Sociology

Bipolar disorder is a neurological disorder, which is also called manic depression. It is one of the most intense disorders with regards to the physical and emotional pain cause to the patient. It affects the lives and daily activities of the patients suffering from it by causing extreme shifts in moods, energy and routine functioning. Patients of this disorder suffer from moments of depression and mania that can last over a long period of time, even months at end. It usually manifests itself in late adolescence but can also begin as late as a person in forties or fifties. Health experts believe genetics play a very significant role in determining which people have higher chances of experiencing bipolar disorder however it is also noted that it is not possible to predict who is going to develop the disorder by the help of analyzing gene data  (Bipolar Disorder Fact Sheet, 2003). Bipolar disorder due to its nature and multitude of symptoms is very hard to diagnose correctly. In many cases the symptoms appear as indicating towards a separate problem and doctors are unable to perceive the whole picture. This results in seven out of ten people suffering from bipolar disorder receiving at least one misdiagnosis in their lives (Bipolar Disorder Fact Sheet, 2003). This further causes complexity and more pain for the patients of this disease as they suffer for long periods of time before being properly diagnosed and treated accordingly.

Unfortunately for all the medical advancements and discoveries the world has gone through and achieved in the last few years we have still been unable to find a cure for bipolar disorder. Therefore bipolar disorder is a serious issue which affects up to approximately 5.7 million people in the US alone every year. That amounts to 2.6  of the American population aged 18years or older being affected by the disorder every year. (Bipolar Disorder Statistics, 2006). One of the leading causes of disability, Bipolar disorder makes the patients unable to function and carry out and maintain long term relationships or remain employed for a long period of time. Patients who live on benefits and social security provided with the government put additional burden on the government for providing and covering substantial costs for the treatment of the disorder. These costs when accumulated can amount to a significant value for an individual person let alone a number of patients. Additionally this disorder causes emotional and physical trauma on both the patients and any other members of friends or family. The affects of this can be further complicated and intensified if the patient affected is young. This is often translated into reality as the median ages of the patients who first manifest the symptoms of the disease are 25. Patients suffering from intense physical and emotional trauma also often commit suicide. Taking all these elements into consideration bipolar disorder is a serious cause of concern for any nation let alone the US and therefore the whole system and its subsystems should come together and devise ways to battle this disorder and introduce measures and initiatives that support the patients and make their lives more manageable.

Background
Bipolar disorder belongs to a category of mood disorders that consist of abnormal spikes and depressions in moods of the patient.  These abnormal moods are commonly referred as mania. Patients experiencing this disorder also suffer from episodes of depression as well. Other times they experience mixed episodes which consist of elements of both mania and depression at the same time (Monica Ramirez, 2006). However under normal circumstances these periods are separated by a time period of normality, with regards to moods. Unfortunately there have been cases where a patient experiences rapid cycling. Rapid cycling occurs when depression and mania rapidly alternate. Extreme manic episodes have been known to result in delusions, hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms.  After considerable study and research health experts have been able to identify bipolar disorder that lie over a spectrum, known as the bipolar spectrum. This spectrum includes Bipolar I, Bipolar II, Cyclothymia and other types based on the severity of the symptoms.

A person is said to have Bipolar I disorder when heshe experiences manic or mixed episodes for at least seven days. These episodes are so severe in their nature and intensity that the patient needs immediate hospital care. The patient may also experience depression. Mania and depression are considered to be symptoms of the bipolar disorder when they depict a significant change from the person normal behavioral and mood pattern. Bipolar II disorder consists of episodes of depressions and episodes of hypomania (not the high intensity manic episodes) being faced by the patient alternatively. Cyclothymia is a form of Bipolar disorder that is lesser in intensity and milder than Bipolar I and Bipolar II disorders. Patients with Cyclothymia experience mild forms of depressions and hypomania for a period of two years. A patient is diagnosed to have Bipolar Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, when the symptoms heshe is displaying are clearly different from the individuals normal behavioral patterns and the symptoms being displayed do not meet the diagnostic requirements for either Bipolar I or Bipolar II Disorder (National Institute of Mental Health, 2009)

Variation in the human behavior regarding moods, energy levels and emotional states has always been a part of the human condition since the beginning. Some of the critical terms used in describing, recording and diagnosing the bipolar disorder, such as melancholia and mania originate Ancient Greek language. However the term Bipolar Disorder is fairly recent and points to the high and low ends of mood spectrum change (poles). Emil Kraepelin, a German psychiatrist is credited with the creation of the term manic-depressive illness which he used to describe all kinds of mood disorders in the late nineteenth century. However another German psychiatrist, Karl Leonhard was responsible for creating a distinction and coining the terms unipolar disorder and bipolar disorder in 1957.

Bipolar disorder is a serious medical concern for people all over the world. In the US alone it affects 5.7 million people each year (Bipolar Disorder Statistics, 2006). Whats even more worrying about this is the fact that more and more people are experiencing this disorder. In a study conducted by Blader and Carlson (2007) to analyze and asses the trend in hospitalization of patients having the disorder. Basing their study on primary psychiatric diagnosis which they collected from the annual National Hospital Discharge Survey (NHDS) for data from 1996 through 2004, Blader and Carlson were alarmed at finding out significant increase in children and adolescents discharge rates with regards to bipolar disorder. The results of such findings meant that for children who had a primary diagnosis of bipolar disorder, the population adjusted rate of hospital discharges from 1.3 per 10,000 US children in 1996 to 7.3 per 10,000 US children in 2006. In adolescents however this rate increased by four times (Current Understanding in the Development of Bipolar Disorder in Pediatric Patients, 2008). This is further graphically described in the figure below

A study based on the data from the National Epidemiological Catchment Area in the US, yielded a 0.8 lifetime prevalence rate for bipolar disorder I and 0.5 lifetime prevalence rate of bipolar disorder II and Cyclothymia. One or more than one symptoms were also included in this study as sub threshold diagnostic criteria. This study finally concluded that a total tally of 6.4 people have a disorder lying in the bipolar spectrum (Judd  Akiskal, 2003). However a more recent analysis and study based on the US National Comorbidity Survey resulted in the conclusion that 1.1 met the lifetime prevalence for bipolar II, 1 for bipolar I and 2.4 for sub threshold symptoms. However there are limitation and variations in these finding s as most often than not prevalence studies are carried out by lay persons who have limited knowledge about the subject and who follow preplanned and structured interview patterns. Additionally the results are also influenced whether a categorical or spectrum approach is used. Therefore concern regarding both over and under diagnosis have surfaced recently (Phelps, 2006). The figure below graphically depicts the disability adjusted life year for patients of bipolar disorder.

As doctors and psychiatrist became more aware of this disorder and the medication and treatments methodologies that are most effective, they have started increasing the use of psychotropic medications for the treatment of this disorder. Madaan and Chang developed an algorithm that shows the flow of treatment of bipolar patients. This work was based on the previous study conducted by Kowatch and his colleagues.

In their study Maadan and Chang proposed that a patient must continue therapy for at least 6-8 weeks with the optimal dosage of the current medication heshe is using, before shifting to a new treatment and medication methodology or employing a combination of a host of different treatment options. However in clinical practice it is very common to treat bipolar disorder with a combination of medications and treatment options. This is applicable to the treatment of adults, children and adolescents. According to a study a mean of 3.4 medications for patients for the treatment of bipolar disorder was found out (Current Understanding in the Development of Bipolar Disorder in Pediatric Patients, 2008). 

Due to such complicated and varied treatments and medications involved in addition to the intensive psychological care and hospitalization, bipolar disease puts an increasing monetary burden on the patients, their family and friends and the government itself as well. In the US alone it costs 7.6 Billion USD in direct healthcare costs each year for the treatment and medication of Bipolar disorder. If we look at it from the patients perspective then lifetime consumer costs amount to 12000USD for patients who experience a single manic episode, for people who undergo a multitude of manic episodes it costs up to 600,000USD in lifetime costs (Bipolar Disorder Fact Sheet, 2003). Diagnosis of the disorder due to its complexity and multitude of symptoms is based on observed behaviour and self reported incidents by the patients.  Unfortunately the disorder tends to get worse if not treated. Over time if a person is not treated for the disorder heshe may experience more intense symptoms appearing more frequently as compared to the symptoms which came at the beginning of the disorder. Such delays in diagnosis and treatment cause the patient to suffer from personal, emotional, social and work related problems. This is due to the sudden and unexpected alteration in behaviour which causes disruption and distress. According to a study almost 50 of people who receive a delayed diagnosis or are misdiagnosis of bipolar disorder, abuse drugs and alcohol (Bipolar Disorder Fact Sheet, 2003). When a person experiences a depressive episode it increases the chances of suicide as well. This is corroborated by a study carried out by the National institute of Mental Health which concludes that Bipolar disorder results in 9.2 years in life reduction as one in five people having the disorder commit suicide (Bipolar Disorder Statistics, 2006).

Plan of Action
Awareness and lack of knowledge are the two main issues that need to be addressed in order to increase the societys knowledge, tolerance and understanding of bipolar disorder and to make lives more manageable and comfortable for the patients of the disorder. People who are the closest to the patients need to be educated and need to be aware of the tragedies and the emotional and physical stress the patients of the disorder are going through. They should be made to understand as to how to deal with such problems and become more tolerant to the condition of the patient. They should act a pillar of support, because effective support for bipolar disorder starts at home. Patients need people who are tolerant and understand their condition so that they can get some support and love and understanding. If a patient is not surrounded by a close circle of loving friends and family, then isolation and loneliness can set in which can cause depression. Therefore regular contact in itself is therapeutic for bipolar disorder patients. Additionally friends and family and society as a whole should pay greater attention to stop the disorder from passing on the next generation. Careful and comprehensive physical and psychological assessment of your spouse before getting married can also lead to children being born that have a reduced risk of experiencing this disorder.  If we look at it from the patients perspective then heshe should understand and grasp some key elements that will go a long way in the treatment of this disorder. First of all hope and the belief that you can manage your symptoms and the disorder as a whole is essential for recovery. Good symptom management often leads to long periods of normality and wellness therefore patients should never lose hope. Personal responsibility is another key element. The patient should actively participate in his or her treatment. It is up to the patient to take action towards the stability of his or her moods. This includes activities like taking your prescribed medication, asking and taking medical help from professionals and keeping appointments with the health care providers. The patient needs to become a self advocate so that he or she can demand the treatment and medication that is needed to make the patients life more manageable and better. Education is another key element. The patient should be knowledgeable about his disorder, its symptoms and his or her condition. If a patient has sufficient knowledge about the bipolar disorder he or she will be better placed to make more accurate and informed decisions about all the aspects of his life and hisher treatment. As discussed earlier, effective recovery and wellness for patients of bipolar disorder require more than just a solo effort, support from close friends and family members is essential for increasing stability, quality and manageability of the life of the patient.

All of these efforts need initiatives to increase knowledge and understanding of the disorder. As the disorder manifest itself in children quite often, we could design a nationwide bipolar disorder awareness campaign, in which a few selected professional carry out certain informative sessions with children, providing them of information regarding the disorder and how to manage the symptoms. For each diagnosed and recognized patient of bipolar disorder, whether they be children or adult, a group of people must be assigned to them as community service so that they can provide support and love to the patient. The patient while benefitting from the care could take advantage s of cultivating new social relationships. Education programs through infomercials, pamphlets or in some cases house visits could also be provided to women who are pregnant so they fully understand how to deal with such a disorder if it manifests itself in their child. The government by mandate should also assign special days off for people with this disorder so that they can carry on with their professional lives while being able to manage their symptoms by relieving their stress in rougher periods of manic or depressive episodes. The government also needs to take a central role in our fight with this order more grants should be given to researchers that are carrying out promising studies on this disorder, more specialized facilities should be created for the treatment and medications of this disorder. Doctors and psychiatrist should also be given education and access to use a central database consisting of records and family history of all bipolar disorder patients so that they can easily draw upon the data to correctly diagnose the disorder in children of the people who are affected by this disorder.

Measure Success
In order to measure our success of our plan of action the two elements necessary are the life prevalence rate of the bipolar disorder and the reduction in the life time amount of money spent in the treatment and medication of the disorder. If our plan of action can bring about a 10 improvement in both our measures of success over a period of five years, we would consider the plan of action a success. Further improvement could be brought by learning and drawing upon the knowledge gathered by the help of the activities conducted in our plan of action. The best way to find information regarding both the elements that we have considered as our measures off success is to conduct detail surveys based on authentic and well organized and up to date databases and authentic information gathering institutes such as the national institute of mental health. When we have collected the data for over a period of five years we could present our research findings and the effectiveness of our plan of action to a proper and concerned audience by way of publishing a detailed article in a credible journal, so that after its peer reviewed it can gain further credibility and possibly adapted in other areas of the world if proved successful. Special presentation could also be designed and developed to be given to special audience s like the ministry of health so that they can grasp the essential of the plan of action and its effectiveness in reducing the life prevalence rate and the money spent throughout the life of a patient of the disorder.

Monitor
After we have identified our measures of success and developed our plan of action it is essential that we continue to measure the patients of the disorder and their symptoms in order to measure and analyze the effectiveness of our plan of action. In this case we could carry out periodic surveys consisting of both the psychiatrist and the patients themselves in order to collect relevant data that can be monitor regarding both the measures of our success. This could consist of medical records, financial details of the patients regarding monetary expenditure on treatment and medication of the bipolar disorder.

Conclusion
If the plan of action that I have developed is implemented effectively and properly it would go a long way in reducing the number of people that are undergoing the disorder. It would reduce the monetary pressure on both the patient and the government, freeing up essential funds that could be used to carry out further study the disorder or develop medication or treatment methods that make the lives of the patients more manageable and comfortable. Victims will have more support and understanding from their loved ones as well as the society as a whole reducing the number of suicides in such patients and the social and emotional trauma they face. Quality of life of such patients will improve significantly and they could enjoy a more productive life. Having a mentally and physically population is an asset for any country in the world let alone the US. The youth and children are the leaders of the world of tomorrow, having a healthy youth is positive for both the culture and economy of the US of A.  if the plan of action yields success, we would be able to reduce the number of people who are affected by this disorder and this would do our part in helping the world to be a better place for everyone.

Look around your surrounding and see how many people are striving for their rights. Look closer and you will know each and everyones struggle, and then look within and you will feel how they have struggled so much. Actually, resistance is attending of social inequality that is perceived by many as normal or part of life (Bond). Generally speaking people experience struggle from their own family, or also known as the smallest unit of the society, to other institutions like in school, in work, and in the society, at large. Admit it or not, this is due to the moral codes that are imposed to us that if we go against it we are called deviants or immoral (Bond). Race and sexuality are two concrete frameworks of this moral code.

Race actually refers to the category or group that will identify and shape or, at least define a persons identity (Bond). This term however has been an aversion by many. This term has heightened inequality among people because of categorizing them from their differences on race, referring to categorization according color, ethnicity, traditions, and geographical location. Through that concept it brought upheaval and led to civil rights struggle. Nowadays, it has been the basis of the status of a person, the capacity or capability of their ideology. As a result, there are conflicts between white and black, apartheid happened because of racial differences (Bond).

Sexuality or gender, at that, on the other hand exemplifies the role of a person. Good thing about this is that from two classifications of sexes, now there have been seven classifications of people according to gender, meaning, each persons struggle on their preference has been explored and now is included in many advocacies. To name those seven, these are male, female, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transsexual and queer. Among the seven, the last five or the LGBTQs experience discriminations more than the first two. Included in their struggles is employment discrimination, marriage, family, health insurance, or belongingness (Bond).

From a larger context, struggle of LGBTQs is seemingly a struggle of race. It is a combo of discrimination within discrimination. Definitely race and genders issue are fated in one struggle and that is civil rights (Bond). What happens when they are integrated is their scope larges, which is undeniably apparent. Race delineates the issue of LGBTQs rights, meaning, as example, a black race that is a lesbian or a gay, bisexual, transsexual or queer individual suffers more than a white LGBTQ (Bond). Thus their concentration on addressing their civil rights is in a more specific context that includes their race than the usual holistic social justice movement of an individuals entire life cycle (Bond).

They claim for civil rights, this claim is not something that is special in a sense, but their rights as a person must also be heard (Bond). There is no difference between white and black LGBTQs of expressing their rights because both of them are people who claim to be equal among the rest. However, black suffers, according to one of the articles that I have read, lesbian and bisexual black women are the least likely to have had a mammogram in the past two years. Only 35 percent of these women have had mammograms recently, compared to nearly 70 percent of heterosexual African-American, Asian or Pacific Islander, or white women (noelienoel). From this health issue against them, it follows that the impact of race in the struggle of gender is bigger and much harder, as they are oppressed in two sides.

The Availability of a Cause
The British administration had a certain bad reputation in the colonies. Although Acts passed by the British parliament such as a Stamp Act were widely seen as exploitative and there were a few mass protests against various avenues of collecting revenue adopted by the British and the quartering of troops in some areas however once the contrary to the popular perception, the major part of the population of the colonies remained neutral throughout the conflict, supporting neither the British and nor the revolutionaries, quietly carrying out their business regardless of what government held sway over them (Grant, 1995).

According to the founding father and second president of the United States John Adams claimed only one-third of the population of the states supported the revolution, one-third remained loyal to the British and the remaining adopted neutrality in the conflict (Sparshott, 2007). Later researchers, however, have estimated that the supporters of the British rule or loyalists formed 15 to 20 percent of the adult white males while the revolutionaries were supported by 40-45 percent of the white population (Grant, 1995).

Even when the war against the British was in full swing the largest part of the population was either lukewarm or opposed to total independence from Britain, in any case they were unwilling to commit themselves to any side and were waiting to see which side became the winner, the defeat of the British at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777, followed by the hopes of French support with the Franco-American alliance brought many of the fence-sitters toward the patriot camp (Sparshott, 2007).

Weakness of the Counter Insurgent
The British had managed to alienate a large section of the colonial elite. One of the biggest causes of this alienation was the Quebec act which denied white colonialists access to the Native American lands of the Ohio valley. Wealthy colonialists, including many of the founding fathers had hoped to drive the Native Americans from the area and make a lot of money by engaging in land speculation (Schofield, 2002).

The British failed to integrate the colonial elite in the administration of the colonies, the colonial elite were classically educated gentlemen whose ideal models of governance came from the city states of ancient Greece (Constant, 1988). These rejected members of the elite class provided the leadership for the American Revolution.

As we have earlier mentioned, the British had lost the support of 40 to 45 of the main population group of the country, early on in the revolution, the patriots proclaimed their loyalty to the King, declaring their opposition only to the Parliament of England and its power to legislate in their matters despite the fact that they were not represented in it, but by the time of Greenes campaign the Declaration of Independence had been signed and there was no national consensus.

British maladministration and lack of foresight can also be seen in the employment of mercenary Hessian troops in the conflict against the patriots. This was one of the major issues that caused the opposition against the British rule and support for the patriots to grow (Grant, 1995).

The resoluteness of the British, in general, can be gauged from the protracted nature of the American Revolution, which spanned around seven years, however Greenes campaign was aimed at sapping their strength and resolve and was ultimately successful at it.

The British forces appear to have had certain knowledge of counter-insurgency measures, this can be seen from their efforts at Americanizing the conflict in the South . General Cornwallis engaged in recruitment of American loyalists, after professional British troops had captured an area, the control of the area would be passed on to local loyalist militias (Dederer, 1983).

Geographic Conditions
The American terrain was also inconductive to the British forces. The British regular army was geared towards battles in which opposing armies would march towards each other in a plain, shooting at one another the army that stayed in the field and forced its opposing side to disperse would be considered the winner. The patriots too usually followed this model of combat which often led to their rout by the superior British forces, however due to the heavily wooded terrain, once the patriots were routed and forced to disperse they could no longer be pursued and killed by the British side (Pohl, 1974).

Nathanael Greene main genius was in exploiting this facet of the terrain. Unlike other generals who were always interested in winning the field, Greene was perfectly content upon giving the enemy a series of punishing losses while incurring a string of defeats (Pohl, 1974).

Outside Support
Outside support for the patriots came from the French, the Spanish and the Dutch. The allies supplied the patriots with ammunition and supplies they also attacked British possessions in other parts of the world which lead to British forces being stretched too thin and lack of troops to resupply the conflict in America (Grant, 1995).

Soundness of Greenes Insurgent Strategy
Greenes realized early on that his forces were incapable of affecting an outright defeat on the British through one decisive battle in the conventional manner. Of his nearly 2500 men, only about 800 were in any shape to fight in a war. In the South there was a network of patriot militias in place. Greene communicated with them and attempted to get them to fight in co-ordination with his army. This strategy worked with militia leaders such as Francis Marion but did not work with others such as Thomas Sumpter (Dederer, 1983).

He split his forces with a smaller mobile force in Brigadier General Morgans command this raised the spirit of the population and kept them from joining the loyalists while at the same time forcing General Cornwallis to split his forces too which enabled the defeat at Cowpens (Dederer, 1983).
Overall Greenes strategy was a sound one and it is not surprising that his Southern Campaign was a strategic success.

Analysis of General Cornwallis Counter-Insurgency Strategy
General Cornwallis strategy for his campaign was essentially a reactive one, his forces were sufficient to rout the patriot militia from any area but unequal to the task of occupying all the towns and cities at once.

Cornwallis  attempted an Americanization of the conflict, recruiting Loyalist militias to maintain British control over an area once the patriot forces had been routed from there, however General Greene put an end to that tactic by massacring recruits on occasion (Dederer, 1983).
By splitting his forces into three, General Cornwallis gave away his main advantage, his refusal to break out from the mold of traditional warfare resulted in great losses for his army and his eventual defeat.

General Morgans Planning and Execution of the Battle of Cowpens in Light of the Nine Principles of War

The first principle of war is concentrating combat power at a decisive time and place, at Cowpens, the whole of General Morgans forces, his cavalry, his militia and his marksmen were all deployed against the enemy (Edwards, 1914).

Surprise is an essential principle of war. General Morgan halted his army at Hannahs Cowpens instead of crossing the Broad river and assuming position at Kings mountain as Tarleton expected him to (Edwards, 1914).

Simplicity of plans is another essential principle of war. General Morgan had clearly defined plans for his army, especially for the minimally trained militia forces. He told them to fire three volleys at the enemy and then marked a place for them to retreat and regroup. He also had clearly defined plans for the cavalry who were to attack Tarletons cavalry and for his marksmen who were to prevent the enemy from reconnaissance and gathering intelligence on their positions (Edwards, 1914).

Motivation is a widely discussed and researched organizational phenomenon. It refers to the process that accounts for an individuals intensity, direction and persistence of effort towards goal attainment (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 187). Intensity refers to how hard a person works, direction connotes the line along which the persons effort is channeled and persistence measures the duration of application of effort (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 186). A number of theories have been formulated to understand and improve employee motivation in organizations. Included among these theories are the hierarchy of needs theory developed by Abraham Maslow and two-factor or motivation-hygiene developed Frederick Herzberg (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 187, 189). The two theories share a number of commonalities but also differ on multifarious accounts. This paper provides a comparison and contrast of the two theories along with the reasons for their managerial appeal or dislike. 

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Abraham Maslow proposed the hierarchy of needs theory in 1950s. Maslow proposed that a hierarchy of five needs exists within all human beings (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 187). These needs include physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization needs. Physiological needs include bodily needs such as hunger and shelter (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 187). Safety needs consist of protection from physical and emotional harm. Social needs are reflective of an individuals desire for affection, acceptance and friendship. Esteem needs are divided into internal esteem needs such as autonomy and self-respect and achievement and external esteem needs like status and recognition (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 187). Lastly, self-actualization needs indicate individual desires to grow and fulfill his maximum potential. Physiological, safety and social needs are collectively termed as low-order needs while esteem and self-actualization are categorized as high-order needs (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 187).

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Two-Factor theory or motivation hygiene theory, developed by Frederick Herzberg, is formulated on the assumption that an individuals relation to work is basic and his attitude towards work determines his success or failure (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 189). In this theory, Herzberg sought to identify the factors and situations that make people feel good or bad about their jobs (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 189). These factors are divided into two categories, hygiene factors and motivators. Hygiene factors are factors whose presence placates workers and ensures that workers are not dissatisfied. They include company policy and administration, salary, supervision, relationship with supervisor etc (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 191). Hygiene factors, however, do not guarantee job satisfaction. Factors that are consistent with job satisfaction are known as motivators. Motivators consist of intrinsically rewarding factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement and growth (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 191). According to Herzberg, job satisfaction is not the converse of job dissatisfaction. Factors eliminating job dissatisfaction will not lead to job satisfaction since its influencing factors are distinct from those causing dissatisfaction.

Similarities between the Two Theories
Maslows hierarchy of needs theory and Herzbergs two-factor theory have a number of common characteristics. Both theories belong to the class of content theories of motivation. They both were developed in 1950s (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 186). The two theories belong to the category of motivational theories and explore the same relationship i.e. what motivates an individual (Newstrom, 2006). These theories also share the concept of self-actualization (Adiar, 1990, p. 55). Both the theories provide specific criteria as to what motivates an individual. Hygiene factors, part of the motivation-hygiene theory, are similar to Maslows low order needs, namely physiological, safety and social needs. Further, some esteem needs and all self-actualization needs from Maslows theory are similar to Herzbergs motivators. Each of these two theories presents a simple view of motivation that is easy to understand (Newstrom, 2006 Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 298). These facets also help these motivational theories to acquire wide acceptance in the professional world. The two still constitute two of the most popular theories of motivation (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 186).
   
Each of the aforementioned theories assumes that individuals behave as they do because of their attempt to satisfy internal needs. The two theoretical models assume that specific needs energize behavior (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 298). Unsatisfied needs motivate individuals and govern their behavior in the direction of fulfillment of the needs. Popular interpretations of Maslow and Herzbergs theories suggest that many workers in modern societies have already satisfied their needs. As a result of this, these workers are primarily motivated by high-order needs and motivators (Newstrom, 2006, p. 109). The two models also provide a foundation for understanding and application of behavioral modification. They suggest that before managers attempt to administer a reward, they will find it useful to discover the employee need dominant at that particular instance (Newstrom, 2006, p. 109). The two theories lack empirical support, a common criticism directed at them (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 188, 191). They have also been blamed for oversimplifying the motivation process. Hierarchy of needs and motivation-hygiene theory fail to provide an appropriate link between organizational goals and individual need satisfaction (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 298). Further, they do not take individual differences into consideration. Lastly, the compatibility between these theories underlies their popularity.

Contrast between Maslow and Herzbergs Theories
Despite the multifarious similarities between Maslows hierarchy of needs theory and Herzbergs two-factor theory, the two greatly differ from each other. In terms of order of needs, Maslows theory presents a sequential or hierarchical model of needs. According to Maslow a need will motivate an individual only after its lower level needs have been completely or largely satisfied (Stephens,  Judge, 2007, p. 188). Herzbergs theory, on the other hand, emphasizes no such hierarchical relationship (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 299). As regards the model emphasis, Maslows theory is descriptive in nature proving information on the needs present in every human being. Conversely, Herzbergs theory is prescriptive, suggesting the factors to managers must eliminate and promote to lower job dissatisfaction and promote job satisfaction (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 299). Maslows theory takes into consideration only internal needs of employees. Motivation hygiene theory considers both internal needs and external job content or context that must be present for need satisfaction (Newstrom, 2006, p. 109). The essence of Maslows theory is that unsatisfied needs energize behavior which, in turn, causes performance. Herzbergs theory in essence suggests that gratified needs cause performance (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 299). In Maslows model, any need including hunger, thirst, protection and other low-order needs, can act as motivator provided its lower level needs are largely satisfied. In Herzbergs theory low-order needs or hygiene factors cannot act as motivators at all (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 299). Only higher-order needs can serve this purpose. Maslows theory is more general and universally applicable than Herzbergs two-factor theory. While the former takes a general view of motivational problems of all workers, the latter restricts itself to a micro-view of motivational problems of only professional workers (Sudan,  Kumar, 2004, p. 299). Lastly, Herzbergs theory takes a temporal bias towards dichotomizing while Maslows theory was developed with a predominantly holistic bias (Adiar, 1990, p. 56).

Understanding the managerial Appeal of the Two Theories
Maslows hierarchy of needs theory appeals to managers for a number of reasons. Firstly, the terms are so highly publicized that they are incorporated in every day language. The term self-actualization has found its way into dictionaries (Furnham, 2005, p. 288). Familiarity with terms encourages managers to incorporate them in their motivational strategies. Secondly, the theory has humanistic appeal, is simple and easy to understand. Its treatment of human needs is sympathetic (Furnham, 2005, p. 289). It accurately explains the reasons for failure of certain work incentives. Thirdly, management prefers group interventions to individually-oriented theories as the former achieve widespread motivation (Furnham, 2005, p. 289). By ignoring individual differences, the theory facilitates development of effective group interventions. For instance, in time of instability and high unemployment, permanent job positions in the company can satisfy the safety needs for hundreds of employees. The ability to provide ways for motivational group interventions carries tremendous appeal for managers (Furnham, 2005, p. 289). Further, it reduces the complex process of motivating employees to mere identification of their needs and alignment of rewards with these needs. This convenience underlies the theorys popularity in the business world. On the flip side, the theorys inability to incorporate socio-cultural context in employee motivation and little regard for the fact that individuals are the result of their particular cultures, make many manager dislike the theory (Newstrom, 2006).
   
Motivation-hygiene theory appeals to management because of its clarity and simplicity, much like Maslows theory. Its compatibility with Maslows theory also adds to its managerial appeal. Further, the fact that salary, fringe benefits and work conditions yield benefits only up to a certain point carries tremendous appeal for cost-conscious managers (Miner, 2007, p. 53). Like Maslows hierarchy of needs, the lack of incorporation of socio-cultural context lessens its worth for some managers. Absence of empirical evidence may also demote its use.
   
To summarize, hierarchy of needs and two-factor theories, are two popular motivational theories that identify the needs and factors that motivate individuals. The two theories are similar in many regards but also very different from one another. The ease of understanding of both theories makes them highly appealing to managers the world over. 

Workers are the most important asset of any organization. They can be considered as the basic building block which are the used by management to build up the organizations progress and reputation.  Realizing their importance, many organizations around the world allow for the involvement of workers and other levels of employees in major organizational decisions as well as profits. However, the participation of workers in organizational decision making and profits represent a very popular theme for the scholars working in the fields of Industrial Sociology, Industrial Relations and Management. The research in this regard actively focuses on the dynamics of the organization and of the relationship between workers and managements top cadre while also evaluating how the participation should take place.

This paper will attempt to identify the need for workers participation in the decision-making process and will help us to understand the best management practices to maximize the potential of our employees and also benefit from their knowledge regarding intricate details of the organizations processes. The workers who are motivated by a share in the growth of the company, usually in the form of profit-sharing by the company, prove to be more involved in the decision making process and appear to be more participative in the organizations policies. This paper will attempt to prove that workers who are motivated through such incentives prove to be more participative as compared to those companies which do not offer any such incentive.

Thesis Statement
Workers should be allowed for formulated participation in organizational control and profits.

Background
During the Industrial Revolution, the role of employees and workers were similar to that of drones and mindless laborers who were ruthlessly exploited by the giant industries being set up. They offered poor living conditions, low wages and limited rights and securities to the employees, hence, treating the working class poorly (Mantoux, 2006). These conditions maintained throughout the initial 20-30 years of the industrial era.

However, eventually the management concepts began to take birth and after a series of worker movements against the harsh treatments, employees created unions and groups which were able to advocate for their rights. These groups and unions either through strikes or by lawful intervention were able to protect the rights of the employees and employees began influencing the decisions being made within the management level of the companies. Gradually, management began involving the workers when they realized that their knowledge about processes and functions were an asset to the organization and that the workers would be beneficial in creating strategies directed towards the workers and the company in general.

Following in a downward descent, the decisions were first made by executives, later managers and floor supervisors were permitted to aid in the decisions being made. Once floor managers and similar horizontal employees were given decision making authority, workers who worked under these authorities also began getting more and more flexibility to suggest any ideas.

The Need for Workers Participation
There are various types of worker participation which could be practiced by organizations. Levine and Taylor (1990) discuss the consultive and substantive style of worker participation. The Consultive style of worker participation involves the workers helping the management identify solutions and alternatives however they do not have the power to implement these suggestions. Meanwhile, the Substantive style allows the workers the autonomy to actually make decisions and take action on their own rather than wait for approval from the management.

The reason why workers participation is stressed upon can lie perhaps on the fact that the workers are on the execution stage of the ladder and they are the ones who are bringing all the orders into action. Thus, management can gain much from their insights regarding the production or processes leading to the creation of goods andor services. The workers can offer information regarding customer feedback in the services sector or they may identify wasted motion or wastages in raw material in production. These are issues which the management is usually unaware of and it may cause great losses to the company.

The need for worker participation has increased more as organizations have realized that proactive workers are not simply an asset but can become a competitive advantage over other players within the market. Most companies in same industries often use the same machines and have same processes. Their differences arise in their personnel and the company which has a dedicated, positive and proactive workforce usually surpasses the companies which do not offer their employees with similar values and growth opportunities.

Current Trends in Workers Participation in Management Decision Making
In recent years, the trend has been noted that most organizations are offering their employees with empowerment and that the decision-making authority is being decentralized in certain circumstances. Organizations which have employees directly coming into contact with the customers and are service oriented by nature prove to be more empowering to their employees and it has been noted that the employees themselves take a greater interest into the affairs of the company (Noah, 2008). They usually are more involved in the decision making process as compared to those workers who work for the manufacturing department or production department. This lies in the fact that service sector workers usually come into direct contact with the customers and are more susceptible to make on the spot decisions regarding servicing the customers while workers in the manufacturing departments are working on fixed schedules and routines hence they hardly ever come into critical decision making scenario. The difference between the nature of the work involved can also influence the extent of participation within the organization.

Aside from the difference in the nature of the work involved, participation varies against the structure of the organization. Participation in worker owned organizations may differ from participation in a private held company. Worker owned companies can be created if employees are offered bonuses in the form of company shares and other such options so that they become part owners of the company (Ros, 2001). By doing this, their objective would be to grow the company and hence increase their share value, creating a win-win situation whereas, in the private held companies, bonuses and motivational incentives are usually in the form of monetary rewards or other benefits. They may offer shares as well but they are not distributed so commonly. 

The Need for Worker Participation in Decision Making
Decision making process was initially a task held by the executive board and top level management. However, due to the fast paced nature of todays marketplace and the intensely competitive nature of companies, decision making needs to be quick, proactive and easily implemented rather than be tedious, reactive and flowing vertically down the hierarchy. The need for worker participation has risen from the need of organizations to be more flexible and to create new and innovative processes. Rather than have a few management level members thinking along those lines, companies now have the entire workforce striving to that end. The participation of workers in the decision making process increase the employee loyalty to the organization and their affiliation with the company usually grows when they are taking part in the decisions and their suggestions are being implemented. This has helped to not only motivate the employees but has also led to decreased turnovers and grievances rates (Bud, 2006).

Decisions are made on long term and short term basis within organizations. The management and executive levels usually concentrate their efforts on the long term goals and perspectives of the organization detailing where the company will be headed and what it would try to achieve. For the short term goals and decisions however, the lower levels are given autonomy and decision making powers as long as they do not come into conflict with the long term goals. This kind of demarcation of decision making boundaries has led to the need for increased worker participation and their active involvement in the companys operations.

The participation of workers in all aspects of the companys operations is imperative yet their participation in the decision making process is more so due to the fact that the decisions which workers come up with are usually minute in nature and can help companies to identify the small leakages in revenues and minute costs which the company executives or higher managers have not considered. These suggestions can involve fixing employee amenities to increase morale to identifying processes which either waste time or are simply done because of tradition and are no longer relevant in the operation process. The need for workers in the decision making process is hence more critical than ever before as this gives companies a competitive edge over those companies which are still traditional and conservative in their power sharing styles.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Current Practices and Process used by Organization
The major disadvantage which may occur in decentralizing decision making within an organization is that the accountability decreases and the margin of errors may increase in business. The decisions from the workers may not always be beneficial for the company as a whole and leaving decision making up to their discretion may lead to a company having dissatisfied customers or some operational or similar flaw.

The advantages however are many. The company can become more flexible and the workers may easily embrace change if they are involved in the decision making process. One major issue which arises with change management is that the employees may be resistant to changing their ways or may not accept the managements decisions too warmly. However by involving them in the decision making process they are often more receptive to the change and they are gradually warmed up to the new practices or ideas.

Similarly another advantage of worker participation in the decision making process is that they can create competitive advantage over other market competitors by refining internal processes which the competitors cannot do. The key differential factor between progressive companies and stagnant ones is that the progressive companies have realized that their labor is also not just an asset but that it is a strategic tool which can be used to gain an edge over their competition. By having a proactive and involved workforce, companies have been able to overcome adverse situations and have survived to become giants. Many of the major corporations today are identified by having a highly proactive and involved workforce. The employees within these organizations are given liberties and they are involved in the decision making processes at all stages in their hierarchy. Companies which embrace this fact can better survive as compared to those companies which still hold the traditional belief that the manager is the only decision making authority within the organization.

A Good Framework for Workers Participation in Management Decision Making
Regarding the framework of the workers participation in the decision making processes, there are 2 specific models which are present today. These models include the Human Relations Model and the Participatory Democratic Model.

The Human Relations framework advocates that the employees be treated with respect and be acknowledged as part of the organization and not as individuals. It preaches the supportive framework where employees basically receive encouragement in the form of being appreciated as part of the decision making process and being treated in a manner that makes them feel that their voices are heard and respected. Rather than to treat employees on an individual basis and assume them to be monetary driven beings, the organization must acknowledge them as a member of the social groups within the organization. This would then make the employees, when placed in a decision making situation, to think of the organization as a social group and strive for the combined benefit rather than concentrating on their own self and to think of personal gains. This framework holds much potential on its own yet it has its limitations as such. For this framework to succeed it must be assumed that the employees of the organization are willing to rise above their personal needs and that they have already met their basic needs to strive to attain the higher needs such as self actualization and similar such beliefs. If the employees havent received their basic needs which include shelter, food and safety then it is very difficult for them to use the decision making process to come up with anything progressive other than to concentrate on ways of making more money or improving their own personal states rather than help drive the company forward.

The second framework is the Participatory Democratic model which basically states that by allowing employees to voice their opinions they hence lead to employees having a greater control on their lives which would make them think of other things rather than their own self. This is a causal linkage which has been created on the assumption that people are greedy and that their first instinct would be self preservation. Once that has been assured, they would be willing to consider other possibilities. Having employees feel that they have the ability to control their own direction would lead them to participate more actively in the decision making process as their decisions would lead them to their desired futures and goals.

Both of these models are beneficial in their own conditions. I believe that the Human Relations model is best suited for developed nations and companies where employees are satisfied with their basic needs and are seeking something more spiritual than money. They could be searching for a satisfying job or a career where they are fulfilling their ideologies. Yet for companies which have the majority of their workforce below or at the poverty line, the Democratic model is more feasible as they would be able to first improve their conditions and then ascend to worrying about organizational concerns.

Workers Participation in Companys Profits
Companies can increase workers participation by involving them in the company profits. By actually offering them a percentage from the profits earned from their dedicated efforts, companies can motivate greater participation and lead to a better organizational culture.

This practice of sharing-the-profits is relatively new and has been implemented successfully in the developed nations yet is still not practiced so commonly in developing nations. The companies basically use their growth and profits to entice employees to work harder as the greater the growth of the organization, the more rewards would trickle down to the deserving employees. The multinationals began this measure to encourage the host workers to work dedicatedly for their organizations and to take greater concern for the organizations well being as previously multinational corporations lacked loyalty from their host workforce. To remedy this situation, they devised the concept of profit sharing which has led to a dedicated workforce mentality and has resulted in enormous percentage growths for companies.

Current Processes for Profit Sharing in Organization
There are 2 major means of profit sharing for an organization. The first method is by offering dedicated employees a monetary bonus or incentive package at yearly basis. This monetary reward often depends on the nature of the workforce and the receivers option. Workers who are more pressed for monetary concerns prefer being paid in something material and immediate. This type of profit sharing basically is used for people who have immediate demand for money or have lack of vision.
The other option of profit sharing usually takes place by companies distributing shares and options to their employees who participate actively. This incentive mostly is given to upper level employees who concerned about future potential and believe that they would fare better with shares of a growing company than to be paid in cash or similar method.

There are laws in countries which also encourage profit sharing, which allow profit deducations pre-tax and allow companies to pay lower taxes after subtracting the profits due to their employees. European countries and other countries promote profit sharing as it allows people to benefit from this while the company benefits by developing a more loyal and supportive workforce.

The Need for a Profit Sharing Framework
The need for a profit sharing framework is to identify a stable and consistent means of profit distribution. By operating without the basic framework, a company may do the exact opposite and dissatisfy its employees as there would be no specific guidelines to entitle employees to their benefits and there would be no measurable performance evaluators.

It is essential that key performance indicators be identified for employees and their participation be recorded so that they could know that a transparent methodology has been utilized in determining their participation and that they would receive a specific amount for a specific level of support they have given to the company.

The need for the profit sharing framework is thus to maintain a stable environment and to allow employees a standardized workplace environment and a measurable scale for participation and its corresponding rewards. If there is instability, employees would show lack of effort and would work randomly as well.

Identification of Critical Factors in the Profit Sharing Framework
As mentioned earlier, the key critical factors for a profit sharing framework include consistency and stability. The policy should be established and communicated to everyone in the organization so that they work accordingly. Similarly, there should be a set measure with which to reward employees. Participating on a certain level should entitle them to a certain profit which should be delivered to them accordingly. If the employee is derived from that reward, there would be a backfire with the employee ceasing participation and doing the minimal required work from him.

The profit sharing framework should allow options as to the type of rewards that the employee is entitled to. Providing employees with shares when they would prefer cash or vacations would lead to a lack of interest in the rewards and they should not be random or forced onto employees. Workers should be given the choice to choose their mode of profit sharing from the company. This would lead to greater satisfaction and more participative workforce.

Conclusion
By allowing workers to participate in all the aspects of decision making within the organization, from the productionservices to their choice of profit sharing, companies can create a loyal and dedicated workforce which would seek to help the company grow and would lead to a more competitively positioned company then its competitors. Recognizing the human potential is the job of managers and they must strive to bring the best from all their employees from the most menial workers to the executives so that the company does not lose out on any opportunity to succeed and gain an edge over others. In todays fast paced world, companies are being born and die but the only ones which survive are those which recognize their human potential and which utilize it to cover all its operational and strategic goals. By involving the workers in the decision making process, the company can identify minute losses and can avail sudden opportunities as it would be more flexible and would be more receptive to change than its competitors. It can gain tax benefits by profit sharing and can use that to its advantage by motivating its employees to work harder to help the company grow further.

The main objective of the paper is to present the readers with the fundamental analysis of the major sociological theories. Besides giving interpretations, the paper gives the readers both the conceptual and structural explanations of the sociological theory and social paradigms. The current research gives analysis to three important research paradigms, including structural functionalist paradigm, conflict paradigm, and symbolic interaction paradigm. In this paper I will pay a particular attention to discussing all concepts, theories, and contributors that influenced the development of the above mentioned paradigms. In this respect, I will discuss all three paradigms. Particular attention in this paper will be paid to the manner in which these particular paradigms can be developed. 
Key words sociological paradigm, structural paradigm, conflict paradigm, symbolic paradigm

Structural-functional paradigm can be described as a special framework that can be used for building a theory. According to this theory, the society is seen as a complex system that is comprised of many parts. The main objective of these parts of the system is to promote solidarity and stability within the system.

Structural -Functionalism (SF) uses a number of the important ideas. According to the first idea, the society can be described as a well-structured social system. This system is comprised of a whole set of the interlocking parts that are sometimes referred to as structures.

The system has to meet 4 basic needs of the people. These needs can be defined as external needs and the internal needs. Special institutions are designed to meet the main needs of the system. The major need of the system is the adaptation. According to the research, the adaptation belongs to the major benefits of the natural, physical and material world.

The other important feature of the system is goal attainment. Goal attainment is very important when we are reviewing the functioning of the political system.

Integration is one more feature of the paradigm. Integration is a very important process that helps people to maintain a balanced social control over the processes that take place within the system. The system is comprised of a whole set of formal and informal institutions. The functioning of these institutions is regulated by Law, Religion, and Media.

Pattern maintenance is an important feature of the system. The other important feature of the system is socialization. A particular feature of the system is its commitment to preserving human values.

This commitment occurs despite of the fact that the society has to meet a number of the important objectives. (Korgen, White 9)

There are four sets of institutions or social structures. These institutions and social structures are operating at different levels. When to analyze the actions of the individuals I can say that the actions of these people are tied to meeting a number of the important objectives. When people are entering the political and economic systems they are learning the new Roles. Role is the SF concept, and is often associated with the number of important features and meanings.

The new roles and role-sets can be obtained through internalizing the Culture. Setting the values and social norms help to change the informal social rules of the overall system. The current society can be seen as a single organism that is able to help people to adopt themselves to the current changes in the society. The current system is comprised of numerous parts. All of these parts help to make the society function as a single organism. This organism helps people to adapt themselves to the new circumstances of the changing world. The current system is comprised of a whole set of structures. The key concept upon which the structural paradigm is based is the concept of power. This concept is very important and helps to strengthen social consensus among the people. (Korgen, White 11)

Structural Functionalist Paradigm
The structural-functional paradigm was frequently used as a framework for building theory. According to this theory, the society is viewed as a complex system that is comprised of many parts. All these parts are connected and work together to promote solidarity and stability of the system.
The name of the theory is partially self-explanatory. The theory accentuates on the importance of social structures. This system is characterized by a relatively stable pattern of social behavior.
Social structure has a number of particular features. These structures often shape the life of the families and people, who attend a certain workplace, college, or a classroom. The main objective of the paradigm is to look for any social functions of the given structures. The malfunction of the system provides society with the list of the important advantages and opportunities. The changes of the system can change the way the society operates.

All social patterns are related to complex religious rituals. The main objective of these rituals is to keep the society functioning in a proper manner. In general, the main objective of the system is to maintain its present form. Structural functionalism had a number of initiators. Among the initiators of the structural functionalism is Auguste Comte, who was the main initiator of the structural-functional paradigm. In the course of his research, Auguste Comte, pointed out to the need to promote social integration. This process played a particularly important role during the period of rapid change.
Emile Durkheim is the main researcher who has helped to establish sociology in French universities. Emile Durkheim has all rights to be regarded as a third structural-functional pioneer. This person is the follower of the English sociologist Herbert Spencer (18201903). According to Spencer, human society much resembles the human body. This body is made of some important structural parts. These structural parts can be categorized as the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs. The combination of these two things is able to sustain the survival of the entire organism.  Spencer also indicated that present-day social structures work in a combination with each other. The main objective of current social structures is to preserve the current state of human society. As for the structural-functional paradigm, this paradigm has many important features of its own. The main feature of this paradigm is to investigate the way in which the society is currently functioning. (Korgen, White 22)

Durkheim also had its own ideas about people whom he regarded as selfish creatures who need to be governed by the state. Because of human imperfect nature they must be channeled and controlled through proper socialization by institutions in society. Durkheim supported the idea that property functioning institutions that serve to be the basis of modern education system, family, occupational associations, and religion. According to Durkheim, perfect structure of the society is the main guarantee of its perfection and proper functioning.

In the course of his research Durkheim also pointed to some problems that continue to exist in our society. Durkheim gave his own analysis of the society. According to the researcher, the existence of external inequality in an industrial society can be categorized as the list of factors that indicate that the socializing institutions are not functioning properly. Durkheim major concern was searching for the ways to reduce inequalities in the society. Durkheims research was also aimed at increasing the understanding and solidarity among the people.

Durkheim has also elaborated his own attitude to the system of education. The main objective of the researcher was to mold Frances public school, thus defining their further structure and functioning. Durkheim suggests the following division of inequalities. In fact, the researcher divides the inequalities into internal and external. Internal inequalities are based on peoples natural abilities. As for the external inequalities, these inequalities are forced upon people.

There are many ways to sustain the successful functioning of the society. To make the society function in a successful way, people have to realize their inner potential. However, external inequality that is present in the society often prevents people from fulfilling their true objectives. The fulfillment of human innate talents requires the society to eradicate all its damages. Durkheim held to the idea that the development of the various institutions in society is able to create the opportunities for societal further development.  (Korgen, White 56)

Contemporary U.S. sociologist Robert K. Merton belongs to the list of the researchers who contributed to the changes in human understanding of social function. I will go so far as to say that this researcher has expanded the meaning of social structure. In the course of his research, Robert K. Merton pointed out that social structures probably have their own features. Some of the features are more obvious than others.

In the course of his research Merton did a number of discoveries. A very interesting discovery that has been made by Merton pertains to the manner in which the current educational system is currently working. The researcher event identified college as a marriage broker. According to Mertons research, marriage broker is able to bring together thousands of young people of similar social backgrounds. The other function of the college is to keep people out of the market. It is evident that after graduation people will not be able to find jobs at the market.

Another latent function of higher education is to keep millions of people out of the labor market where, presumably, many of them would not find jobs. In the course of his research Merton also recognized that the current social structure has a number of its own features. Merton also questioned the usability of social structures for some groups of the people.

According to the researcher, social dysfunctions can often bring a number of undesirable consequences into the manner the society is operating. In the course of the research, many people show the tendency to disagree on what is beneficial and what is harmful for them. Mertons research implies that what is functional for one category of people might not be important for the other category of people.

Critical evaluation. The chief characteristic of the structural-functional paradigm is its particular focus on elaborating the new visions of the society that is viewed as stable and constantly functioning system. The paradigms are frequently used by the researchers who are willing to give a proper explanation to this or that historical event. The major reasons why the sociologists are using the current paradigms is to figure out what can make the society to function in the manner it functions in the present day.

The situation was changed in the mid-1900s. The structural-functional paradigm was favored by many sociologists. However, in a couple of years the paradigm lost its initial popularity among the people.

In the course of promoting structural research paradigm people pay more attention to such issues as the stability and unity of the system. In the course of analyzing this issue, critics point out to the fact that in many cases structural-functionalism ignored a number of the important issues. Race and gender belongs to the most problematic issues. According to the sociologists, ignoring such important issues as social class, race, ethnicity, and gender is likely to result in a considerable tension and conflict. The excessive focus on the conflict threatens to change the paradigm into something conservative and not interesting for the people. Also, many people crave for a critical response to this approach. Under the circumstances like these many sociologists developed their own theoretical orientation and understanding of the system. Social-conflict paradigm belongs to the list of the paradigms that define the further functioning of the system.  (Korgen, White 67)

The main objective of the universal health care is to encourage the development of the new system that will guarantee the universal access health care service. According to the research, the universal healthcare often means that the systems will be constantly renewed and updated. The term Universal means that all people in the world will get an access to the new healthcare system. According to the current research, the number of the uninsured people remains to be the same. The current plan of the Universal Health Care is to give people a chance to get an access to new healthcare services.
Universal health means that all residents of the planet will be given an access to the new universal system of healthcare. This system gives an access to high quality care.

At present, there are a growing number of state UHC organizations that are recognized as the ones that are able to receive a chance to get some extra privileges. The presence of the new privileges is likely to empower a further development of the society. Among the people who will be empowered by the new universal health care system are the following categories of people ethnic minorities, low-income workers etc.

The issue of universal healthcare can be also approached from the point of ethics. When to approach the idea from the ethical point we can see that elaborating of a new manner of medical treatment belongs to the area of human basic rights.

Also, one should not forget that health is something that is given by God, rather than people.  Health is the example of the new service commodity. At present, the society has reached the level when it is able to regulate a number of the scientific and technological advances.

Designing the system of universal healthcare is the example of the most organic manifestation of human progress and societal development. The general purpose of the system can be described as the altruistic call for changes.

Creation of the universal healthcare is often initiated by the government programs. These programs are aimed at meeting the needs of the wealthy and middle class people.

Conflict Paradigm
Symbolic interaction paradigm  this theory is based on conflict and change. The theory has a number of the particular features. All these features make the basis of the social conflict theory. Usually the system is described as favoritism. As for the society itself, it often favors the theory. In general, the theory is based on the idea of social inequality.  (Korgen, White 71) There are frequent cases when the ideas of social inequality are seen from the point of how the system refers to such important issue as race, ethnicity, gender, and age. Also, the society indicates that there is a long list of things that dictate people how they can acquire wealth, schooling, power, and prestige. The social conflict paradigm helps people to reach a number of the important objectives. One of these objectives is to improve the social standing of the system.
                                     
The Social Conflict Paradigm
The social conflict paradigm is based on the idea that the society is a very complex system. This system is characterized by the prevalence of inequality and conflict. When combined together these two things are able to general social change. As for the personal life and the individual experiences of the people these are used to dictate why this or that theory is true.

Personal life experiences are related to how to make the theory true. As for the theory discussion, it is often related to how people present themselves in the course of this or that issue analysis. As for the social conflict, it should be seen as one of the most important issues in the world.

Karl Marx was one of the proponents of the theory of social conflict. According to the researcher this theory can be used to reduce social inequality and conflict. The other research implication is that the social conflict theory can be described as favoritism. Generally, it means that the theory is aimed at protecting some parts of the society. Protection of these groups of people can remove social inequality. The overall process is shown throughout the world from situations. These situations are related to such important issues as race, ethnicity, gender, and age. (Korgen, White 88)

There are few factors that define a further functioning of the system. There is a whole list of factors that dictate the manner in which people acquire wealth, schooling, power, and prestige. According to the social conflict paradigm, there are many ways in which the society can view its social standing. Karl Marx was a sociologist contributed much to creating the main theoretical basis of the whole process.

While creating the theory of social paradigm Marx made his main goal to understand the main principles according to which the current society is functioning. When combined together, these principles are able to reduce social inequality. Karl Marx belongs to the list of the researchers who tried their best to explain the main reasons why there is a contradiction in society.

Contrary to Marx, Webber focused its attention on the analysis of conflict and economic systems. In the course of his analysis Max Weber (1864 -1920) looked more at the combination of economic and political power that defined the further functioning of the system. In the course of his research, Weber expanded Marxs idea of class. The theory was divided into three dimensions of stratification. These include the following
class (economic status belongs to the most respected things in the capitalist societies)
status (prestige belongs to the list of the most important in traditional societies)

Party means position in the bureaucratic structure. Party belonging plays a very big role for the development of advanced industrial and highly rational societies.

These three dimensions threaten to overlap with each other. It means that someone high in class will be given a chance to attain high status and political power in the society.

Contrary to Marx, Weber was very pessimistic about the chance to eliminate the societal inequalities. Weber had the idea that the elimination of one aspect of conflict will inevitably lead to the elimination of the other aspect of conflict. Webers definition of power is also quite interesting. According to the researcher, the elimination of power gives people a chance to realize their own will. This will is usually present in the set of communal actions. The main objective of these actions is to eliminate the overall resistance of the people. Even now the research by Weber remains to be the starting point for most modern sociological explorations of power relations.  (Korgen, White 18)
Webers work on bureaucratic institutions also plays a meaningful role. The book has a number of the important advantage. First of all, the book helps people to understand their power over the other people. Even now the book remains to be popular among the advanced industrial societies of all types. These societies range from capitalist, communist, and finish with anything else.

The works by Weber help people to comprehend how powerful bureaucratic structures are currently functioning. These structures remain to be intact even when the individuals in charge are replaced with the other people. As for the people, who have the control over the government bureaucracy, these people threaten to be turned into a highly developed nation that is able to exert tremendous power over all aspects of that society. According to Weber, controlling the government bureaucracy enables people to achieve a number of their own objective. First of all, people get a chance to control the key institutions in society. The range of these institutions includes the military and the others. The main objective of the current institutions is to single out the standards that define the further work of the institutions.

The crucial element of a power structure is referred to as legitimacy. According to the recent research, the legitimacy of power is a thing that defines the further work of the low level institutions.
Weber states that the use of bureaucratic structures can be very efficient for creating the effective organization. Hitlers Germany was very efficient public organization that delivered a number of the important objectives. When properly managed, bureaucratic structures can be described as the extremely efficient structures that can improve the overall effectiveness of the organization. (Korgen, White 41)

Weber belongs to the list of the researchers who cautioned against the establishment of sociology as a science. According to this researcher, there are many way to guide the further development of the society. Sociology belongs to the list of studies, the main objective of which is guiding the further societal development.

How would universal healthcare create or reflect conflicts in the society
The current society has to live in the state of conflict. The present conflict is aroused by people who are refused of the right to get an access to health care services. The current conflict is reasoned by the numerous reasons. These reasons can be classified as societal. The conflict will last for eternity unless we will change the essence of the state. At present, many individuals have to live in the state when they have to fend for themselves. As for the formal apparatus of the state, this apparatus exists with the aim to protect people one from the other. The other interesting alternative that is given for people is to suggest their own way to find conflict-resolution.

Creation of the universal healthcare system is one of the best ways to find a possible solution of the pending conflict. Currently, the conflict supports a natural transition from state-of-nature to the other kind of state.

Universal healthcare is one of the major features of civil society. In case people will manage to create something like a full-fledged political community, the conflict wills disappear.

The hypothetical transition, from state of nature with its never ending conflict between rich and poor can be regarded as the act of true compromise that will lead people to the complete satisfaction of all their needs.

To summarize, transition to the universal healthcare is the first step to creating the new society comprised of the happy people who are able to enjoy equal rights.

Symbolic Interaction Paradigm
George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) can be described as the founder of symbolic interactionism. Mead also belongs to the list of sociologists, who show much care about the society. Along with that, the researcher was very interesting in learning the major ways in which the societal processes can be regulated. The other important objective of the researcher is to learning about the possible ways of self-development. The researcher was very interested in learning how the human self is able to develop through communicating with others. According to Mead, the self-development of individuals is a thing that is able to regulate the symbolic behavior or symbolic interaction of the people.

Mead also mentioned the idea that humans do not have the right to be humans while they are interacting with each other. According to the researcher, the nature of our interactions belongs to the list of factors that help to determine the further ways of society functioning.

Symbolic interaction belongs to the list of things that help to maintain the societal structure. Mead views society as a stable social construction that remains to be continually created and recreated by humans. According to Mead, implicit agreement helps to maintain the current state of the society. The agreement helps to contain the current state of the society.

There are many ways in which people are able to maintain the current state of society. Traditionally, the society can be regulated by introducing the implicit agreement. The main objective of this agreement is to help people to interact with one another in certain ways.

Mead was looking for finding certain patterns of interaction. These patterns can reinforce the belief system that helps people to survive.

Mead belongs to the list of the researchers who used his sociological expertise to define the ways in which the social environment is able to contribute to several social programs and movements in Chicago.
                                                           
Jane Addams
Addams belongs to the list of the researcher who worked closely with Mead on social issues. The issues that were covered by the researchers were concerned with women and immigrant workers. In the course of her research, Adams focused on issues. Many of these issues are related to the need to implement the social reform. The main objective of this reform is to reduce inequality, and to bridging the divide that exists between the rich and the poor. When exploring the social issues Adams even lived a poor neighborhood.

To summarize, the founders of sociology were deeply interested in finding the ways to improve the well-being of the society. There are many ways to make the society function in a proper way. The main objective of the society is to curb current systems of inequality.  The major benefit of the researcher is that they not only perceived the social issues of the day, but proposed solutions for them.  (Korgen, White 51)

How Can We Have Universal Care While Avoiding Some of the Problems That Make a Single-Payer System Undesirable and Unlikely to Succeed

For economic reasons, individualism remains to the main feature of American thinking. The other thing that matters is the Americas conception of equality. This concept is deeply rooted in the very notion of individualism. The research implies that the United States is a land of opportunity that gives the additional advantages and opportunities for its people. A peculiar feature of the system is its commitment to the equality of opportunity. The same principle of equal opportunity has become the basis for Canadian thinking and the thinking of Western Europe.

The universal healthcare is able to create new meaningful symbols and language that would structure social interactions among healthcare providers, and health insurance providers. 

Creation of the universal healthcare is not possible without creating the universal symbols. These symbols can be described as an effective tool that is likely to help visitors to navigate health facilities.

There are many ways to accentuate the importance of universal symbols. The introduction of these symbols can provide the modern healthcare system with the following advantages

Universal symbols serves to be an effective tool that helps people to find the new ways of healthcare management

Patients find symbols are very easy to understand for the people of all countries
The use of the new symbols can contribute to the sense of human self. This principle serves to be the major principle on which the modern healthcare system is based.

In addition, the universal healthcare system can contribute to changes in the very meaning of the self. It means that the system has the ability to change the meaning of healthcare in the society.

I agree with the author that Greece cannot resolve the issue of illegal immigration without a lot of debate.  I further agree that a set of rules is required to deal with the issue in a manner that produces positive outcomes, both for the Greeks and the immigrants from war-torn nations.  Indeed, as the author states, it is a very sad situation that people who flee their war-torn nations must go through so much turmoil, as the Greeks do not know exactly what to do with them.  However, I do not agree with the author that it is correct not to deport the illegal immigrants.  Then again, it is debatable whether it is more humane to deport them or detain them in jails where living conditions are horrible.
   
After all, people who end up in Greece, having fled war-stricken countries such as Iraq and Afghanistan, are those that have tried to save their lives from bombs and machine guns.  If Greece were to send them back to their home countries, they may die in bomb blasts.  But even if Greece keeps them in detention centers they may die due to poor living conditions. 
   
The author states that illegal immigrants are often denied political asylum.  If Greece were to grant them political asylum, these immigrants would be guaranteed protection from persecution and assistance to settle in Greece.  But, Greece does not offer them any assistance whatsoever.  This is emphasized by the author as he argues for a set of standards to deal with the issue in an appropriate way.
   
Of course, Greece is the country where the modern-day concept of nation states was birthed.  As nationalism is in vogue at the moment, racial profiling is an issue to be considered in depth.  Those who flee their war-struck countries and end up in Europe do so because this continent promotes its high living standards.  But, fleeing poor conditions to enter a country where they would not be respected should not be an option for the afflicted.  Although the author does not describe various options for Greece and its illegal immigrant population, it is necessary to dwell on them so as to start a debate.  Undoubtedly, it may not take a long time, as the author puts it, to develop a set of rules to deal with illegal immigrants.  But it would take a while for a paradigm shift, that is, to change our minds about illegal immigration.  The following issues need to be addressed (1) As the world was a Pangaea at one point, who is to decide whether Greece belongs to one particular race alone  (2) To whom does Europe belong  (3) As Europe is involved in conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan, it is for Europe to decide whether these wars can be ended so as to resolve its own problems with increasing populations without jobs.  (4) If the importance of nationalism is diminished, everybody would have the human right to have a decent life in any part of the world in that case, Greece would be humane enough to help out people who have fled their war-struck nations to live decently among the Greeks.       
As the author merely mentions a lot of debate to address the problem of illegal immigration in Europe  in particular, in Greece  it is essential to think of factors that have caused the problem in the first place.  The author has not mentioned the philosophy of nationalism, or the fact that Europe promotes itself as an economically healthy continent.  These are vital factors to consider if modern-day nation states were to revise their foreign policies to suit the times.  Even so, the essay is thought-provoking, as it allows the reader to reconsider the causes of the problem with a view to resolve them.

As a Columbia University professor, Sudhir Venkatesh has recorded his experience within a period of 7 years of following and befriending a Chicago drug dealing gang in an attempt to investigate the complex world of Windy Citys urban poor (Venkatesh    299).  He involved himself with the Black Kings who had a certain J.T. as their leader when he was a first-year doctoral student studying at the University of Chicago (Venkatesh    301).

ESSAY
The book starts by telling the readers of how the authors adventure begun, in 1989 (Venkatesh    302).  He was studying sociology and had set out to carry a research study in one of Chicagos toughest housing projects, to investigate his sample question of how it feels to be black and poor (Venkatesh    303).  Once he completed his research, he was still fascinated with the life in the housing projects despite getting rid of his clipboard as well as the questionnaire used during the study.  He frequented the Chicago housing projects and in the end befriended a gang leader by the name of J. T., living an insider-outsider life for the next decade on the citys South Side (Venkatesh   305 ).  His affiliates were his predecessors at the University of Chicago who acted also as his academic advisers.  During his research, he got a taste of power and experienced various challenges associated with it for instance making daily rounds in an effort to sort out petty mistakes made by uneducated, violent and underpaid soldiers of the platoons for which he was put in charge (Venkatesh   306 ).

Venkateshs main purpose of writing this book was to get a close up into the world of the urban poor especially gangs within such regions (Venkatesh    309).  He wanted to get a taste of how it feels to be a poor individual trying to not only make sense of his status and life in general but also survive in the harsh world.  On the other hand, he was an individual who grew up in California, a professor at Columbia university and therefore did not have to struggle to make ends meet compared to the people he had set out to investigate(Venkatesh    310).

The most important evidence the author presents to support his thesis is where he describes his time with the gang member, being left with the responsibility of running the gangs platoons who apparently were underpaid and uneducated (Venkatesh    311).  The gang leader, J. T. allowed the author to have full access into their world, revealing what the urban poor have to go through in order to make a life for themselves and their families (Venkatesh    312).  Those who associated with the author during this period cited that they have to make choices and do what they have to in order to survive.  The evidence used in this research, according to the author was obtained through ethnographic research but has counter evidence for instance, there are those who think that his book was evil since he was required to work with and become a part of a gang for 6 years (Venkatesh    313). 

In a bid to deal with the counter evidence, the author suggests that it was necessary for him to work with and live with the gang in order to obtain concrete evidence for his thesis and for him to be able to reveal to the rest of the world as concerns the urban poor (Venkatesh    315).  He also argues that through his experience with the gang, he discovered that not all gang members are uneducated and cash rich.  He also discovered that majority of gang leaders are actually kindhearted individuals who are just trying to make a life of themselves as well as their families (Venkatesh    316). 

Ethnographic research has its numerous advantages and disadvantages as is seen in the book, for instance it is best applicable to those human behaviors that are understood through observation within their natural environment (Venkatesh    317).  Ethnographic research also provides the researcher with comprehensive perspective of the research topic as compared to other forms of research. This can be seen as the author makes the decision to live with the gang members during his research study.  On the other hand, one of the disadvantages of ethnographic research is that it rarely included numerical data and therefore it is impossible to check the validity of the studys conclusion (Venkatesh    307).  It is also not possible to avoid observer or researcher biasness as concerns the research topic as is illustrated by the author when after living with the gang for 6 years, ended up denying ever being friends with them (Venkatesh    304). 

The book Gang Leader for a Day brings out the ethical question of whether or not gangs are evil.  The author tends to bring out the fact that contrary to popular belief of gangs being out to rob, cause harm and even murder innocent individuals, this particular gang was perceived as being protector and a de facto administrator of the Chicago housing development (Venkatesh   318).  The books argument concerning this is convincing since the author documents in details exactly what was happening during his stay with the gang as well as in the course of his being responsible for platoons within the gang (Venkatesh    319).  Individuals who would find this book especially useful are those desiring to learn more about the urban poor and how individuals of lower income status struggle to survive in this harsh world (Venkatesh   320).

CONCLUSION
Gang Leader for a Day is a book informing readers of the ways in which the urban poor support as well as protect themselves in their day-to-day lives.  It also gives a different perspective concerning drug dealing gangs attitudes and purposes in modern day societies.