The Third Gender
There is conflict about what makes people female or male whether it is the physical appearance of people when born sex or their own mental reality gender. To the people of third gender, the outcome of the conflicts course is always reflected in the documents their international-travel documents like passports, their rights concerning marriage and parenting, their rights regarding employment, etc. Western societies place higher value upon peoples anatomy at birth, than on other factors to assign gender to individuals. Thus, people are considered to belong to a particular gender in accordance with their anatomy (Winter, 2003).
This paper focuses on the three examples of the third gender the Berdache or two-spirits in Native North America, the Hijras in India and the Bissu in Indonesia, examining their history, comparing and contrasting them as well as showing how they fit in their respective societies.
Modern Interest in Third Genders
In the last part of the 20th century, the third gender concept gained substantial popularity among activists and anthropologists. Indias hijras, North Americas berdaches, the Arabias xanith, etc. have all regularly been cited as cases of third genders institutionalization, that have been in existence outside of modern Western societys limits. A few examples of third gender in society are the North Americas two-spirits or Berdaches (VanWanseele, 2005), Indias Hijras transsexual men who cut off their genitals and live mostly as women (Wilhelm, 2010), and Indonesias Bugis where five genders are recognized by society (Graham, 2001).
The Hijras of India
The Hijras can simply be described as men whose dressing code and conduct is like that of women. They do not have testicles and use feminine pronouns when referring to themselves and expect the same of others (Pettis, 2004). For instance, they use feminine names and feminine terms among themselves like sister, or auntie. In public accommodations or public transport, they ask for ladies only seating and demand that in censuses, they be counted as females (Herdt, 2005). Hijras normally live in traditional group homes of five or more disciples or chelas and usually engage in sexual activities with men. To become true hijras, males have to undergo emasculation operations or the removal of testicles, and when a new disciple is accepted into a certain household she gets trained in singing and dancing, as well as various other activities in order to earn a living (Pettis, 2004).
Although hijras classify themselves as neither males nor females, they assume several feminine gender role features by wearing traditional womens outfits, make-up, jewels, and by walking, gesturing and speaking like women. Also, their sexual partners of preference are male and so they become, for men, sexual objects of their desire (Nanda, 2005).
Their presence in India goes many generations back. It is believed that during Ramayanas times, Rama battled with Ravana a demon. He left India and crossed over to Sri Lanka to bring Sita, his wife, back. But before all this, Ramas father had commanded him to depart from his indigenous city of Ayodhya and enter forest for fourteen years. The entire city went with him for they loved him very much. As they reached the river banks at the forests edge, he said to the people, Ladies and gentlemen, please wipe away your tears and leave. But those who were neither men nor women were not sure what they were supposed to do. Therefore they stayed because Rama had not asked them to leave. For fourteen years, they stayed there until Rama came back from Sri Lanka and found them still there, meditating. So, he blessed them (Nanda, 2003).
Hijras and Religion
Hijras have an accepted status within Hindu mythology and culture. They are mostly mother goddess Bahuchara-matas devotees, for whose sakes they go through emasculation, for which they are believed to have power to bless others with fertility or curse them with infertility. Many Hindu myths vindicate their presence. For instance, one of God Shivas forms is Ardhanarisvara, half woman, half man, who embodies Shiva unified with his female creative power or Shakti. A hijras myth of origin says that Arjun, (the major character in the Mahabharata) disguised himself when he was in exile as a eunuch and served the courts ladies, a time during which he took part in births and weddings. Hijras believe that this legitimizes their involvement in rituals (Nanda, 2003). Also, the Kama Sutra cites hijras a whole chapter is devoted to guidelines on ways of receiving pleasure from eunuchs (Wilhelm, 2004).
However, despite the fact that they are mostly connected with Hinduism, hijras are also accepted within Islam. Numerous references to eunuchs in the royal courts of Indias Muslim rulers are cited (Pettis, 2004). Eunuchs protected the harems ladies during the times of Mughal. The hijras were also allotted land close to the royal palace (Altaf, 2008). Hijras traditions also have elements of Islam for example, their dead are buried rather than cremated (Pettis, 2004).
Hijras Roles
Hijras take part in birth and wedding celebrations. Once they hear of the births of male children or weddings, they show up to offer their blessings by singing, dancing and drumming. The supposed reason for their performing in the events is ritual entreaties for fertility on the bridegrooms or the newborn childs behalf. Their dancing and their behaviors are usually sexually evocative to deliberately upset the partys decorum. The indication is that in case no proper reward is forthcoming, their outrageousness will escalate to extremes. They are usually given gifts in terms of goods and cash, but the hijras curse stingy hosts (Pettis, 2004). Despite all these roles, many of them also engage in prostitution, in order to earn a living, undermining the respect showed to them by the society. This, though, does not cancel out their ritual roles (Nanda, 2003).
Hijras are sometimes likened to transsexuals but considering that most hijras do not try to pass as people of the opposite sex, or take on behaviors that are considered to be unsuitable for average women, the label is somehow tricky. Hindu beliefs leave room for overlapping and contradictory groupings, accommodating gender role flexibility (Nanda, 2003). Today, many hijras live a marginalized, secretive sub-culture in poor urban districts of major cities like Bombay, Ahmedabad and Delhi and also in Southern India. Modernization threatens to limit chances for them to practice their traditional roles and increase the hijras reliance on prostitution. Also, stereotypes about them are constantly propagated by tabloid headlines. For example, tabloids in South Asia take advantage of the belief that they abduct male children in order to raise their membership and keep narrating lurid images of castration (Pettis, 2004).
Recently, organizations like the Hijra Kalyan Sabha and the Dai Welfare Society have been founded to create HIVAIDS awareness and address human-rights related issues. Some Hijras even became involved in politics. In 2000, some hijras were elected as legislators and town mayors (Pettis, 2004).
Two-spirited PeopleBerdache
The Meaning of Berdache or Two-spirit
Berdaches were mostly biological males who dressed, spoke, and acted, as effeminates. They served men by taking on the roles of females, sometimes even including sexually servicing them. A distinct term from that of males was used when referring to them, although the same term as for male berdaches was sometimes used. Different tribes had different terms for the roles. For instance, the Navajo used the term ndleeh while the Crow used bot. There was a recognized status for females too, who assumed a mans lifestyle they became hunters, chiefs and even warriors (VanWanseele, 2005). Although berdache is commonly used between white gays, the Native Americans find it offensive because it is borrowed from the Persian term which is generally used for a male prostitute. So two-spirit is usually used (Fischer, 1997).
A Brief History
The Two-spirit person is a tradition of natives dating back to some of the first discoveries of artifacts associated with the Natives. There is a lot of proof indicating that the Native people, before they had any contact with the European cultures, believed in three genders existence i.e. male, female as well as the transsexual gender, or what is now referred to as two-spirited person. Two-spirited though quite new, was gotten from the Native languages interpretations which described individuals who showed male as well as female characteristics (VanWanseele, 2005).
How People Became Berdaches
Throughout history, Native communities believed that being Two-Spirited was a gift. Two-spirited children were taken as blessings on families and tribes. The children would be recognized at infancy, even though some people took on two-spiritedness through dreams and visions (VanWanseele, 2005).
Berdaches Roles
Alternative roles of the genders were one of the most familiar features of societies in North America. If men became berdaches in adulthood, they left the status of warriors behind and took on womens positions. The decision was influenced by the fact that they would no longer be effective warriors. To impose or define roles on community members was unnecessary (VanWanseele, 2005). Because all individuals performed their particular roles was thought to be more important for the communitys survival. This way of life showed respect for two-spirits, which gave them unlimited relationships, before colonization severed it. Berdaches were consulted on every important matter, and went hunting, and female (meaning biological females) berdaches went to war as they were believed to bring certain graciousness to them (VanWanseele, 2005). In fact, it was this social role that was the mainstay of the two-spirits or berdache existence. It was also believed that berdaches brought good fortune and riches. As a result, they were usually assigned the role of managing resources in their families. Berdaches were also reputed with luck in laying bets while others had the ability to predict the future. Others were seers, which was indeed a valuable skill for war parties when the need to locate enemies arose (VanWanseele, 2005).
The berdaches were valued community members they belonged to a third gender, were excluded from ordinary limitations of strictly male or female and were free to conduct themselves according to their own desires, to relate romantically and even sexually with partners of the same sex, free from social disgrace (VanWanseele, 2005).
The cultural function of berdaches was not institutionalized homosexuality, or essentially connected with sexual orientation. The berdache institution justified only gender transformation, but did not address homosexuality issues among women, non-cross-dressing homosexuals, etc. (VanWanseele, 2005). Homosexuality was by no means in itself justified, as the berdaches were actually not homosexuals indeed, their gender was changed so as to avoid that designation. Heterosexual men engaged in sexual activities with the male berdaches in the legitimacy of heterosexuality. Male berdaches sexual partners engaged in same sex sexual activities with, but neither their behaviors nor their partners were ever considered homosexual as they socially belonged to different genders. Homo-gendered sexual activities were unacceptable two males, both recognized as men, never liberally engaged in sexual activities (VanWanseele, 2005).
How Berdaches are viewed by Society
In Western convention, one is assigned one gender according to their anatomy and one is expected to conform to the binary femalemale identity. Native communities, though, have always maintained distinctive beliefs on gender. However, due to the social values of the Western societies and their discrimination towards the Native Americans, colonization as well as assimilation, two-spirits are treated negatively both within and without their Native communities. The two-spirited individuals roles were once respected only for the admiration to be largely destroyed upon colonization (VanWanseele, 2005).
Female berdaches deal with very unique issues resulting from their cultural status, history, and also views as Natives. They emerge from a dark history, where their people were kidnapped, killed and assimilated through centuries. Present day female berdaches cannot be said to be like the Natives before the white mans arrival. Contact with whites, followed by the genocide committed on them, has changed their views regarding sexuality and gender (VanWanseele, 2005).
In spite of the heartening things about acceptance and even honor of past berdaches, todays Female berdaches have to face homophobia from their own people as a result of the imposition of European culture and European religion on the Natives. The whites attempts to wipe out any acceptance and recognition of two-spirited females have always been reported. European missionaries would rebuke sexual contact between two-spirited females and women among the Native people whenever they encountered it, as is evident from the missionaries writings which still exist. Also, Native stories on two-spirited females got transformed from positive to negative, depending on the storys source. Two-spirited females were illustrated positively in the myths about origin and shown as being in charge of wealth and property. In short, they were considered as assets to their families and communities. However, after the Native Americans were driven into reservations, the stories on two-spirited female relations usually ended in tragedy. Recently wider recognition of the third gender has started to come about due to emergence of queer Native Indians vocal groups which dig out for third gender hints from Indian history (VanWanseele, 2005).
Today, the berdache symbolizes a tolerant America of the past, that recognized queers. Many two-spirit practices of ancient times no longer exist today. However, two-spirits of Native origin are going through a rebirth to their inner passions legitimacy, and their cultural as well as spiritual roots. Many, due to the Bureau of Indian Affairs cultural policies have escaped from rejection and isolation by taking on contemporary gay identities and re-linking with their traditions through groups such as the Native Gay and Lesbian Gathering. Although there have been attempts to rekindle the traditional practices of Two-Spirits, in recent times, controversy has rocked the efforts. There is a big gap between Two-Spirits among the Native Americans and the Non-Native Americans, not to mention that many Native Americans who are straight take a well-known post-colonialism attitude they wish that Two-Spirits would disappear (VanWanseele, 2005).
The Bissu of Indonesia
Gender in Indonesia is a more complicated issue. South Sulawesis Bugis recognize five gender identities male-men known as uranai, female-women known as makunrai, calabai, calalai, and bissu. The Calalai have female bodies, they dress, behave and do the work of males and they are sexually-orientated like males. The calabai have male bodies, dress, behave and do the work of females, and they are sexually-orientated like females. As in other places in Indonesia a trans-gendered male like the calabai also performs special roles for example in ceremonies like weddings. Calabai and Calalai identities are believed to have originated from gods (Graham, 2001).
It is believed that the bissu are hermaphrodites they embody male as well as female elements. The bissus dressing code, therefore, underlines both female and male characteristics. Bissus may carry mens badis or knives, and still put on flowers in their hairs like women. Moreover, they have to combine both human and spirit aspects. It is necessary that they are well connected with the world of spirits, to be able to contact the gods. So a part of a bissu has to be spirit or dewata, and to allow them to be spirit-possessed, a part of them has to be human or manusia. Being possessed by the spirits means they can be able to confer blessings. Basically, they are male, female, deity and mortal beings, who are often spirit-possessed to confer blessings (Graham, 2001).
A Brief History
The Bugis are South Sulawesis main ethnic group and have an amazingly rich history, both oral and written. This is elaborated in their belief that this world came into being when gods, from the heavens, looked down and saw a lonely earth, an earth that needed life in it. They therefore sent down one deity, Batara Guru, but his organization of things was poor so they sent two bissu with him. When they reached earth, the bissu made everything bloom, created languages, cultures, customs and all the world needs in order to blossom. Narratives of the origin are also recorded on palm leaves beginning from the 1600s (Graham, 2001).
One example is the story of Sarawigading, who badly wanted to get married to WeCudai, who unfortunately, dwelt on one island in a lake. Sarawigading could not get to island though, but he knew he had to if he was to get to WeCudai, so he decided to build a boat to take him to the island. But he did not know how to make a boat the trees were very huge and he was not strong enough to fall them. Frustrated, Sarawigading cried all night long. He knew he could never get to WeCudai. But one bissu heard him cry from the heavens. The bissu came down from the heavens and told him not to worry. He cut down the tree and helped him make a boat. The bissu was able to cut down the tree because hisher strength was of man, woman and heshe was mortal as well as deity. These narratives show that bissus hold a prime position in the Bugis minds. Having such significant roles give the bissu the ability to assert and preserve a respected position in present-day Bugis society (Graham, 2001)
The Bissus Roles
The Bissu perform the role of priests and bestowal of blessings is their major role. They perform blessing rituals before people plant or harvest rice. The bissu also purify marriages and seemingly ironically, they even bless Muslims before their Mecca pilgrimage. This is not ironic as the Bugis have been able to blend pre-Islamic beliefs fittingly with Islam. For example, before the spread of Islam, the Bugis gave honor to a god by the name of PaTotoe, and today many of them believe that Allah is PaTotoe. While they still pray to be spirit-possessed, they always start by seeking Allahs blessing as well as his advice. However, they have changed parts of their customs. For instance, they do not walk on fire as this would contradict Islam (Graham, 2001).
To arouse deities, they first have to perform detailed rituals including chanting and ritual food offering. These deities then come down to possess the bissus. As the bissu wake from their trances, their demeanor entirely different they get irritable as well as aggressive. The changes however are never enough to convince people and in answer to the challenge, they have to do self-stabbing, by taking sacred knives (these knives have been passed down for several bissu generations) and try to pierce their skins with the knives (one such knife is called a kris). They can even go as far as lying down with the knives pressed against their throats. They also aim the knives at their temples andpalms. In case the knives do not pierce their skins, the bissus are said to be impenetrable or kebal, and have therefore proved they are invulnerable, making it certain that they have been powerfully spirit-possessed. The bissus can then go on to give the blessings (Graham, 2001).
How a Person Becomes a Bissu
It is said that the inclination to become a bissu starts when one is born. Most favorably, it is discovered when a baby with ambiguous genitalia, although having ambiguous genitalia does not guarantee that one will be a bissu. Ambiguous genitalia, however, does not have to be clearly visible for one to be allowed to be a bissu, as normative males who go on to become bissus are said to have their female elements inside. By the time children are around twelve and show some close connection with the world of spirits, they are prepared to become bissus. Long ago, such children would be trained to serve in royal courts (Graham, 2001).
These days, children become the apprentices of individual bissus. After many training years, apprentice bissus undergo various tests for them to become bissus, including lying on bamboo rafts in middle-lakes, without drinks or food or moving, for at least three days and nights. If they survive and wake from their trances speaking fluent sacred language of the bissu Bahasa Dewata or Basa Bissu or the gods language they are taken as bissus (Graham, 2001).
How Bugis are Viewed by Society
In Bugis societies, gender multiplicity (rather than gender binarism enforcement) is accepted, the economic potential for the other three more gender identities and significant ritual functions particularly for the bissu join to shape their exceptional gender system. Interestingly, modern changes strengthen the indigenous gender systems of the Bugis. While in the rest of the world, the recent prospects of regional autonomy has brought about more stress on gender binarism, Bugis pride themselves ever more on their gender multiplicity (Graham, 2001).
The Bissus and Religion
Bugis are said to be among the staunchest Muslims in Indonesia. Therefore, the spiritual ideas were highlighted as major gender identity principles. Bugis believe that their fate is designed by Allah and believe that it is Gods plan that they believe to be trans-gendered. So, they hold fast to their natural feelings because they believe the will of God can never be changed (Graham, 2001).
Comparing and Contrasting the Third Genders in the Three Settings
In all the above three settings, the people who belonged to the third genders were respected because of their spiritual knowledge and practical skills. Women berdaches became warriors, chiefs, and hunters. People became third gender through spiritual callings by way of dreams and visions, or even by personal choice. In addition, those people who belong to the third gender in the above settings believe that they are not males trying to be females or females trying to be males.
In the three settings, third gendered people are given spiritual roles and are incorporated in religious activities as crucial participants. The bissu are priests, they purify marriages and also bless Muslims before their Mecca pilgrimage. Hijras have an accepted status within Hindu mythology and culture most are mother goddess Bahuchara-matas devotees. Numerous references to eunuchs in the royal courts of Indias Muslim rulers are cited. Eunuchs protected the harems ladies during the times of Mughal showing that they are also accepted by Muslims. Hijras take part in birth and wedding celebrations in order to bless the occasions.
In all the settings, religion favors the idea of third gender, as the berdache, the bissu and the hijra all play spiritual roles by performing religious rituals. The people in the third gender were believed to have special connection with deities or gods. That is why they got a lot of respect from the rest of the society members. Many Hindu myths vindicate hijras presence. For instance, one of god Shivas forms is Ardhanarisvara, half woman, half man, who embodies Shiva unified with his female creative power or Shakti. A hijras myth of origin says that Arjun, (the major character in the Mahabharata) when he was in exile disguised himself as a eunuch and served the courts ladies, a time during which he took part in births and weddings. Hijras believe that this legitimizes their involvement in rituals. The Kama Sutra cites hijras a whole chapter is devoted to guidelines on ways of receiving pleasure from eunuchs. Berdaches were believed to have supernatural powers because they were believed to have connections with the spirit world. Some are believed to have been seers, which was indeed a valuable skill for war parties when the need to locate enemies arose.
Most third gendered people were seen as a blessing in their families and their communities. In most of the communities in the above settings, the third gender was officially recognized, that is why the community did not banish them from among them, but rather looked upon them for guidance in spiritual matters, wars, as well as other celebrations. Two-spirited children were taken as blessings on families and tribes.
People in all the three settings engage in sexual activities with people of the same biological sex though are not thought to be homosexuals, because they are believed to belong to different genders. Male berdaches engaged in sexual activities with those of their biological sex, but neither their behaviors nor their partners were ever taken as homosexual as they socially belonged to different genders. Also, Hijras usually engage in sexual activities with men.
Third gender origins in all the above settings are included in their myths on origins. Native female berdaches who engaged in sexual activities with women were illustrated positively in the myths about origin and shown as being in charge of wealth and property. For the Bugis of Indonesia, bissus were the ones who helped a deity make the world flourish. Hijras are said to have served in rulers courts in ancient times. All the three settings show how similarly third genders are viewed by society. The bissu, the berdache and the hijra all show societies which though carrying some form of discrimination, show considerable tolerance towards those who are seen to fall outside of female or male gender confines.
Differences
While for a male to become a true hijra he has to be castrated, the case is different for the bissu and the berdache. For the bissu and the berdache, those who were believed to belong to the third gender mostly only needed to take on roles other than those defined for their biological sex without undergoing castration or genital mutilation. Moreover, while hijras and bissus continue to exist in large populations, the same cannot be said of the berdaches, who following European colonization and eventual assimilation, much of their customs and traditions have been repressed and some even disappeared.
Most of the hijras and bissus are males who assume the roles of females. Hijras classify themselves as females and assume several feminine gender role features by wearing womens dresses and styling their hairs like womens among others. It is believed that the bissu are hermaphrodites they embody male as well as female elements. Thus, their dressing code, underlines both female and male characteristics. Bissus may also carry mens badis or knives, and still put on flowers in their hairs like women. The berdaches are males who take on the roles of females, or females who take on the roles of males, for example males sexually service men and female berdaches take on mens roles by becoming warriors, chiefs, etc.
The berdache, the bissu, and the hijra, can be said to be a completely social concept and takes on more social functions other than those allocated to their sexes. Berdache children would be recognized at infancy, even though some people took on two-spiritedness through dreams and visions. For berdaches, different tribes had different terms for the roles. For instance the Navajo used the term ndleeh. There was a recognized status for females too, who assumed a mans lifestyle by becoming hunters, chiefs and even warriors. Bugis recognize five gender identities including the bissu. In Bugi societies, gender multiplicity (rather than gender binarism enforcement) is accepted while in the rest of the world the recent prospects of regional autonomy has brought about more stress on gender binarism. Bugis pride themselves even more on their gender multiplicity. This cannot be said to be the case with berdaches they are discriminated against by the Western societies and are treated negatively both within and without their Native communities.
Discussion and Conclusion
The greatest worth of the third gender concept is both heuristic and theoretical. On one hand, it enables us to see the historical and cultural role coherency that has been treated isolatively until recently. Third gender defers the supposition that hetero-binarism is a universal thing. Third gender also enables people pass another restricting definition, which states that the differences between male, female and third gender is solely sexual (Roscoe, 1995).
Also religion is important in the promotion of sexuality as an equality expression affirmation, caring, mutual respect, and love. The religions perspectives on sexuality as well as its response to the society are in its help to shape peoples views on gender and sexuality (Ojo, 2005). In Western societies sex and gender are often confused, with sex being used as the determinant of gender, a view that greatly contrasts with other societies for example in Asia.
The concept of third gender also allows people to understand diversity of cultures and take away the idea that gender is confined to female or male and nothing more. By understanding other cultures views on gender and sexuality, people are able to revisit their own beliefs about the same.
Though the three examples of the third gender the berdache or two-sprits in Native North America, the Hijras in India and the Bissu in Indonesia have several differences it is clear that they have much more in common.
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