are diverse in nature including those who are mentally handicapped. Life is what it is today because we are all different. If we were all the same then the world would not be an interesting place to be in. In addition those people who have laid their lives and dedicated themselves into caring for the mentally handicapped people would not have jobs to do if there were no mentally challenged people. Besides violating their constitutional rights this procedure is also a violation of the natural rights of the mentally disabled people. They are human beings entitled to their privacy and the freedom to choose what they think is best for their lives. It therefore is seen as going overboard when they are forced to undergo such a medical procedure (Mappes, T. 2001).

In this particular case we are looking at a person who has a mental age of five. This means that their thinking capacity is that of a child who is in kindergarten. In essence this means that such a person has no clear understanding of parenthood and may not be able to make a valid decision. There have been a couple of cases where this form of sterilization has been seen to clash with the individual rights of mentally ill ladies. An example is one of a lady whose name is Laura. Laura who is 34 years old was born with a rare condition of moderate mental illness. Her condition is such that her brain is damaged and she also has epilepsy. She can neither read nor write and she is also not bale to care for her (Moya, W. 2005).

Laura wishes to give birth. Her parents are opposed to this move arguing that if Laura was allowed to give birth she is not likely to be able to care for her child due to her condition. They further argue that due to her condition, she may not have clear understanding on the relationship between intercourse and pregnancy (Macklin, R. 2008). She can not be put under contraceptives as they might interfere with her other medication. In such a case, it is quite a dilemma in deciding the way forward. Although Lauras parents want the very best for her, they are also looking into the future. What would happen if Laura gave birth to an equally retarded child Secondly, even though the child that Laura may have may not be retarded, will she be in a position to take care of the baby in her condition

In conclusion therefore I am of the opinion that sterilization of ladies with a mental age of 5 years or less should be encouraged. This is because although it may seem as a violation of human rights it is a way of reducing the burden of the society. It is more preferable if such ladies are sterilized rather than allowing them to have children that they may not be able to care for. Their understanding capacity is way toll low and thus should not be allowed to give birth.

There are many theories that have been developed by sociologists to explain different social phenomenon. These theories try to explain the relationship between different aspects of the society. They explain why some social occurrence do occur in certain society and do not occur in other societies. These theories give an explanation of why religion, crime drug abuse, influence of media, imperialism and education among other aspects of the society develop. Structural functionalism theory and conflict theory are the most famous sociological theories. They are prominent because of there ability to explain different aspects of social life. However, these theories have weaknesses although they are commonly referred to by sociologist in trying to explain different aspects of the society. They have also been able to withstand challenges from critics for a long time.

The conflict theory is one of the most prominent theories of sociology. Conflict theory was developed by sociologists opposed to structural functionalism. In many ways, it can be seen as if it was developed from the weaknesses of structural functionalism. The theory suggests that society can be understood by looking at the competition which is inevitable in any society and not based on its complexity and the struggle to attain the equilibrium. In every society, there is endless competition for limited power and resources. Members of the society compete for power, money, mates and leisure - almost every thing. The structures of the society (such as organized religious groups, governments) are as a result of the competitiveness of the society. In these structures, some organizations are endowed with more resources basically influence and power than others. These more powerful and influential class will always use their resources to maintain their position in the society (Boss et al, p 558).

The basic assumption of the conflict theory is that competition is a basic feature of relationships in a human society. It also assumes that inequality is inherent in any social structure and the privileged in the society seeks to maintain their status. There are therefore continuous conflicts amidst competing interests. However, the major limitation of the conflict theory is that it ignores the stability of the society despite inherent changes. The conflict theory is based on Karl Marx proposals and ideas of a materialistic society. He is considered the most influential sociologist and thinker of all time. He studies the conflicts between the social class and the competitions that are inherent in any society. However, Karl Marx is largely associated with communism where the wealth goes to the right owner, the worker and was opposed to a capitalistic society.  

Structural functionalism is a sociological theory that was very common among sociologists in the mid 20th century. The theory suggests that stratification of the society is universal and essential. The theory explains the functions of social stratification in satisfaction of individual needs. The theory argues that the society is able to maintain its stability despite the changes due to solidarity in the social institutions. The main concern of structural functionalism theory is to explain the evident stability and cohesiveness of human societies. However, this theory is not without criticism. It has been criticized for concentrating social order and equilibrium while not explaining changes that are intrinsic in all human societies. Another major weakness of the structural functionalist theory is on its assumption that the society has no needs that must be satisfied like individuals have. Emil Durkheim is considered to be the father of structural functionalism theory. He introduced the role of social structures in performing basic factions in the society and related the aspects of the society to the social structures rather than the individual. Other prominent functionalist theorists include Robert Merton, Herbert Spencer and Talsott Parsons. (Brinkerhoff et al, pg 144).

In conclusion, the conflict theory and the structural functionalist theory vary in many ways. While structural functionalist theory is prominent among conservatives who view the society collectively, the conflict theory argues that all phenomenons that affect the society at the individual level or a group can be explained in terms of competition. The conflict theory was developed from the weaknesses of the structural functionalist theory. My personal view is that we live in a competitive society full of conflict where the elite want to maintain their status while the rest of the society strives to rise in the social ladder. Therefore I consider myself a conflict theorist.

This essay entails reasons as to why the penitentiary was developed in this country. Penitentiary is a state prison or an institution where convicted offenders are held under hard labor and strict discipline so as to punish and help  them reform respectively.  The idea of a penitentiary came up in early eighteenth century and but it was authorized later by the Penitentiary Act.  It brought about the separation of offenders who used to stay all together in one room, reduction in capital punishments and positive impact on the offenders lifestyle.  On the other hand, this essay also covers the use of incarceration to penalize criminal. Incarceration is the locking up an offender in a jail without necessarily putting efforts to ensure they reform, rather it ensure one serves their jail term fully.  It further explains whether the use of incarceration in this country serves the four goals of criminal sanctions and how these goals are achieved.

In the eighteenth century, most of the prisons in this country were just large holding pens where people were kept in groups regardless of their age or crimes committed.  The prisoners were mistreated by the guards and overseers through mutilation and physical punishment. The penitentiary was developed due to the ambitions and aspirations to change public institutions of the Americans after the reforms following the American Revolution.  The prisons and other social institutions were revolutionized due to the humanistic principle of enlightenment.  There was also a strong believe that if the wrongdoers were exposed to silence and then given time to think about their behavior and the ugliness of the crimes  they had committed then they would genuinely become penitent a way to inspire change.  There was also the introduction of re-entry services programs to enable ex-offender to regain respect in the society. They were also aimed at making the offender productive members of the society by giving them life skills, getting them necessary identification, helping them prepare for job searching and getting ready to work.

Application of Penitentiary did not face out the use of incarceration in this country.  Our country has the highest rate of incarceration as penalty for criminal offenders in the world.  This is due to several reasons which entail.  Firstly, most of the offenders are convicted for violent crimes.  This is due to the availability of firearm like guns which one can easily have as long as they have a permit.  This has increased murder rates hence through incarceration it is believed that they can be reduced if not finished.  Secondly, there are harsher laws of sentencing whereby even petty and nonviolent crimes are treated with a lot of seriousness and the offenders can be jailed for a longer time than expected. Thirdly, the country is endeavoring to combat illegal drug trafficking and abuse by the citizen. The drug crimes have been increasing over time hence the government is doing all it can to reduce illegal drugs related crimes. They also need to reduce drug abuse and addiction which has affected many young citizens in the country, hence affecting the political, social and economic situation of the country.  For instance offenders arrested for cocaine use they receive longer sentences since they are involved in the most violent and serious offences in the country.  Fourthly, there is a legacy of racial turmoil where by the African Americans are much more likely to receive longer sentence than other people in the country.   Fifthly, the country lacks a net of social safety hence the rules and regulations are tightened to achieve social safety for everyone. Sixthly, the country feels that since she is one of the greatest then she should be a role model to other nations in the world by acting harshly on all criminals regardless of the crimes they commit and their social status.  This is intended to emphasis the fact that everyone must be accountable for their actions.  Finally, democracy is also a contributor for this since elected judges feel that they need self actualization as well as fame thus they demand for tough justice on the offenders. Therefore, the need to reduce crime forms the overall reason for this countrys locking up offenders for longer terms since the costs are offset by the benefits (Liptak, 2008).

There are four goals of criminal sanctions which include retribution, deterrence, incapacitation and rehabilitation. The use of incarceration serves the four goals, since it enhances the maintenance of social order through punishments which are given fairly and with justice hence one receives the punishment that they deserve.  Moreover, potential offenders consider the punishments they would receive if they commit purported crimes hence there are deterred from acting in an unlawful way.  Also, the sentences received by the offenders incapacitate them hence they cannot commit further crimes since they are detained for a specified period of time.  Lastly, while in detention the offenders could undergo some training and therapy which would make them more productive to the country and also to their families (Cole and Smith, 2007).