Effect of Commercialization on Science and Technology
Mertons proposed norms that were aimed at focus on the issue of science and the influence of politics to the development of science in future. At this moment, there was a lot of political enthusiasm in the field of science. To respond to this concern, he used conceptual tools derived from conventional social studies and the technical reasoning of application of science. Prior to this, the common reasoning tried to set apart science and politics. In addition, left view took science as a representation of the society which was supposed to generate benefits to the society as separate entity of its own. However, there was another view of need for regulation of these to harmonise science with the common society. On his part, Merton portrayed science as a field that was compounded by a lot of policies but was under a threat due to the influence of disagreement between the extraordinary culture and the possible demands from the political intervention (Restivo, 2005). He therefore saw the field of science was prone to interference and therefore there was a need for setting mechanisms that would ensure its protection.
In his view of science and technology, he proposed the embracing of technology through the application of norms such as communism or community where there was no need to have secrets in this field. Universal acceptance whereby the truths and claims emanating from scientific study needed to be evaluated as separate entities of the background of scientists. Reduction in level of direct involvement of other parties in order to stem the level of impartiality on the subjects by other bodies. Organised scepticism where northing that comes out of such studies and research would be taken for granted. His view was political as he saw the need of governance and regulation on science and technology by philosophy other than having a centralised control as a more free-thinking approach (Eugene, 1993). The difference in his ideology lay in his application of the terms such as communism and police which are not taken as ethical in liberalism in characterising the internal social existence of science.
After interviewing scientists from the Moon, Mitroff came up with the following counter-norms, emotional commitment to communism, localisation of mission and solitariness to universalism, interestedness to disinterestedness, and organised dogmatism to organised scepticism. Even though norms are not experiential descriptions of scientific practice, they are much used by scientists in descriptions of their practice (Godin, 2005). They have been applied in justification of scientific behaviour as long as it adherers to the norms. On the other hand, counter-norms have been applied to characterize actions that can be seen to violate the norms.
Commercial driven science research and technologies
Commercial scientific research and technological development has taken lead in the in the development of end-user products most of which are designed and moulded to create appetite on the mind of the consumers which results in their consumption. The mobile phone technology can be seen as advancement in communication industry. The industry has effected easy communication between persons (Wise, 2006). However, this is a multi-billion dollar industry whose innovation has been pegged on increasing the number of sales made from different makes of phones made using different technologies. Most of research and developments in the motor industry has been targeted to put one motor industry ahead of the other and make more sales. This cannot be compared to space explorations and other research done on the effects of global warming on the environment or how to control spread of cancer among a certain group in a population. Despite these notions in corporate sponsored scientific research projects, we cannot ignore the contribution made by this sponsors in the fields of research and technology. In actual fact, science has quite a number of counter norms that can help in mitigating the effects of doctored research outcomes (George, Williams, 2004). Such misleading results can b e corrected as the scientific research progresses. There is however need to analyze studies funded by industry players or other groups known to have interest in the field under study.
Scientific Funding of projects
Historically, funding of scientific projects has been coming from private, religious organisations, or family support. In modern days, many of the scientific research have been funded by the government agencies, private companies and other non-governmental foundations. In UK, government contribution in scientific funding is carried out through the governments department for business, innovation and skills (BIS). The government of UK has always shown commitment in supporting sustainable investment in research. However, the funding of higher education and science related projects from the government in the UK is facing a tough road ahead due to the governments plan to reduce its funding budget (Lowe, Magnus, 2000).
However, funding of any project depends on the benefit realized from them. We are always supporting research through products we buy from companies and taxes we pay to the government and even the donations submitted to charitable organisations goes along way in supporting research. In the health sector, there has been a great concern over the motive by the funding agencies mostly the pharmaceutical industries. Conflict of interest in this field is damaging the image of the health sector and the practitioners who are involved in the field of research. Most of these funding agencies are seen to have financial motive over progress in of the scientific knowledge in fighting diseases (Kraemer, 2006). Their individual benefit in funding of clinic al trials is seen to override the benefit of the overall society. Such conflicts have risen in intensity especially in population where the poverty and level of ignorance is high. To keep check on such intensities of conflict of interests, between researchers and the funding agencies there is a need to have a well-versed consent and review of ethics applied in this field. There have been cases where the sponsors of some studies have called for ignorance of the public over earlier findings as more findings are carried to substantiate some matters. The case of cell phone frequencies causing cancer is a classic example where there has been significant conflict of interest. The first studies were carried by health practitioners in collaboration with scientists from the industry (Naidu, 2003). The cell phone industry asked for little considerations of the findings until the studies were replicated.
The industry however declined to provide funds to carry out replication studies. As a result, there have been delays in carrying out of this research since the role of funding this research has been handed over to the cellular companies themselves. In this case the Motorola in the USA and Motorola and Nokia in Europe. There is a clear picture here which shows that, these companies have an aim of either dragging their feet in financing so as to arrive at a point where they can easily control the publication of the results. Another most recent case where there have been cases of conflict of interest was in the case involving the H1N1 hemorrhagic pneumonia - flu vaccine (Geisler, 2000).
The American Baxter Company has been accused of spreading the outbreak of the flu while carrying its tests among European populations for its vaccine. The panic over this infection would have resulted in the company making more sales in a situation which was completely over their control. Some people have come to believe that, H1N1 was a fever that never was. The vaccine maker was also earlier in 1970s involved in spreading of HIV infections under the guise of trying its vaccine on population.
Gains and losses
Commercialization of research and technology has brought about a reduction of overdependence on government for funding. The involvement of other stakeholders has made it possible for increased number of scientific based research projects being carried out in the institutions of higher learning as well as medical, nutrition and other fields that technological advancement is much needed. More innovation and greater focus on the result oriented projects. It has increased the intensity of evaluation of projects since most of these researches are meant to give solutions to a larger problem involving financial expenses. However, the commercialization of scientific research and technology shows a take-over by the capitalistic ideology over the communalistic norm proposed by Merton (Dyker, 1997). According to Merton, the norm of communism aimed at reducing the secrecy of the research work.
However, after the induction of commercialization in this field, there has been an increase in secrecy of findings especially in the field of biological research. This cannot be associated with the risk of losing their ability to patent their work but has more to do with the anticipation of commercializing their findings to potential consumers. This has also reduced the rate of sharing knowledge at the time of research with other interested scientists. This anticipation of commercial gains can lead to doctoring of the result fro the studies been carried out in order to arrive at a favourable result. This has by far succeeded as we have seen earlier in reducing the overdependence on the government funding on crucial projects but has eaten away the integrity of research (Yu, 1999). It has become difficult for the society to accept findings of a research without questioning the genuineness of the party involved in the research process. This has gone further to demoralise researchers with a clean conscience of making solid contribution through this noble field.
In the end, if all ethics of research are followed, it wouldnt matter who is the funding agent as the main interest of a scientific research is the results. A good result can be used now or future. In actual fact most of the present day innovations have a foundation on past research.
Categories:
0 comments:
Post a Comment