Sociology

Three days ago I conducted a non-intrusive breaching experiment about not talking to anyone for a day.  For twenty-four hours I tried to keep myself busy, so that I wont feel much of the pressure.  Instead, I focused more on my work and the chores that I may have to do were I to have all the time in the world.  It wasnt a very exciting day.

At first I astounded myself because I found myself talking to my sister but held back myself when I remembered I was not to talk to anyone for twenty-four hours.  Then I astounded my sister first and foremost because she was used to my chatting while sharing the room with her.  She was used to my telling stories and sharing everything that may have to do for the events of the day.  She was angry for my being cold and distant (those were the words that she said).  And then I astounded my friends at school.  They thought I was just dealing with one of my frenzy days, one of the days when I would rather be on my own, when I would rather talk to myself instead of my friends.  They thought it was nasty for me not to talk to them and share whatever I have been dealing with.  They were used to my sharing secrets and problems, especially my best friend, who was astounded on my strange behavior.  I prayed that the day would end when I can talk to my sister and friends again.

By evening I found myself depressed and downhearted for not talking to anyone for one whole day.  Instead of getting irritable however, I tried to listen to music and tried to reminisce about the good old days when I was in secondary level, with so many friends I had trouble remembering each and every one of them.  Indeed, norms keep people attached to one another.  It distinguishes the ordinary people from those who are strange and unusual.

Racial profiling is the discriminatory acts by the security enforcement personnel of going after individuals after suspecting them on crime. This suspicion is however based on race, religion, ethnicity or national origin. This practice is common with the police who rely on a group of characteristics they think are associated with crime or terrorism. For instance, there has been a common practice by the police to stop drivers for minor traffic offenses by virtue of their race. This is commonly known as driving while black or brown. (Bryan, 2007, p.2284).  Another example is the use of race to determine which pedestrians to be screened for illegal contraband (Kops, 2006). But of course the major form of race profiling is that which has been ongoing after the September 11 attack where Muslims, Arabs and South Asians are put in detention for minor violations of the law on suspicion of being terrorists. The question here is, should the Arabs be treated with caution Examples of law enforcement personnel include any person in the capacity of policing for private or public purposes. This may include airport security guards, store guards, police officers, or airline pilots all of who have been accused of racial profiling in one way or the other. Racial profiling should not actually be confused with the act of law enforcement personnel pursing suspects whose description may involve ethnicity or race together with other identifying factors which are genuine (Kops, 2006).

Websters dictionary defines civil rights as the rights enjoyed by an inhabitant of a given country by law. In the United States, these are considered to be rights which are stipulated in the nations constitution.  The same dictionary defines humanitarianism to be the humane treatment between people. It is actually the belief that every person is a human being and deserves respect and dignity from the other. Even though the definitions of these two words are seen to be a little bit different, their meanings are actually related. It implies that all human beings are the same and should be treated equally despite their differences. According to Johnson (2004), there is no dispute that the current insecurity in the world calls for proper security screening and safety precautions especially in the entry points like the Airports. It is in the nature of man to fear the Middle East because of the terrorist attacks but this does not mean that everyone from there should be treated inhumanly. Americans should understand that these people have civil rights which should be respected (Johnson, 2004).

According to Bryan (2007), the occurrences of September 11th brought about racial profiling. A practice that everyone was speaking ill of a few months ago became an acceptable and common practice used by police agencies, airline officials, government and the whole of American public. Every part of the government had condemned racial profiling by the police. Everyone was for the idea that enforcement of the law on racial basis by the police not only in traffic but even other law enforcement activities was not good for the country. The whole public was of the consensus that racial profiling was to be eradicated in the fastest way possible because it was such an evil. For how long shall the law enforcement personnel use racial origin in targeting suspects for arrest or searches Many people have become concerned with this issue especially after the occurrences of September 11th 2001. The world has given so much attention to terrorism and it is assumed that all those who wish to harm America live in the Middle East (Bryan, 2007).

Three buildings which are all prestigious to the Americans were intentionally destroyed by crashing planes in them. The findings reveled that the three planes had been hijacked by eighteen men all of who originated from the Middle East. The country was forced to take drastic changes in providing security to protect the citizens from any further attacks and this has contributed to the increase in racial profiling. Before the attack racial profiling was totally eliminated. However there has been a whole new world after September 11 (Johnson, 2004).

The use of profiles that were based on race was previously condemned by everyone in the whole world because it was very unethical.. The security in every American Airport has increased drastically after the September terrorist attacks. Even though drastic safety measures have been put in place to counter any terrorist attacks, some security personnel are using unethical safety measures. Since the attackers of September 11 were believed to be descendants of the Middle East, every person who is seen to be from Middle East has been racially profiled in all the Airports in America. Hussein Abbas who is an Arab lawyer said he witnessed in humiliation two security personnel pull out clothes from his bag while every one at the airport was watching. He was even kept for 30 minutes at the gate despite showing them a business card with his identification as a National Bar Associations member. He added that he felt so threatened because if he continued to protest, then he was most likely going to eat the carpet floor.

Flying while Black and Brown is a common quote used when describing racial profiling. Passengers in airlines have complained of racial profiling ever since the occurrences of September 11(Bryan, 2007 2286). Black women have been major victims on the allegations that they were transporting drugs. Despite the supply of a memorandum to all airlines by the Transportation secretary as early as 21st September 2001, there have been more than 31 complaints of discrimination against people from the Middle East and Arabian countries (Bryan, 2007, p.2284).

The injustices committed against African Americans around the 1960s should actually be a good lesson for all Americans. It is ironical that racial profiling is now being considered a vital tool of preventing terrorist attack and yet sometimes back it was considered to have caused a lot of injuries to the citizens while doing very little to cat down on crime and drug abuse. The discussions by the public against racial profiling all changed from Latinos, African American, and other small groups who were considered drug traffickers and domestic criminals to Muslims, Arab Americans and other groups from the Middle East who resembled the September 11 suicidal hijackers. According to Moody (2008), people from the Middle East should not go through what we saw the African American go through before integration. It is encouraging that some Americans have realized this and have come up with organizations that are trying to stop racial profiling at the airports.

People should not be targeted because of their ethnicity or race especially at this point in time when there is so much terrorist attacks which do not care about the ethnic background or race of the people they harm. This should be the time when everyone is guaranteed of total security from the government (Heumann,  Cassak, 2003).

Private security has also been accused of targeting shoppers of color for suspicion of being shop lifters. This is commonly referred to as shopping while Black and Brown. It is the Prominent African American women and the working women who have been major victims of this. For instance the famous TV host Oprah Winfrey once said that she was refused entry into a shopping store even though she saw many white women doing some shopping in the same store. She even made a phone call and confirmed that the store was open but she could not be allowed in just yet. This is a clear indication that racial profiling is very high in the United States. If such prominent women like Oprah who is actually renown all over the world can be victims to racial profiling,(Moody, 2008).

There has also been too much worksite Racial profiling after the September 11 events unfolded. The department of Immigration and Neutralization has been the major victim.  This service has had a history of targeting people inappropriately on the basis of color and ethnicity for labour violations that are not documented. INS agents are supposed to be equipped with sufficient evidence for any mistakes made before they make an arrest just like any other law enforcement officers. They should never perform their duties in an ethnically or racial discriminatory manner (The peoples media company). It is quite understandable that racial and ethnicity matters are very important in immigration violations but there is no need for law enforcement actions when there is insufficient evidence for any law braking. There was a review of INS files by The New York Times which were selectively released by the law enforcement suit about the garment workers union. In this settlement was a summary that Latinos comprised of 96 of all the 2907 people who were in the raids on worksites by the INS. This was in fact greater than their legal or illegal population representation in the city. Even the INS had agreed that half of the workers were Asians but not Latinos but the report was still released either way (The peoples media company).

There is also the voting while black and Brown scenario with a good example being the 2000 presidential election in Florida which had rampant claims of racial profiling (Bryan, 2007, p. 2286). There was a presumption that African Americans voted Democratic and this provided the Republicans with apparatus to control the elections with a target that was easily identified. The outcome of the elections was changed by the state which targeted people of color in a manner suggestive of literacy requirements and racist poll taxes of the earlier Southern history. The Secretary of state in Florida compiled an ex-felon scrub list months before the election and these names were supposed to be removed from the voters list. It was later realized that the list contained names of people who were not even felonies (Dudziak, 2003).  There was another action o similar impact where residents of Florida who had felony convictions in other states were removed from the voting list despite the rule by the courts that people were eligible to vote in the states in which they had been convicted. The restrictions placed by the election official meant that the poll workers in color communities like the African Americans were supposed to ask for photo identification from these people and yet nothing like this happened in communities with white people.

There were reports of more serious harassment where policemen placed check points in voting stations and forced the voters to line up as they inspected vehicles and driving papers. The motive behind this was to delay the communities of color from going to vote. This is actually racial profiling of the highest order. Another controversy arose when only 11 of the eligible voters were African Americans and yet 54  of their votes were rejected. There is no chance that this could happen because they were fewer than the whites and therefore the probability of their votes being rejected was lesser (Dudziak, 2003).
The world today is faced with so much treat from terrorist attacks, which calls for proper security measures at all entry points to any the United States. This however does not mean that the charged worth the responsibility of providing security should use racial or ethnic basis to discriminate against human beings. We all have civil rights which should be obeyed and respected by all.

Society is more intellectual as children in that colors are not known or recognized until taught later during childhood.  Once the color schemes are learned, they are never forgotten.  The colors of black and white cause the most conflict later in life.  Some children do not have the benefit of attending a culturally diverse educational institution, and therefore, they grow up living very sheltered and socially inept lives.  Helms attempted to explain the process in which a white person overcomes viewing society through the narrowed lens.  The Helms White Racial Identity Development (HWRID) theory was tested during an interview with a sixty year old white woman named Jean.  Jean asked that her real name not be used in order to protect her privacy. 
   
The first issue tested in HWRID theory pertained to contact.  This topic focuses on the interviewees disregard or lack of understanding of racism.  Jean seemed to have an outdated view of what racism is by stating that, Racism is where they try to keep whites and colored people separate (personal communication, March 12, 2010).  Some individuals may lack experience in dealing with minorities and even profess to be color-blind (Sue, 2006).  Jean worked for 40 years at the same furniture company and claims to have treated everyone the same.  She indicated that minorities were permitted to begin shopping in the store in 1968.  She further added, and the colored people were so nice and clean (personal communication, March 12, 2010).  Jean was not questioned about what her expectations of the minority had been as it appeared her conceptions of minorities had been negative.  Some white people rarely see themselves as being biased, superior, or prejudiced.
     
The second issue is disintegration.  This view deals with the conflict discovered in relation to racial dilemmas.  Jean was not questioned in this area as her answers in the previous area seemed to answer them fully.  Individuals in this phase view themselves on a higher rung on the social ladder with regard to race.  Eventually, a distinct conflict arises as one struggles to remain loyal to their race while pretending to be a humanitarian (Sue, 2006).
   
Reintegration is a regression stage in which ones group loyalty and societal influence take over and create an intolerance of minorities.  This third stage supports the white supremacist belief by blaming minorities for their problems and downfalls.  When asked how she feels the minorities have fared since the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, Jean states, well, they wanted equality so we gave it to them.  Now that they have it, they are ruining it for the rest of us.  The schools had to lower the test standards because, they cant keep up and most of their men are in jail and their women keep popping babies out like peas and my tax money pays for their welfare.  I dont think they know how to live like civilized human beings.  They always have their hand out and act like I owe them something because their relatives were slaves.  I didnt own them so I dont owe them a thing (personal communication, March 12, 2010).  It was more than obvious which side of the fence Jean was on.
   
The pseudo-independence phase is brought on by extreme guilt.  During this phase, a white person attempts to understand his or her own being racially, culturally, and sexually (Sue, 2006).  One may try to find similarities with minorities or try to better understand a minority intellectually.  This intellectual exercise only exists with Jean when she donates clothing and canned goods to the local mission for homeless people.  Jean believes that she is helping the
minorities by giving away material items or items needed for survival, while maintaining that she donates these items through her church.
   
In the fifth phase, immersion and emersion, a white individual begins to question what being white actually means.  An inner search for racial understanding and truth begins as well.  Jean did not seem to be at this level as of yet, and it is doubtful that she will make any effort to find any answers.  This phase aids a white person in finding comfort by letting go of the biased and prejudiced beliefs held for so long.  She bases this belief on a biblical reference where God separated all the races at the Tower of Babel.  Jean says, God made us all different for a reason, and if we tamper with that then we will surely go to hell (personal communication, March 12, 2010). 
   
The autonomy issue is the final theory dealt with in HWRID model.  This final area addresses the white individuals ability to view society through a non-racist eye.  The white individual accepts who and what they are outwardly, but he or she is no longer fearful or riddled with feelings of guilt with regard to racism.  The individual faces society determined to rise above any white superiority theory as the theory is now viewed as flawed and unsupported by their own value system.
   
Jean is certainly an interesting individual, but she is also a very troubled individual.  She moves about society as though she were still living in the 1950s.  Her views are now outdated and her belief system is in the minority.  More white individuals should test their own beliefs against Helms White Racial Identity Development model, because they would be surprised to find what lies in the subconscious.  This model asserts and proves that it is very possible to overcome any theories based on race alone, and it proves that no one race is better or superior over another.

It is evidently popular and trendy to find young people interacting and socializing in a coffee house. This is one of the public or private spaces that define certain forms of styles of interactions and behavior. People adopt certain kind of custom and collective behavior patterns that are clearly unique for such a set up and environment.

Literature Reference  Sociability, defined as group behavior is also described as seeking company of others (Flanagan 9). As a concept of social theory, sociability patterns seek to demonstrate what the social networks are made up of and how they are formed together. Socialization is greatly fashioned by social norms of human interactions within a particular environment. Sociability set ups function best, where, groups meet and agree within the confines of what they feel is the best suitable environment for their collective activities match their appropriate behavior. Coffee shops and other public social places appeal to different classes and cultural groups. Norms can be defined as a set of rules that govern a groups beliefs, values and behaviors, they can be the social customs, ways, traditions and conventions appropriate within a given culture (Dubois 1). Norms are the expectations of behavior with a certain cultural setting.

Field work location and Possible Interview Questions It is important to learn why people choose the local modern coffee house to meet and interact and what sort of culture is observable within the coffee house. This field research is set out to gather information through observation and interviews through focused group discussions. The data collected will help answer questions that will clearly demonstrate theories of socialization.

The interview method is finding necessity in most spheres of research. Indeed, the overriding quality about interview is that it brings out data that is broad (Flick 123) as well as direct pointed (Flick 92).
               
Focus to the CCBC research project
A study on students about their views on their education would benefit a lot from employing the interview method. This is because interview possesses qualities rare to find in any other method.
   
An interview for example allows a free interaction between the respondents and the interviewer (Flick 74). In the case of the students, they best cooperate under an atmosphere where they feel their individual views are important and are not just study subjects in a non interactive way. This is why Flick (79) feels a non structured interview can help meet some of the otherwise forgotten social issues in social research. The students for example, when allowed to give independent opinions in a relaxed way, will participate more.
 
An interview will also allow direction by the interviewer to the students. Flick (92) agrees that with the interviewer around and making clarifications, the chances of collecting the real data needed are very high.
   
The flexibility in the usage of the various types of interview can go a long way in ensuring more data is collected as well as that data collected is relevant. In Flick (79), an unstructured interview is proposed as a way of collecting more data.  This, Flick (74) says, is easy to employ to gauge the general feelings. This will be a best target in collecting the general feeling and thoughts of the students in CCBC about their education. The unstructured interview gives them that rare chance to talk more about how they feel. This in the end collects more and relevant data from them.
     
A structured interview on the other hand would be readily applicable in seeking to classify the students i.e. those who are least satisfied from those who are most satisfied with their education. This makes it easy to obtain from the general direction of the discussion, the category of a student. Flick (85), proposes such a model for the highly specific assignments when he talks of interviews which are problem-focused, in this case, education quality is focused.
   
This serves to confirm the ability of interview to tackle the different aspects of the project. Indeed, it is enough evidence that interview method has the necessary methodology to conclusively achieve high results in the proposed study at CCBC colleges.
               
Why interview than other methods
Interview method can achieve a lot compared to any of the other research methods in this particular research. The documents method for example, may present a lot of work to do in this kind of research. It is because such a method will entail coding and synthesizing of information (Flick 277). Since students in three colleges are expected to be many, it is easier to conduct an interview on them than analyze each students records. The records on the students can also be erroneous. The same applies to secondary data which needs much analyzing of information related to individual students. Basing on this case of CCBC, interviews present more relevant data than secondary data will. Secondary data is also more general than interviews. However, this research focuses on individuals. Individualistic views are best tackled using interview (Flick 277).
   
Interview is also best suited to qualitative data compared to experiment method (Flick 15). Since this research is more qualitative (deals with attitude and feeling) than it is quantitative, interview qualifies more in this research than does experiment method.
   
Flick (228) identifies that research observations entails much planning that should be specific. Issues such as when, where, and why ought to be addressed conclusively in both participant observation and scientific observations. Since the study targets students with varied lesson times (since they take differences courses), it is an interview (especially informal interviews) that best captures this quality about students than observation does.
                       
Conclusion
In conclusion then, for this research task on students of CCBC, interview method qualifies as the best option with the capability to produce both valid and reliable data from the students.

Civilization is the change of the human society into modern urban life. It is derived from the Latin word civitas which means city. The story of civilization is different in the various parts of the world. A few thousand years ago, there were no permanent settlements for human beings and were considered uncivilized. Mesopotamia and Egypt are two ancient civilizations with a sharp contrast. Civilization begun in Mesopotamia and went down to the Nile river in Egypt. In my essay, I will compare and contrast the social system of the Egypt and Mesopotamia manner of civilization. (Michael B 1962).
Mesopotamia and Egypt were both farming rich areas that had a permanent rivers water supply that was used for irrigation. This helped to relieve the farmers from the weather tyranny.  As a result the two areas had enough food reserves and some people took other occupations which led to the emerging of cities and thus civilization. (Thomas F 2008)

To understand two things better, the best way is by comparing and contrasting them. This helps to bring out striking contrasts where one society might have led to the shaping of the other. To start with a similarity, both were theocracies, a case where the government was thought to be headed by god and also got backing from a god. There was no distinction between religion and government and so there was no separation line between the church and the state. In Mesopotamia, the king had a duty to build the temples. To signify what a king was supposed to, he could build a very large temple for the people. In Egypt, temple treasuries were used to pay the royal construction workers a case that signified that the temple was an organ of the government. On land issues, where all the land without any untraceable owner was reverted to king Pharaoh this land was administered by the temple priests. (Michael B 1962)

But the king in Mesopotamia was usually a human being with the representation of a god. However, in Egypt, the king was the god for the most part. This was evident through the ceremonies that both the kings conducted.  In Mesopotamia, they had a temple for Marduk, whom they believed to be the creator of the world where the king could annually kneel before his statue and confessed of any neglecting of duties. They believed that the king was the greatest servant of Marduk whom the whole community looked for help and protection from other gods and communities.  For Egypt in contrast, the king was the god Horus, the vegetation god and also the ruler of the land of the dead. (Philip J 2006)

On the after life, death in Mesopotamia meant to cease to exist and also endurance from eternal misery. The Egyptians views were different where the dead were expected to live on a life after death. They used to preserve the dead by mummification they believed the souls of the dead would have some use for their bodies where they painted the eyes on the coffin to enable the dead to see outside. Expecting the next life to be similar with the present, they could bury the dead with all their properties. (Michael B 1962)

Both Mesopotamia and Egypt had a strong civil pyramid construction where in Mesopotamia they were called ziggurats. In contrast, pyramids were used as tombs whereas the ziggurats were used as temples.  The structures were also used for political purposes also. Building of the pyramids meant power and the ability of the king to organize vast labor force. But considering the dead were considered as gods, the tombs were part time residences of a god. The ziggurats were a strong foundation for the temples at the top where god resided. The Marduks ziggurat also functioned as a government center and thus a busy place for the living.

Egyptians were good builders, engineers and architects whereas Mesopotamians were mathematician, physicists, astronomers and medicine. (Philip J 2006)

The Egypt economy was a mixture of the private enterprise and a centralized control, where the king delegated authority to a large group of officials. These included the judges, military commanders, governors and mayors. The highest official was the prime minister who even had more power than the king himself. Egypt had a well detailed law code with the judges to head the lawsuits. (Michael B 1962)
On matters related to justice, the two distinguished between the justice and the injustice. Both societies could praise the king for being a good shepherd for the people. Despite this similarity, there was a contrast however. The Egyptians believed that justice is a countable issue that built into the nature of things. The Mesopotamias did not believe on this, where the administration of justice was entirely practical. The Hammurabi code was the legal and literary classic that contained rulings on cases ranging from commercial law and up to murder.  (Thomas F 2008)

This shows that the Egyptian culture was optimistic whereas the Mesopotamia religion and culture was pessimistic. In this case, Mesopotamians lived in a difficult natural environment and regarded their god with fear and awe. The gods communicated with the human using mysterious languages and for them to understand the divine well, they engaged in various divinations. Mesopotamians interpreted dreams, studied the stars and examined the entrails of slaughtered animals.  The temples were situated in every city. Egypt religion had lesser deities including human, animal, and composite dogs. They even had serpents and dogs that were meant to represent the divine. The temples were numerous and lavish. (Thomas F 2008)

The two societies had different political histories. The ancient Mesopotamia was a land of independent city states that include Babylon and Kish. Most of these city states were at war in history due to conflict between each other. The states were only unified in case of outside invasion where the states were ruled on by the invaders. This however did not last for long. The crowned Mesopotamia contrasts greatly with the calm Egypt where peace prevailed most of the time. The Mesopotamia kings were more often defeated in war than the Egyptian king which makes one to think the Egyptian king as the god. The contrasting political history could be as a result of the physical environment of the two regions where Egypt was harder to invade and thus suffered fewer invasions. Egypt was surrounded by a desert where they also built the tombs making it difficult to cross unlike Mesopotamia. (Philip J 2006)

When the Mesopotamians fell ill, they were set more to reform by magic and incarnations than by surgery or herbal medicine.

The Egyptian kingship was sacred monarchy whereas in Mesopotamia, the king was claimed to have been appointed by the gods.

Considering the gender relation, Egyptian women did not enjoy equal status with the men.  Men had more freedom than women in the ancient societies more so when it came to the legal matters. Similarly, as in Mesopotamia, women in Egypt had the right to trade, judicial rights to testify or sue but a married woman requires a guardian approval. A married woman in Egypt retained complete legal independence where she could even own a property without notifying the husband. Thus Egyptian women had more freedom outside the home. Egyptian writings were developed differently from those of Mesopotamia. They used hieroglyphics that were pictographs for conveying ideas. (Thomas F 2008)

In conclusion, religion and the priests who administered it played a great role in Egyptian culture. This was also the case with the Mesopotamians. The civilization in the two regions had some similarities but the contrast was distinct in their manner of ruling and also in their beliefs. Considering the Egyptians were greatly concerned with life after death, the Mesopotamians were not. However, both regions rested on agrarian underpinnings but Mesopotamia exercised considerable influence on Egypt cultural development through trading where the two societies evolved patterns of beliefs and values that differed significantly.

Time and again, we hear of a many people complaining about the many issues they face at work. One can indeed come up with a good litany of these issues. Issues pertinent to benefits, wages, safety within the workplace, security of tenure, among others, are but representatives of the myriads of identifiable challenges that presently haunt the current state of American labor.

But what may prove to be tellingly peculiar about our labor condition lies in the unfortunate fact that a good majority of Americans have professions which  chiefly  are not in line with their personal orientation or professional leaning. And this, I believe, constitutes the very reason why work in the United States presents itself as a serious social problem.

When a student goes to college, there is a basic presumption that he or she anticipates the profession which suits not only his or her interest, but also his or her competence. Which is why, students are expected to gain a sound grasp of their professional orientation while they are still in school. This is not only to fulfill the need to follow ones desire. There is an essential presumption that profession  personally chosen, as it were, on account of happiness and conviction  provides a basic sense of meaning to people. Work, indeed, gives a sense of purpose, especially when they can cultivate personal esteem and a sense of fulfillment. When work is incongruent with personal fulfillment, there is alienation. And this is problematic.

We hear of journalism graduates ending up as bartenders for lack of better alternatives or students graduating with Education degree eventually working as Sales agents. We may know of Ph.D. holders being underemployed in their profession or Management graduates ending up as Customer service representatives. These are but classic examples of out-of-line professions which are so common in the United States. If these incidences come in millions, then we surely have a big problem to hurdle. For when a profession is unable to generate a respectable level of personal fulfillment, then we create an ocean of disenchanted and seemingly lifeless workforce. This, indeed, is a massive social problem.

Genocide has been associated with such countries as Rwanda in 1994 where the mass killings of thousands of Tutsis and Hutus were performed by Rwandan Government bodies and paramilitary rebels following the assassination of President Habyarimana and also during World War II where Jews were slaughtered by the Nazis. Genocide has displayed lack of human rights. Brysks lecture on Defining Human Rights describes the rights of a person as Life, Liberty and Integrity (4). This paper aims to give the causes and characteristics of genocide, the advantages and limitations of an intervention, options for an international intervention and the course of action to be taken.

In Lemkins own words, the key component to the calculus of genocide was the criminal intent to cripple or destroy a human group permanently. The acts seem to be aimed at groups and individuals who are selected for destruction for belonging to these supposed groups (quoted in Andreopoulos 1). According to Article 2 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide established in 1948, genocide means any of the following acts in whole or in part to a national, ethnical, racial or a religious group

Killing the members of that group.
Inflicting serious bodily or mental harm to the members.
Intentionally inflict on the conditions of life of the group calculated to cause physical destruction of the group.

Enforcing measures that will prevent birth within the group.
Use of force to transfer children of the group to another group (Andreopoulos 230).
In the Darfur region of Sudan, the present ethnic violence sparked as a result of several factors. Totten and Markusen historically link this to ethnic tensions in the area between farmers and herdsmen and Africans and Arabs. They had been latent and volatile but increased in severity due to long standing competition for pasture, agricultural land and water, and ordinary issues that easily turned verbal disputes into violence. They also note that in the 1990s, Darfur was short in water but awash in guns (6). By October 2002, the Janjaweed began their ethnic cleansing by sweeping down on a village just before dawn killing men often by mutilating them, raping women and abducting children. In addition, they burnt the villages, seized livestock and methodically destroyed infrastructure as a scheme for driving out the African population and clearing the land for Arab colonization.

Advantages of International Intervention
Various attempts have been carried out to address the issue of genocide in the form of intervention such as engaging in debates, writing of books and a number of proposals have been put forth describing how and why it happens and how it should be stopped by academic and well known journalists. There are several advantages that have been created by this

Totten and others posit that the late scholar Kuper made comments that challenged the United Nations and they remain relevant today, meaning that many people today are motivated to be the voice of those affected by genocide. Kuper asserted that the United Nations response to genocide was negative in comparison to its performance regarding charges of political mass murder (Totten, et al. 9).

Collective protest of genocidal actions has a high possibility of bearing a positive outcome as compared to protests done by an individual. Totten et.al point out that today, a number of non-governmental organizations are working towards protection of international human rights. They further assert that the key way for these organizations to influence many people is to form groups and supplement each others strengths and act as a single body (9).

Educating on genocide can be a positive step towards preventing the vice in future. For instance, if students are made aware of the causes and ramifications of this issue, they will act morally and not end up taking part in massive killings. The aim is to create awareness of holocaust and genocide as events in human culture so as to dissuade people from engaging themselves in acts of violence.

The Limitations to International Intervention
The intervention process on the issue of genocide has also been known to have several limitations
The organizations that have chosen to take part in the fight against the vice have stumbled into a few problems whereby they constantly struggle to stay in existence but do not have the resources to aid their campaign against the ugly monster that is genocide. According to Totten, et al, these organizations struggle to maintain their existence in large part due to the limited resources at their disposal and as a result, both the focus of their efforts and influences become limited (9).

Another reason for the limited struggle to intervene on the issue of genocide is the fact that most people are shifting their attention in a different direction and therefore this heads towards making the fight to stop it fruitless. Totten et al. explain that As it now stands, most people and organizations dealing with the issue of genocide are putting more time into working on the scholarly examination of genocide (including the issues of prevention and intervention) than the actual prevention of or intervention in genocide (9).

The role of the U.S. on this issue and what should be done
The U.S., being the lone superpower in the post-cold war era has the influence to intervene and address the genocide issue by taking it to a new level. Since it has influenced many other issues in the world, it could be an important tool in protecting international human rights. Therefore, in regards to this situation the following issues should be put into consideration

Mobilization of public awareness and vigilance so as to prevent any recurrence of genocide in the future.

As a measure of further safeguarding, the public should be made aware at an international level so as to enforce the responsibility of everyone in the world based on the information that it is illegal to obey a superior law that violates the rights of a human being.

Challenging the political leaders to take action against the ones who take part in genocide and take measures to stop their influence on people who are likely to take part in genocide.

Enforce economic sanctions in the countries taking part in genocide as a measure that will force the perpetrators to stop the act.

Provision of humanitarian aid to the countries that have been highly affected by the issue of genocide in order to help them recover from the trauma.

In conclusion, even though someone living in the same country is of a different race and skin color or accent, they have their own rights. In Brysks lecture on The rights of a man and the citizen, she refers to the French Revolution idea of human rights in which she extends the bleak idea of citizenship to Liberty which is equated to civil rights, Equality which is equated to social rights and Fraternity which is equated to Solidarity.   Every life has to be preserved and properly protected as we are all one under God.

Establishment of permanent family connections is very important for normal child development in the society.  Children have special health care and developmental needs hence the society strives to see that all childrens emotional, physical and social needs are catered for.  Many parents are always concerned about the well being of their children in case of a tragedy whereby one or two parents die or become disabled after a tragedy.  The family is the basic unit of the society, still an institution nurtures and takes care of children until they become responsible adults.  Personal connections and family bonds are very critical in strengthening the relationship between parentsguardians and children. As a result, children are adversely affected by tragic loss of their parents or close family members (Barth, 1990).  One of the ways through which the physical, mental, emotional and social well being of a child can be guaranteed even after the death of a parents is through the establishment of permanent family connections with other family members or a guardian.  It is important for parents to prepare for such situations by ensuring that a child develops permanent connections with close family members or a guardian who can take care of the child in their absence. Such plans have great benefits to children and the family because they prevent having children raised within the Social Services System.

Discussion
Social services systems enable governments to provide individuals with services that address their specific needs. In many cases, the elderly, children and individuals with disability are given priority in the social services system. When primary care givers are unable to provide childs needs, the child is taken care of in the social services institutions established by state-sponsored and for-profit non-governmental organizations. For example, the death of one or two parents can lead to placement of a child under foster care or childrens home. A tragedy is devastating for children and when it affects close family members they may be traumatized. For example, death of parents as a result of natural disasters, violence, crime, accidents and diseases affects millions of children.  A childs inability to respond appropriately to the tragedy undermines proper development in the child.  Adult caregivers and parents are able to identify problems that children experience and provide them with love and care. This results in grief and sadness when they lose their primary care givers. Tragedies challenge childrens sense of security hence the inability of children to comprehend the events that follow after a tragedy that claims their parents lives leads to hopelessness and loneliness. Some of the ways through which children react to tragedies include experiencing sleeping problems and nightmares, change in eating and toilet habits and exhibiting demanding and aggressive behavior. For school-going children, depression, poor interaction with colleagues, behavioral problems and poor academic performance is witnessed. Although parents or guardians often want to protect a child from the harsh realities brought by tragedies, failing to provide a child with the right assistance only makes the situation more frightening and distressing (Fanshel, Finch, and Grundy, 1990). Children are self-centered and lack of proper assistance to cope with a tragedy may have them assume responsibility for their misfortunes.  For children to have an individual who can take care of them is vital.  This demands that plans that are able to identify these individuals should be created.

Children look upon their guardians or parents to explain tragic situations and when close family members fail to assist a child, the future of that child is put at risk. Using natural support, such as friends and close family members to help a child overcome tragic events is one of the best ways of handling the situation. This is due to the fact that primary connection between a child and the caregiver is very important in providing a child with healthy emotional matrix necessary for development (Werner, 1990). Individuals who are able to sustain a life-long relationship with children play a major role in preventing emotional problems of the children.  The connections increase childs self-esteem and optimism while he she struggles to cope with the loss.  Early intervention is demanded when dealing with tragic cases influencing children, their psychological, mental, emotional, and physical wellbeing is considered to be a priority. One advantage of having children establish life-long connections with family members or a guardian is that these individuals understand a child well enough and can prove solutions to their problems much easier as compared to a stranger.

Making plans to have close family members establish good relations with a child is vital. A relative or guardian who is identified by parents to assist a child should be able to manage the behavioral and emotional needs of a child even during tragic events. The plan should aim at ensuring that proper development of a child is not compromised. In addition, the plan needs to make sure that care provided to a child is consistent with values that promote permanency and family support. A supportive family environment is important for a child to develop skills that are necessary for good social relationships and good personality.  Children need a guardian who can meet hisher needs when parents are no longer able to do so.  Lack of a guardian or relatives to live with forces children to be raised within state social service systems.  For example, in the United States, children who lack guardians after their parents death are placed under foster care or institutions such as children homes.  Some children may be adopted under the provision of the auspices of public child welfare agencies.  Statistics on children under foster care in the US are usually provided by the Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS).  For instance, when children are put under foster care, they live with a certified caregiver until they are ready for adoption, permanently transferred to a guardian or reunited with a biological parent. Reuniting with parents is the best option for children. In some cases, foster care can be provided to a child when the parents are still living.  This occurs when a biological parent or guardian is unable to raise the child.  Foster home licensing requirements in the US vary from state to state and the process of putting a child under foster care is overseen by the Department of Social Services in every state.

When children cannot function well when placed under foster care, they may be placed in residential treatment centers (RTCS) or group homes. Due to the negative impact that growing up within a social services system has on children who are raised within the system, it is always recommended that children remain with their families as much as possible.  Growing within the social services systems has adverse impact on the mental and physical well being of a child.  Young children who are placed under the system in institutions far from home are likely to experience depression as compared to the children living with their families.  For example, in the US, children living under foster care in Washington and Oregon were found to have higher incidence of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) as compared to those raised at home.  Children in the social services system have low self-esteem, become anxious and may become easily troubled.  Those who remain under foster care after reaching 18 years of age may become poor and homeless when they are not placed in permanent families.  Those who leave homes without getting a permanent family are the most affected.  The children may also show disorganized attachment, especially those who may experience psychological and physical neglect.  Losing a primary caregiver is traumatic and this disrupts a childs normal development of secure attachment.  Disorganized attachment may lead to anxiety, depression and dissocialize symptoms.  Neglect and abuse of children under social services system undermines a childs ability to build close and healthy relationships with the family members.  This affects their successful transition into adulthood.

Statistics on children who are raised within the social services system indicate that neglect and abuse of children contributes greatly to placement of children in the system. In England, children are taken care of by the local authority on voluntary basis after an agreement with parents or under the provisions of section 31 of the Children Act 1989. In 2008, an estimated 59,500 children were taken care of by the local authorities (Harker, 2009). Children between age 10 and 15 accounted for the largest number of the looked after population (42 per cent). Children under one year accounted for about 5 per cent of the population. About 71 per cent of the children of children within the social services system were in foster placement. A decrease in number of children placed with parents indicates that many children are growing up in institutions rather than in the family. However, about 39 per cent of the children managed to return to their parents or relatives. Children who are raised within the social services system may have low self-esteem because they feel insecure and lack parental care. Furthermore, they are unable to develop close relations with the family members. This undermines their self confidence and ability to establish long term relationships with their colleagues. Children who feel lonely and isolated become withdrawn hence they are not able to socialize with others. Poor socialization and feelings of neglect affect their normal development and transition to adulthood. In the United States, about 581,000 children were under foster care in 1999. To encourage growing up of children in family institutions, the 1997 Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) demands that children be placed in permanent families or reunited with their families. In 1995, the number of children under foster care was estimated to be 53,902 but this number decreased to 25,878 in 2008. About sixty per cent of the 251,000 children who left foster care in 1999 were reunited with their parents (Foster Care Facts, 2010). Twenty percent of the number began living with a permanent guardian or were adopted. This is important for children because they are reunited with family members or guardians who are in a good position to provide good care of them until they mature into adulthood. According to a 2000 Department of Health and Human Services report, foster children are more likely to have mental problems as compared to other children. In addition, the Child Welfare League of America reported that about 60 per cent of children within the social services system experience mental problems and show higher rates of substance abuse than their colleagues growing up in families. In Canada, the number of children within the social services system has been decreasing over the years but only a small number of children manage to get permanent families (Foster Children Find Adoptive Families through Canadas Waiting Children Program, 2005). For example, the Adoption Council of Canada which handles issues of child in foster care and adoption estimates that of the total number of children eligible for adoption, only a small number of children are adopted. To avoid such situations, it is very important that permanent connections between children and family members or guardians are established so that in case of a tragic event that leads to the loss of a primary caregiver, the child continues to grow within the family set up. Some children under foster care who have maintained connections with members of the extended family find it difficult to become adopted.  Through permanent connections, a child and the family members are able to maintain the basic legal link between the child and the birth family. 

Permanent relationships promote openness and communication that ensure children develop well because being in a family allows children to learn about their beliefs, identity and religious background.  By growing up in a family set up where a child receives good care from a guardian, heshe learns how to become independent and make the right choices. Guardians who have permanent connections with a child tend to understand hisher character and personality better and this makes interaction between them easier.

The relationship between children and parentsguardians is very important for normal child development (Werner and Smith, 1982).  Growing up in the company of close family members even after the loss of a parent assists a child to cope easily with trauma and increases hisher self-confidence.  For instance, in some nations, a foster care program that promotes the establishment of permanent connections between children and family members guardians has been put into place. A good example is the Aspirant Foster Care Program within Californias Foster Care System. The program aims at reuniting children under foster care with their birth families and emphasizes on the importance of permanent connections between children and their family members.  The connections are supported and maintained by the program.  Where reunification of a child with family members fails, connections with other relatives, friends, teachers or individuals the child knows and trust should be supported. It is estimated that about 61 per cent of children who leave Aspirant homes are usually reunified with their families. The support program promotes the development of permanent connections between children and family members by facilitating safe return of children to their families.  When identifying a guardian for a child, involving the child in pointing out individuals who they are close to and trust is important. Identifying individuals who are close to the child, one they can trust and value is vital.  The choice of a guardian needs to be consistent with the interests of a child.  Supporting and maintaining permanent relationships between a child and family members should be one of the aims of child welfare services. Temporary caregivers should not interfere with a childs mail or confidential phone calls with family members with the aim of cutting off the childs connections with other family members. Furthermore, prohibiting a child to visit friends or family members is a violation of a childs rights. For instance, in the US, children can make complains about such violations by contacting the Community Care Licensing officials. Permanent connections are very beneficial to children and family members because they maintain the family bond between a child and the rest of the family. This promotes the development of secure attachments between family members. For example, legislation on child welfare in many countries recommends that if a child cannot live with the parents, seeking ways of having the child live with members of the extended family should be done.  A family provides children with a safe and secure home environment where important family connections and attachments are maintained.  Permanent connects are in almost all cases consistent with the wellbeing of a child (Malucci, Pine and Warsh, 1994).

One of the ways through which parents can ensure that their children are placed with their friends or families in case they die or are unable to take care of the children is through a legal protocol. Permanency is achieved through legal relationship such as guardianship, parental custody and kinship care. For parents who have disabled children who cannot live independently without assistance, a good estate plan is important.  The plan should aim at protecting the child financially and personally. A will is a tool of estate planning through which parents can provide names of the beneficiaries of the property on their behalf.  Naming a guardian in a will allows parents to give a guardian the responsibility to make decisions on behalf on an incapacitated child. Parents can seek the courts appointment for a guardian to make sure that a child is taken care of by a guardian in the event of parents death. The legal process of appointing a guardian allows parents to nominate a guardian in their will. In cases where the court makes decision about a will, court battles between family members and selfish interests of individuals in a childs inheritance are eliminated.  The battles lead to confusion of a child who may end up with a guardian who neglects herhim. By naming a guardian, courts are able to identify an individual who takes care of the children and manages family finances. For minors, parents can have a Declaration of Appointment of a Guardian for Minor Children prepared.

Children have the right to maintain connections with their biological family members and other individuals whom they have developed emotional ties with. Studies that have been conducted in relation to child welfare show that children develop well when raised up in families (Blome, 1997). Whenever possible, there is need for children to remain in families. Efforts to place of a child in institutions outside the family unit should be the last option. Kinship connections ensure that a child is well taken care of, sibling and community connections are preserved and the family is kept together. Even in the social services system, planning should focus on preserving a childs family ties, reuniting the child with the family or encouraging permanency in another family. Permanency planning should begin after the first contact childrens services system makes with a child. Family connections that already exist have great benefits to children. For children who are brought up within the social services system, engaging them in identifying an individual they have had long-term caring relationship with is important. During the process of placing a child in permanency, it is important to contact individuals who have been significant in a childs life. Using case record information, a thorough search for relatives should be done. Making renewed contacts with family members assists children to prepare for permanency. The involvement of adults who will take care of the child in planning for permanency is crucial. By establishing permanent connections and making plans to have a guardian to take care of children makes these children to be proud of their identity. They become self-confident and feel secure because they are assured of family care and love in future. In the US, recognition of the importance of family connections had the Adoption and Safe Families Act (ASFA) of 1997 encourage child permanency to be the primary concern in child welfare decisions.

Conclusion
Social Services System in various countries plays a very important role in catering for the needs of children, the elderly and the disabled. In some cases, when children lose their parents or primary care givers due to death, having their needs fully met becomes a challenge. For children who may lack a guardian, being raised within the social services system is sometimes the best option. This is likely if no member of the family is in a position to provide and take care of the child. However, failing to grow up within the family has negative effects on an individual. Children develop well when they grow up in a family institution. This makes the establishment of permanent connections in the family vital. The family connections ensure that a child is taken care of by family members or a guardian in case heshe losses hisher parents. Permanency and the establishment of family relationships to prevent children from becoming part of the social services systems are vital in proper child development. 

According to Noel, the white race is neither a biological nor a cultural formation it is a strategy for securing to some an advantage in a competitive society.  Yet, white privilege translates into racism, which is a belief system claiming that individuals can be superior to others on the basis of race.  Whereas white privilege is most often discussed with reference to the white-black relations in the United States, in addition to the colonial era around the world, the theory of racism has led to much violence and genocide in the world.  It was racism that led the Nazis to slaughter the Jews.  The theory of racism seems to have been applied everywhere in the world, even though universal values inform us that people who are superior are only those who do good in this world. 
   
I would recommend this course to every friend and policymaker in the world as it helps to strengthen ones faith in universal values.  Just as entire populations can be brainwashed to believe in the theory of racism, it is possible to undo the damage by reflecting on policies and cultures influenced by this theory.  Aiyers writing on the politics of the Americas and the United States, for example, allows the reader to remember that even national boundaries are fluid as all countries of the world took the form of Pangaea at one point, which suggests that nationalism is essentially as meaningless as the theory of racism and can be removed from our minds and policies forever.  The author states that in addition to the ongoing arms buildup, U.S. military intervention abroad has been guided by two separate yet intertwined doctrines humanitarian or democracy-building interventions and low-intensity conflict (Aiyer 241).  In other words, if the foreign policymakers of the United States had not been trained to believe in the rigidity of national boundaries, the world could have been saved from many difficulties. 
   
Thus, this course has trained my mind to question belief systems that are dysfunctional.  The content, organization, presentation and facilitation are perfect for the reason that they help the participant to deeply reflect on the conflicts plaguing the world with a view to resolve them.  Moreover, it has trained my mind to take an unbiased approach to race-related conflicts, regardless of whether I become a teacher or policymaker in future.  In fact, I believe that if this course were introduced in all educational institutions around the world, it would act like a savior for humanity troubled by wars, famines and other disasters day after day.  Of course, it is possible to change the content of the course to globalize it in a way that all cultures of the world may benefit from deep reflection of the issues that affect their entire lives.  In that case, academic institutions around the globe would seek to localize the content with scholarly discussions of racial conflicts in their own regions without excluding foreign policy discussions and global issues from their curriculums.   
   
Regardless of whether my dream to globalize this course is realized, I believe that even a small group of people acquainted with its content can make a big difference.  The course is, indeed, enlightening.  So, even though it does not entirely undo all damages inflicted by the media and racist policymakers, it trains enough minds to question dysfunctional belief systems to eventually resolve conflicts based on the same.

When people talk about the connection between biological sex and gender, they assume that there are only two sides of gender male and female. However, not every culture agrees with this assumption. There have been diverse cultural definitions of third gender, which is one group of people who have, at different times, been repressed, abhorred, celebrated, fully accepted by society or treated as outcasts. Belonging to the third gender means being neither male nor female (Strathern, 1994).

There is conflict about what makes people female or male whether it is the physical appearance of people when born  sex or their own mental reality gender. To the people of third gender, the outcome of the conflicts course is always reflected in the documents their international-travel documents like passports, their rights concerning marriage and parenting, their rights regarding employment, etc.  Western societies place higher value upon peoples anatomy at birth, than on other factors to assign gender to individuals. Thus, people are considered to belong to a particular gender in accordance with their anatomy (Winter, 2003).

This paper focuses on the three examples of the third gender the Berdache or two-spirits in Native North America, the Hijras in India and the Bissu in Indonesia, examining their history, comparing and contrasting them as well as showing how they fit in their respective societies.

Modern Interest in Third Genders
In the last part of the 20th century, the third gender concept gained substantial popularity among activists and anthropologists. Indias hijras, North Americas berdaches, the Arabias xanith,  etc. have all regularly been cited as cases of third genders institutionalization, that have been in existence outside of  modern Western societys limits. A few examples of third gender in society are the North Americas two-spirits or Berdaches (VanWanseele, 2005), Indias Hijras transsexual men who cut off their genitals and live mostly as women (Wilhelm, 2010), and Indonesias Bugis where five genders are recognized by society (Graham, 2001).

The Hijras of India
The Hijras can simply be described as men whose dressing code and conduct is like that of women. They do not have testicles and use feminine pronouns when referring to themselves and expect the same of others (Pettis, 2004).  For instance, they use feminine names and feminine terms among themselves like sister, or auntie.  In public accommodations or public transport, they ask for ladies only seating and demand that in censuses, they be counted as females (Herdt, 2005). Hijras normally live in traditional group homes of five or more disciples or chelas and usually engage in sexual activities with men. To become true hijras, males have to undergo emasculation operations or the removal of testicles, and when a new disciple is accepted into a certain household she gets trained in singing and dancing, as well as various other activities in order to earn a living (Pettis, 2004).

Although hijras classify themselves as neither males nor females, they assume several feminine gender role features by wearing traditional womens outfits, make-up, jewels, and by walking, gesturing and speaking like women. Also, their sexual partners of preference are male and so they become, for men, sexual objects of their desire (Nanda, 2005).

Their presence in India goes many generations back. It is believed that during Ramayanas times, Rama battled with Ravana a demon.  He left India and crossed over to Sri Lanka to bring Sita, his wife, back. But before all this, Ramas father had commanded him to depart from his indigenous city of Ayodhya and enter forest for fourteen years. The entire city went with him for they loved him very much. As they reached the river banks at the forests edge, he said to the people, Ladies and gentlemen, please wipe away your tears and leave. But those who were neither men nor women were not sure what they were supposed to do. Therefore they stayed because Rama had not asked them to leave. For fourteen years, they stayed there until Rama came back from Sri Lanka and found them still there, meditating. So, he blessed them (Nanda, 2003).

Hijras and Religion
Hijras have an accepted status within Hindu mythology and culture. They are mostly mother goddess Bahuchara-matas devotees, for whose sakes they go through emasculation, for which they are believed to have power to bless others with fertility or curse them with infertility. Many Hindu myths vindicate their presence. For instance, one of God Shivas forms is Ardhanarisvara, half woman, half man, who embodies Shiva unified with his female creative power or Shakti. A hijras myth of origin says that Arjun, (the major character in the Mahabharata) disguised himself when he was in exile as a eunuch and served the courts ladies, a time during which he took part in births and weddings. Hijras believe that this legitimizes their involvement in rituals (Nanda, 2003). Also, the Kama Sutra cites hijras a whole chapter is devoted to guidelines on ways of receiving pleasure from eunuchs (Wilhelm, 2004).

However, despite the fact that they are mostly connected with Hinduism, hijras are also accepted within Islam. Numerous references to eunuchs in the royal courts of Indias Muslim rulers are cited (Pettis, 2004). Eunuchs protected the harems ladies during the times of Mughal. The hijras were also allotted land close to the royal palace (Altaf, 2008). Hijras traditions also have elements of Islam for example, their dead are buried rather than cremated (Pettis, 2004).

Hijras Roles
Hijras take part in birth and wedding celebrations. Once they hear of the births of male children or weddings, they show up to offer their blessings by singing, dancing and drumming. The supposed reason for their performing in the events is ritual entreaties for fertility on the bridegrooms or the newborn childs behalf. Their dancing and their behaviors are usually sexually evocative to deliberately upset the partys decorum. The indication is that in case no proper reward is forthcoming, their outrageousness will escalate to extremes. They are usually given gifts in terms of goods and cash, but the hijras curse stingy hosts (Pettis, 2004). Despite all these roles, many of them also engage in prostitution, in order to earn a living, undermining the respect showed to them by the society. This, though, does not cancel out their ritual roles (Nanda, 2003).

Hijras are sometimes likened to transsexuals but considering that most hijras do not try to pass as people of the opposite sex, or take on behaviors that are considered to be unsuitable for average women, the label is somehow tricky. Hindu beliefs leave room for overlapping and contradictory groupings, accommodating gender role flexibility (Nanda, 2003). Today, many hijras live a marginalized, secretive sub-culture in poor urban districts of major cities like Bombay, Ahmedabad and Delhi and also in Southern India.  Modernization threatens to limit chances for them to practice their traditional roles and increase the hijras reliance on prostitution. Also, stereotypes about them are constantly propagated by tabloid headlines. For example, tabloids in South Asia take advantage of the belief that they abduct male children in order to raise their membership and keep narrating lurid images of castration (Pettis, 2004).

Recently, organizations like the Hijra Kalyan Sabha and the Dai Welfare Society have been founded to create HIVAIDS awareness and address human-rights related issues. Some Hijras even became involved in politics. In 2000, some hijras were elected as legislators and town mayors (Pettis, 2004).

Two-spirited PeopleBerdache
The Meaning of Berdache or Two-spirit
Berdaches were mostly biological males who dressed, spoke, and acted, as effeminates. They served men by taking on the roles of females, sometimes even including sexually servicing them. A distinct term from that of males was used when referring to them, although the same term as for male berdaches was sometimes used. Different tribes had different terms for the roles. For instance, the Navajo used the term ndleeh while the Crow used bot. There was a recognized status for females too, who assumed a mans lifestyle they became hunters, chiefs and even warriors (VanWanseele, 2005). Although berdache is commonly used between white gays, the Native Americans find it offensive because it is borrowed from the Persian term which is generally used for a male prostitute. So two-spirit is usually used (Fischer, 1997).

A Brief History
The Two-spirit person is a tradition of natives dating back to some of the first discoveries of artifacts associated with the Natives. There is a lot of proof indicating that the Native people, before they had any contact with the European cultures, believed in three genders existence i.e. male, female as well as the transsexual gender, or what is now referred to as two-spirited person. Two-spirited though quite new, was gotten from the Native languages interpretations which described individuals who showed male as well as female characteristics (VanWanseele, 2005). 

How People Became Berdaches
Throughout history, Native communities believed that being Two-Spirited was a gift. Two-spirited children were taken as blessings on families and tribes. The children would be recognized at infancy, even though some people took on two-spiritedness through dreams and visions (VanWanseele, 2005).

Berdaches Roles
Alternative roles of the genders were one of the most familiar features of societies in North America. If men became berdaches in adulthood, they left the status of warriors behind and took on womens positions. The decision was influenced by the fact that they would no longer be effective warriors. To impose or define roles on community members was unnecessary (VanWanseele, 2005).  Because all individuals performed their particular roles was thought to be more important for the communitys survival. This way of life showed respect for two-spirits, which gave them unlimited relationships, before colonization severed it. Berdaches were consulted on every important matter, and went hunting, and female (meaning biological females) berdaches went to war as they were believed to bring certain graciousness to them (VanWanseele, 2005). In fact, it was this social role that was the mainstay of the two-spirits or berdache existence. It was also believed that berdaches brought good fortune and riches. As a result, they were usually assigned the role of managing resources in their families. Berdaches were also reputed with luck in laying bets while others had the ability to predict the future. Others were seers, which was indeed a valuable skill for war parties when the need to locate enemies arose (VanWanseele, 2005). 

The berdaches were valued community members they belonged to a third gender, were excluded from ordinary limitations of strictly male or female and were free to conduct themselves according to their own desires, to relate romantically and even sexually with partners of the same sex, free from social disgrace (VanWanseele, 2005).

The cultural function of berdaches was not institutionalized homosexuality, or essentially connected with sexual orientation. The berdache institution justified only gender transformation, but did not address homosexuality issues among women, non-cross-dressing homosexuals, etc. (VanWanseele, 2005). Homosexuality was by no means in itself justified, as the berdaches were actually not homosexuals indeed, their gender was changed so as to avoid that designation. Heterosexual men engaged in sexual activities with the male berdaches in the legitimacy of heterosexuality. Male berdaches sexual partners engaged in same sex sexual activities with, but neither their behaviors nor their partners were ever considered homosexual as they socially belonged to different genders.  Homo-gendered sexual activities were unacceptable two males, both recognized as men, never liberally engaged in sexual activities (VanWanseele, 2005).

How Berdaches are viewed by Society
In Western convention, one is assigned one gender according to their anatomy and one is expected to conform to the binary femalemale identity. Native communities, though, have always maintained distinctive beliefs on gender. However, due to the social values of the Western societies and their discrimination towards the Native Americans, colonization as well as assimilation, two-spirits are treated negatively both within and without their Native communities. The two-spirited individuals roles were once respected only for the admiration to be largely destroyed upon colonization (VanWanseele, 2005).

Female berdaches deal with very unique issues resulting from their cultural status, history, and also views as Natives. They emerge from a dark history, where their people were kidnapped, killed and assimilated through centuries. Present day female berdaches cannot be said to be like the Natives before the white mans arrival. Contact with whites, followed by the genocide committed on them, has changed their views regarding sexuality and gender (VanWanseele, 2005).

In spite of the heartening things about acceptance and even honor of past berdaches, todays Female berdaches have to face homophobia from their own people as a result of the imposition of European culture and European religion on the Natives. The whites attempts to wipe out any acceptance and recognition of two-spirited females have always been reported. European missionaries would rebuke sexual contact between two-spirited females and women among the Native people whenever they encountered it, as is evident from the missionaries writings which still exist. Also, Native stories on two-spirited females got transformed from positive to negative, depending on the storys source. Two-spirited females were illustrated positively in the myths about origin and shown as being in charge of wealth and property. In short, they were considered as assets to their families and communities. However, after the Native Americans were driven into reservations, the stories on two-spirited female relations usually ended in tragedy. Recently wider recognition of the third gender has started to come about due to emergence of queer Native Indians vocal groups which dig out for third gender hints from Indian history (VanWanseele, 2005).

Today, the berdache symbolizes a tolerant America of the past, that recognized queers. Many two-spirit practices of ancient times no longer exist today. However, two-spirits of Native origin are going through a rebirth to their inner passions legitimacy, and their cultural as well as spiritual roots. Many, due to the Bureau of Indian Affairs cultural policies have escaped from rejection and isolation by taking on contemporary gay identities and re-linking with their traditions through groups such as the Native Gay and Lesbian Gathering. Although there have been attempts to rekindle the traditional practices of Two-Spirits, in recent times, controversy has rocked the efforts. There is a big gap between Two-Spirits among the Native Americans and the Non-Native Americans, not to mention that many Native Americans who are straight take a well-known post-colonialism attitude they wish that Two-Spirits would disappear (VanWanseele, 2005).

The Bissu of Indonesia
Gender in Indonesia is a more complicated issue. South Sulawesis Bugis recognize five gender identities male-men known as uranai, female-women known as makunrai, calabai, calalai, and bissu. The Calalai have female bodies, they dress, behave and do the work of males and they are sexually-orientated like males. The calabai have male bodies, dress, behave and do the work of females, and they are sexually-orientated like females. As in other places in Indonesia a trans-gendered male like the calabai also performs special roles for example in ceremonies like weddings. Calabai and Calalai identities are believed to have originated from gods (Graham, 2001).

It is believed that the bissu are hermaphrodites they embody male as well as female elements. The bissus dressing code, therefore, underlines both female and male characteristics. Bissus may carry mens badis or knives, and still put on flowers in their hairs like women. Moreover, they have to combine both human and spirit aspects. It is necessary that they are well connected with the world of spirits, to be able to contact the gods. So a part of a bissu has to be spirit or dewata, and to allow them to be spirit-possessed, a part of them has to be human or manusia. Being possessed by the spirits means they can be able to confer blessings. Basically, they are male, female, deity and mortal beings, who are often spirit-possessed to confer blessings (Graham, 2001).

A Brief History
The Bugis are South Sulawesis main ethnic group and have an amazingly rich history, both oral and written. This is elaborated in their belief that this world came into being when gods, from the heavens, looked down and saw a lonely earth, an earth that needed life in it. They therefore sent down one deity, Batara Guru, but his organization of things was poor so they sent two bissu with him. When they reached earth, the bissu made everything bloom, created languages, cultures, customs and all the world needs in order to blossom. Narratives of the origin are also recorded on palm leaves beginning from the 1600s (Graham, 2001).

One example is the story of Sarawigading, who badly wanted to get married to WeCudai, who unfortunately, dwelt on one island in a lake. Sarawigading could not get to island though, but he knew he had to if he was to get to WeCudai, so he decided to build a boat to take him to the island.  But he did not know how to make a boat the trees were very huge and he was not strong enough to fall them. Frustrated, Sarawigading cried all night long. He knew he could never get to WeCudai. But one bissu heard him cry from the heavens. The bissu came down from the heavens and told him not to worry.  He cut down the tree and helped him make a boat. The bissu was able to cut down the tree because hisher strength was of man, woman and heshe was mortal as well as deity. These narratives show that bissus hold a prime position in the Bugis minds. Having such significant roles give the bissu the ability to assert and preserve a respected position in present-day Bugis society (Graham, 2001)

The Bissus Roles
The Bissu perform the role of priests and bestowal of blessings is their major role. They perform blessing rituals before people plant or harvest rice. The bissu also purify marriages and seemingly ironically, they even bless Muslims before their Mecca pilgrimage. This is not ironic as the Bugis have been able to blend pre-Islamic beliefs fittingly with Islam. For example, before the spread of Islam, the Bugis gave honor to a god by the name of PaTotoe, and today many of them believe that Allah is PaTotoe. While they still pray to be spirit-possessed, they always start by seeking Allahs blessing as well as his advice. However, they have changed parts of their customs. For instance, they do not walk on fire as this would contradict Islam (Graham, 2001).

To arouse deities, they first have to perform detailed rituals including chanting and ritual food offering. These deities then come down to possess the bissus. As the bissu wake from their trances, their demeanor entirely different they get irritable as well as aggressive. The changes however are never enough to convince people and in answer to the challenge, they have to do self-stabbing, by taking sacred knives (these knives have been passed down for several bissu generations) and try to pierce their skins with the knives (one such knife is called a kris). They can even go as far as lying down with the knives pressed against their throats. They also aim the knives at their temples andpalms. In case the knives do not pierce their skins, the bissus are said to be impenetrable or kebal, and have therefore proved they are invulnerable, making it certain that they have been powerfully spirit-possessed. The bissus can then go on to give the blessings (Graham, 2001).

How a Person Becomes a Bissu
It is said that the inclination to become a bissu starts when one is born. Most favorably, it is discovered when a baby with ambiguous genitalia, although having ambiguous genitalia does not guarantee that one will be a bissu. Ambiguous genitalia, however, does not have to be clearly visible for one to be allowed to be a bissu, as normative males who go on to become bissus are said to have their female elements inside. By the time children are around twelve and show some close connection with the world of spirits, they are prepared to become bissus. Long ago, such children would be trained to serve in royal courts (Graham, 2001).

These days, children become the apprentices of individual bissus. After many training years, apprentice bissus undergo various tests for them to become bissus, including lying on bamboo rafts in middle-lakes, without drinks or food or moving, for at least three days and nights. If they survive and wake from their trances speaking fluent sacred language of the bissu Bahasa Dewata or Basa Bissu or the gods language they are taken as bissus (Graham, 2001).

How Bugis are Viewed by Society
In Bugis societies, gender multiplicity (rather than gender binarism enforcement) is accepted, the economic potential for the other three more gender identities and significant ritual functions particularly for the bissu join to shape their exceptional gender system. Interestingly, modern changes strengthen the indigenous gender systems of the Bugis. While in the rest of the world, the recent prospects of regional autonomy has brought about more stress on gender binarism, Bugis pride themselves ever more on their gender multiplicity (Graham, 2001).

The Bissus and Religion
Bugis are said to be among the staunchest Muslims in Indonesia. Therefore, the spiritual ideas were highlighted as major gender identity principles. Bugis believe that their fate is designed by Allah and believe that it is Gods plan that they believe to be trans-gendered. So, they hold fast to their natural feelings because they believe the will of God can never be changed (Graham, 2001).

Comparing and Contrasting the Third Genders in the Three Settings
In all the above three settings, the people who belonged to the third genders were respected because of their spiritual knowledge and practical skills. Women berdaches became warriors, chiefs, and hunters. People became third gender through spiritual callings by way of dreams and visions, or even by personal choice. In addition, those people who belong to the third gender in the above settings believe that they are not males trying to be females or females trying to be males.

 In the three settings, third gendered people are given spiritual roles and are incorporated in religious activities as crucial participants. The bissu are priests, they purify marriages and also bless Muslims before their Mecca pilgrimage. Hijras have an accepted status within Hindu mythology and culture most are mother goddess Bahuchara-matas devotees. Numerous references to eunuchs in the royal courts of Indias Muslim rulers are cited. Eunuchs protected the harems ladies during the times of Mughal showing that they are also accepted by Muslims. Hijras take part in birth and wedding celebrations in order to bless the occasions.

In all the settings, religion favors the idea of third gender, as the berdache, the bissu and the hijra all play spiritual roles by performing religious rituals. The people in the third gender were believed to have special connection with deities or gods. That is why they got a lot of respect from the rest of the society members. Many Hindu myths vindicate hijras presence. For instance, one of god Shivas forms is Ardhanarisvara, half woman, half man, who embodies Shiva unified with his female creative power or Shakti. A hijras myth of origin says that Arjun, (the major character in the Mahabharata) when he was in exile disguised himself as a eunuch and served the courts ladies, a time during which he took part in births and weddings. Hijras believe that this legitimizes their involvement in rituals. The Kama Sutra cites hijras a whole chapter is devoted to guidelines on ways of receiving pleasure from eunuchs. Berdaches were believed to have supernatural powers because they were believed to have connections with the spirit world. Some are believed to have been seers, which was indeed a valuable skill for war parties when the need to locate enemies arose.

Most third gendered people were seen as a blessing in their families and their communities. In most of the communities in the above settings, the third gender was officially recognized, that is why the community did not banish them from among them, but rather looked upon them for guidance in spiritual matters, wars, as well as other celebrations. Two-spirited children were taken as blessings on families and tribes.

People in all the three settings engage in sexual activities with people of the same biological sex though are not thought to be homosexuals, because they are believed to belong to different genders. Male berdaches engaged in sexual activities with those of their biological sex, but neither their behaviors nor their partners were ever taken as homosexual as they socially belonged to different genders. Also, Hijras usually engage in sexual activities with men.

Third gender origins in all the above settings are included in their myths on origins. Native female berdaches who engaged in sexual activities with women were illustrated positively in the myths about origin and shown as being in charge of wealth and property. For the Bugis of Indonesia, bissus were the ones who helped a deity make the world flourish. Hijras are said to have served in rulers courts in ancient times. All the three settings show how similarly third genders are viewed by society. The bissu, the berdache and the hijra all show societies which though carrying some form of discrimination,  show considerable tolerance towards those who are seen to fall outside of female or male gender confines.

Differences
While for a male to become a true hijra he has to be castrated, the case is different for the bissu and the berdache. For the bissu and the berdache, those who were believed to belong to the third gender mostly only needed to take on roles other than those defined for their biological sex without undergoing castration or genital mutilation. Moreover, while hijras and bissus continue to exist in large populations, the same cannot be said of the berdaches, who following European colonization and eventual assimilation, much of their customs and traditions have been repressed and some even disappeared.
Most of the hijras and bissus are males who assume the roles of females. Hijras classify themselves as females and assume several feminine gender role features by wearing womens dresses and styling their hairs like womens among others.  It is believed that the bissu are hermaphrodites they embody male as well as female elements. Thus, their dressing code, underlines both female and male characteristics. Bissus may also carry mens badis or knives, and still put on flowers in their hairs like women. The berdaches are males who take on the roles of females, or females who take on the roles of males, for example males sexually service men and female berdaches take on mens roles by becoming warriors, chiefs, etc.

The berdache, the bissu, and the hijra, can be said to be a completely social concept and takes on more social functions other than those allocated to their sexes. Berdache children would be recognized at infancy, even though some people took on two-spiritedness through dreams and visions. For berdaches, different tribes had different terms for the roles. For instance the Navajo used the term ndleeh. There was a recognized status for females too, who assumed a mans lifestyle by becoming hunters, chiefs and even warriors. Bugis recognize five gender identities including the bissu. In Bugi societies, gender multiplicity (rather than gender binarism enforcement) is accepted while in the rest of the world the recent prospects of regional autonomy has brought about more stress on gender binarism. Bugis pride themselves even more on their gender multiplicity. This cannot be said to be the case with berdaches they are discriminated against by the Western societies and are treated negatively both within and without their Native communities.

Discussion and Conclusion
The greatest worth of the third gender concept is both heuristic and theoretical. On one hand, it enables us to see the historical and cultural role coherency that has been treated isolatively until recently. Third gender defers the supposition that hetero-binarism is a universal thing.  Third gender also enables people pass another restricting definition, which states that the differences between male, female and third gender is solely sexual (Roscoe, 1995).

Also religion is important in the promotion of sexuality as an equality expression affirmation, caring, mutual respect, and love. The religions perspectives on sexuality as well as its response to the society are in its help to shape peoples views on gender and sexuality (Ojo, 2005). In Western societies sex and gender are often confused, with sex being used as the determinant of gender, a view that greatly contrasts with other societies for example in Asia.

The concept of third gender also allows people to understand diversity of cultures and take away the idea that gender is confined to female or male and nothing more. By understanding other cultures views on gender and sexuality, people are able to revisit their own beliefs about the same.

Though the three examples of the third gender the berdache or two-sprits in Native North America, the Hijras in India and the Bissu in Indonesia have several differences it is clear that they have much more in common.

Human rights cover the whole scope of human nature. Everything regarding the well being of human beings is referred to their rights. Policies both domestic and international seek to address human rights. Debates concerning genocide attempts, impunity and entrenchment of good laws are catalyzed by the notion of human rights. It is a normative drive that human beings cannot brush off as there exists a great relationship between human nature and human rights. This study shall look in depth the nature of human rights and their relationship to human nature, an understanding of a civil society. Genocide case especially in Rwanda and the role of United Nations played in it.

Q1.
Civil society provides essential balance to the rising power of national states and market economies. It consists of all the social groups and social relationships in which we are embedded families, communities, religious organizations, ethnic groups, schools, neighborhoods, sports teams, and voluntary associations, professional or occupational associations like the Eastern Sociological Society, political clubs, civic groups, and so forth. These nodes of civil society are seedbeds for the social values, norms, and practices that are essential to the operation of both states and markets as well as to the general functioning of social life (Persell, 1994). She also notes that in United States the economy and the state are squeezing the civil society, with negative consequences. The most key aspect of the society that is been greatly squeezed is religion. The Culture of Disbelief, Stephen Carter (1993) notes that liberal political philosophy and

The state are trivializing religious beliefs, treating them as little more than a hobby or a personal preference. Religion tenets are been made to conform to ordinary events. In other words its credibility is asserted from the concrete evidence and not for what religion is. In America, most workers feel a tremendous time squeeze. The values found in the traditional set of beliefs are also undermined. Social activities are minimal as commercial activities supersede them.

From the above viewpoint, squeezing occurs when the society is not able to truck its values, live its full potential and flexibility in all spheres of life. The state is downplaying all these important factors and putting in place its own measures. Squeezing can be regarded as an alienation of the self. Civil society, if not allowed growing and realizing its potential is said to squeeze. For example, any attempt to endanger it through colonial or foreign interference.

Human rights help us shape our nature as human beings. Human rights are, literally, the rights that one has simply because one is a human being. Just as how legal rights derive from the laws so do human rights derive from human nature. Human beings give rise to rights, in other words, they are the authors of their rights. Animals cannot give rise to their rights because they are not rational. Only human beings can discern what is good or bad. It is for this reason that animals acts cannot be considered as moral or immoral but neutral. Human rights define those things needed for a life worthy of a human being. Based on a moral vision of human nature, human rights set the limits and requirements of social (especially state) action. But the state and society, guided by human rights, play a major role in realizing that nature.

 When human rights claims bring legal and political practice into line with their demands, they create the type of person posited in that moral vision. Evil power is that which violates the interests and rights of a state. Rights determine the relationship humans have towards each other. For example, a parent whose duty is to educate her children accords to the child the right to education. In particular, the child enjoys a right to be educated by her parents. Human nature is regarded as moral and this is entrenched on their rights. For example, the right to life is an inalienable right. It is immoral to kill a human being.
The right to life makes killing immoral. Human rights therefore become the most determining factor in entrenchment of laws that govern any state. The whole human nature of a person, therefore, is understood, valued and elevated because of the rights that are intrinsic. Even in the social dimension, any set up must conform to the human rights. The political set up must also conform to the nature of human rights. This is the reason why the populace will mobilize demonstrations whenever they feel that their rights have been violated. Laws are put in place to ensure that human rights for all are safeguarded. Human beings cannot live worthy lives if their rights are not observed. The moment a human right is violated there you will find an oppressed human being.

Q2.
Civil society is defined as an aggregate of institutions whose members are engaged primarily in a complex of non-state activities-economic and cultural production, voluntary associations, and household life-and who in this way preserve and transform their identity by exercising all sorts of pressures or controls upon state institutions (Sachikonye, 1995).  In light of the understanding of what a civil society is United Nations can be regarded as civil society since its main aim is to promote the common good of all nations only that it bears an international face. Though a global institution it has the same objectives as those of a civil society in any given country.

Notwithstanding the modern understanding of civil society traditional Africa had its unique approach which defined the civil society in their time. This has changed tremendously for the better. However, it is believed that in the African quest to shape their own destiny on the formation of civil societies a lot of influence has emanated from the Western world. Some Western social scientists expect African civil society to develop along the same lines that civil societies in Western liberal democracies have developed (1998306). Civic groups and organizations existed throughout Africa before the dawn of colonial rule. The colonizers destroyed these groups for fear of being overthrown.   Most African countries were under a colonial government. Civic groups and organizations existed throughout Africa before the dawn of colonial rule.

The colonizers destroyed these groups for fear of being overthrown. In most Sub-Saharan Africa formation civic groups were discouraged which could have participated in the political process in their counties. Only those civic groups whose membership comprised the white settlers and the colonists themselves took an active part in politics.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights includes a short but substantial list of rights that has been further elaborated, with modest additions, in a variety of later treaties, most notably the 1966 International Human Rights Covenants. They are as follows ( Universal) rightsentitlementsare the mechanism for implementing such values as nondiscrimination and an adequate standard of living. All the rights in the Universal Declaration and the Covenants, with the exception of self-determination of peoples, are rights of individuals, not corporate entities. Internationally recognized human rights are treated as an interdependent and indivisible whole, rather than as a menu from which one may freely select (or choose not to select). Although these are universal rights, held equally by all human beings everywhere, states have near exclusive responsibility to implement them for their own nationals.
The state is a mechanism to give legal form and protection to private property rights. The politics of economics and social rights has emphasized state provision where market and family mechanisms fail to ensure enjoyment of these rights. The state must also include protecting individuals against abuses by other individuals and private groups. The classic right to personal security, for example, is about safety against physical assaults by private actors, not just attacks by agents of the state. The state, although needing to be tamed, is in the contemporary world the principal institution we rely on to tame social forces no less dangerous to the rights, interests, and dignity of individuals, families, and communities.

Q3.
Genocide is the organized attempt to destroy systematically a politically or ethnically defined group (Wood, 2001). Rwandas genocide, like Bosnias, has deep roots in politically fueled inter-ethnic distrust and fear (Prunier 1995). The suspicious deaths of the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi in April 1994 triggered a sudden and massive bloodletting, primarily by Hutus against Tutsis. Lemkin coined the term genocide to describe the Nazi-led extermination of Jews. He argued that genocide is not only a war crime, but rather a more threatening crime against humanity itself (Destexhe, 1994). Rwanda and Bosnia bear a historical fact on genocide acts which provoked the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to put in place extraordinary legal mechanisms to prosecute war criminals involved. UN members held the opinion that mass atrocities are a geopolitical threat to the UNs fundamental mission to preserve inter-national peace and stability. In a bid to ensure peace and stability among nations a resolution was passed calling for the creation of an international tribunal those responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law. This was in relation to the killings that occurred in former Yugoslavia since 1991. The International Criminal Tribunal was established by the United Nations Security

Council (UNSC) allows the UN to intrude on sovereignty rights to safeguard regional peace and security. In the Rwandan case, the UNSC established the Inter-national Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) whose aim was to prosecute those responsible for genocide and other violations of international humanitarian law.  It was approximated that 800000 Rwandans had become refugees under UN patronage. UN peacekeepers were in Rwanda when the massacres began. UN considered not sending more peacekeepers but to reduce their presence and as result standing aside as more massacres took place.

Homicide occurs when killings are advanced to a particular race or group of people. It is culminates in mass murder. Demicide is when one kills his or ones allies, for example, ones family and eventually killing oneself. For example, a father kills his wife and children and then takes his own life. It is more inclined to domestic matters when one kills to attain a certain objective, for example, one may kill a family member to acquire wealth. Just as genocide inflicts suffering to the victims so does domicide.

Q4.
Impunity means, literally, freedom from punishment. To act with impunity means to act with the knowledge that one is above the law. In Latin America, impunity has come to have a specific meaning in political and human rights terms it means that acts of repression and abuse of power by the state against its citizens are shielded from judgment or accountability before national law (McSherry, 1992). When a people, regardless of the positions they hold in the society act contrary to the rule of law, is accused of impunity. Impunity manifests itself especially when laws as far as legality is concerned are overlooked.

The national security state is defined here as a type of authoritarian state, associated with a dependent and internationalized capitalist model of development, which was governed directly by the military as an institution (McSherry, 1992). The military in the context of national security state dictated on the dynamics of the society and used its objectives to chat the destiny of the society. Anti-communism was the order of the day for the national security state. It was against any sector that enjoyed popularity both politically and economically and ensured that it is not a threat to the status quo. The national security states utilized the dual mechanisms of economic restructuring and coercion to terrorize and exclude the subordinate classes, demobilize and destroy organized labor and preserve the system from challenges (McSherry, 1992).

After the Cuban revolution and its challenge to the hegemony of capitalism in the hemisphere, a series of coups brought military regimes-national security states-to power throughout Latin America. Their societies suffered, through the widespread use of state terror, gross human rights
violations of unprecedented proportions from the 1960s through the 1980s.In country after country, a major obstacle to unfolding democratization processes has been the military, or significant factions within the military institution. The military regimes often established laws giving the armed forces extraordinary powers, andor appointed civilian allies to government positions, thus attempting to institutionalize permanently their power in anticipation of the eventual transition to civilian rule. At the moment of relinquishing government power, the major demand of the military in virtually all states was for guarantees against accountability-widely called impunity in the region-for human rights crimes, a demand that implicitly places the military above the law (McSherry, 1992). Impunity empowers the military and they act in total disregard of the rule of law and civilian authority. In Chile, Pinochets national security state passed a self-amnesty law in 1978 which forgot all crimes committed by the military after September 11, 1973-the day of the coup against (McSherry, 1992)

Impunity occurs when legality is undermined. This is a lot of legal injustices occur to individuals. Due process of the law is undermined and in such a circumstance guilty offenders are left to go scot free. Rural homicide was on the rise over the 1990s as the result of the disruption of PRI patronage-client networks caused by rising electro competition. Before 1994, electoral courts served at the mercy of the status quo authority. They could not punish offenders. In the specific states where the PRD most contested the elections, such as in Michoacn and where the most PRD militants (27) were killed by 1994, postelectoral legal complaints during the period between 1989 and 1992 were handled by the Michoacn Electoral Commission, an arm of the PRI-controlled state executive (Schatz  2008265).
This was also the pattern in the states of Guerrero, Hidalgo, and Puebla where a number of the political murders of PRD members also occurred and where state PRI-controlled executive electoral commissions were unable to quell electorally related violence. Nor were those institutions set up to curb state crime in general able to punish offenders (Schatz2008266).

The realist rejects a concern for international human rights because foreign policy ought to be about the national interest defined in terms of power. The statist considers an active concern for the human rights practices till others states inconsistent with the fundamental principle of state sovereignty. The pluralist views international human rights policies as moral imperialism.   For realists, foreign policy must safeguard and promote the national interest and according to the power system of the state. Human rights should be used as instruments to promote the national interest and inculcating them into foreign policy would amount to errors. For the statists, the fact that a state is sovereign there should be noninterference in its internal matters. Human rights, therefore, must be excluded from the foreign policy as all matters regarding this phenomenon should be left to the sole discretion of the state. The state must be autonomous in all its decision process regardless of the demands posed by the foreign policy. Internationality must never replace sovereignty of any state. The pluralists are of the same opinion that domestic jurisdiction must always surpass the international one. In the case of human rights any foreign policy should conform to the professed rights domestically.

Conclusion
Sovereignty is a serious issue for most nations. There are is no nation that is ready to forego its
sovereignty and hard reactions evolve whenever a particular state feels threatened either by foreign policies or foreign countries. The struggle for independence has sovereignty as it major fruit. This is the a possible reason why it is not easy for most most countries to conform to foreign standing orders, for example, human rights. Sovereignty brings with itself pluralism or relativism. Major issues such as amnesty continue to crop up in many countries across the board and I believe that it is associated with the armed forces because of the close relationship with the executive body of the government. The role of the United Nations should be strengthened and able to punish law breakers who walk scot free to corrupted legal systems of a given country. It should serve as a watch dog against bad laws.