Sociology

Social science is one of the three divisions of science. These divisions are natural science, social science and formal science. Social science is mainly concerned with the human society part of the world. Therefore, social science is a branch of academia that studies different aspects of humanity in the world. It is a broad field of study that aims at studying the human behavior and their impacts on their surrounding and the world at large. Some scholars have argued on the definition of social science where some say social science is too broad to have one definition. Due to this controversy, social science can be defined based on the subjects encompassed in the study. However, each of these subjects employs different approaches and study methods to understand the society. Different branches of social science employ different data collection methods and use a wide range of statistical methods to analyze the data. Social science is based on experiments and observations methods and emulates the basic principles of science. However, social scientists more or less use critical analysis and interpretation methods to carry out their studies which are not consistent with the conventional scientific study methods. The methods used in the study of social sciences are more qualitative than they are quantitative and many conclusions are reached as a result of personal interpretations. They are therefore referred to as soft science in contrast with the other two divisions of science which are considered hard sciences. Social sciences include history, anthropology, law, economics, psychology, communication studies and political science among others. The term social science therefore is an umbrella term for all studies that are not included in natural sciences.

The importance of social science dates back to ancient societies. It existed in the ancient Greek societies during the times of Plato and Aristotle who made great contribution in understanding various aspects of humanity in the world. To the ancient scholars, there was no distinct difference between social science and other divisions of science as it is the case today. The study of mathematics and history, politics and literature was not different in any way. During the middle ages, the Muslim sociologists made numerous contributions in the study of social science. The advent of the modern social science was greatly predisposed by positivism. The 20th century came with the emergence of numerous social science fields where it has become more and more quantitative. The interdisciplinary studies especially in environmental science have made it necessary to apply some aspects of social science in the study of natural science due to the big influence of human activities in the world. Other emerging disciplines such as bioeconomics, sociobiology and some medical sub discipline have created the need for interdisciplinary studies. The application of statistics in all fields of scientific studies whether social sciences or natural science has left this field of applied mathematics as an unattached discipline (Rosenberg, 1995).

Social scientists have made several contributions in the society even with the society not recognizing their role. The modern form of government has played a major role in ensuring good interrelationship between people from different parts of a competitive world. These roles can be attributed to the work of great scholars of the 20th century such as Keynes and Popper. The health services enjoyed by people over the world were first dreamt of by a social scientist who was an economist. The insight provided by social scientists research has been invaluable to individuals of all works of life.  

Scholars such as Watson and Pavlov are considered to be the fathers of the 20th century social science. They were the first scholars to approach social science using techniques which were previously used in natural sciences only. They introduced the use of controlled experimentation and different observation techniques which was followed by careful recording of their findings. Scientific research technique have since then been applied in social science where aspects of humanity which have no measurable quantities and are not considered scientific such as behaviorism  have been studied. However, if a hypothesis has to be proved scientifically, it must be supported by replicating and quantifiable facts. The work of Pavlov which demonstrated the conditioning of a dog such that it salivate in response to a stimuli which was a bell proved that social science and natural science are related and equally important in addressing modern day challenges.

Social science is relevant and useful in everyones life today and the years to come. It enables us to understand the world around us. It is indisputable that we all need to know where we have come from and how we became what we are today. It is not enough to know that the African American fought against racial discrimination such as segregation in the mid 20th century. It is more important to know what they were fighting for and why that having the historical timeline. We need to analyze the steps taken by our forefathers and understand their thoughts and aspirations when they founded our nation. By understanding the historic perspectives of our nation, we would be able to achieve the goals of our fathers by being influenced by their thoughts and learning from their mistakes. It is also important for the society to be fully aware of the mistakes it has gone through to avoid making the same mistakes in the future. Avoiding the same mistakes in the future involves studying the circumstances under which the mistakes were done and analyzing the possible choices. By understanding how past leaders handled different aspects of the society during their time such as misunderstandings between states or laws that were opposed by the general public is very useful to current leaders in the decision they make about similar issues. Social sciences most importantly make our past part of our present and future. Therefore a world without social science is unimaginable (Byrne, 1998).

The main job of a social scientist is to study the society. The study does not involve the past only but also the relationship of individuals with the society. Social science also involves the study of behaviors within a society and the relationships between different societies. To increase the knowledge on behavior patterns within a society, social scientists look at how an individual or part of the society makes decisions. Social scientists therefore gather data related to the behavior of people and draw conclusion from the analysis of the data collected. The data enables them to understand how individuals develop socially, economically, physically and culturally. Social science also analyses how human beings interact with their environment.

An example of a social scientist is a historian. The work of a historian is to study the past human activities, analyzing them and then drawing conclusions from the information gathered. Historians use a very wide variety of materials which includes primary sources such as government records, photographs, manuscripts and secondary sources to gather information. They may also use diaries recorded by individuals to unearth a historical event. Other social scientists such as anthropologists study the origin of human race and how human beings develop. They study the development of people from different parts of the globe by looking at their social organization, traditions and beliefs as well as their physical characteristics. They also study the social patterns in different communities in the world and their language differences. Anthropologists have contributed greatly in understanding of wars and population growth in different communities. Archeologists on the other hand are social scientists who study the past civilization. They look at the behaviors of the early man, the work he did and his general social life. Their study mainly involves the study of items used by the early man as well as excavated fossils. Other social scientist such as geographers studies the features of the earth surface or a part of it (Ragan, 2007).

In conclusion, social science is a discipline that is associated with the study of human aspects in the world. It is concerned with the human societies and their interaction with the world that surround them. Social science has existed for many centuries among the scholars. It is useful in our daily life since it enables us make a sense of the world around us. The importance of social science has been however as a result of interdisciplinary nature of the modern science.

According to Trigg (2001), the division of science that deals with the study of humanity and the relationship between individuals and the community is referred to as social science. It mainly focuses on the human features and their relation to the world. Social science has been in existence since the ancient times of Plato and Aristotle. It puts more emphasis on systematic and experimentation procedures used. The procedures used in social sciences are referred to as soft sciences because they are qualitative and based on individual interpretation.

Features of social science include things like arts and humanities. Social science is basically composed of sociology, psychology, anthropology, sociobiology, economics, political science and law, language, geography and history. All these studies are involved with the interaction of human being and the society. Most of these studies deal with people as well as the community thereby qualifying as social sciences. They are regarded as social because they look at the intentional phenomena and therefore they must be recognized in terms of their meanings. These sciences are real sciences they generate organized theories to clarify the underlying causes of interaction between different phenomena. They are analytical too they develop frameworks for reasoning and explaining facts (Kuper and Kuper, 1985).

The various divides that exist within the social science include geographical divides publication and language difference, difference in capability, science and society divides. Other    disciplines that is Education, Law, Demography, Geography, Economics, Humanities, Politics, Management, Media, Policy Studies, Psychology, sociology and Social Welfare to name just but a few, that the social science is concerned with, are so wide that some of the staffs in these areas do not consider them a science. Social science have experiential base. In social sciences, experience is based straight on individual intuition of things which heshe already knows on interests which are inseparable to the real life (Riley, 1994).

Social sciences are conceptual in that they have a specific structure for reference based on advanced levels of semantic accuracy than the activities performed daily. They are application oriented. They plan and put into place practical solutions in order to acquire practical outcomes. They redesign social beings and the way the natural world conditions are arranged. The emerging concerns of social science in the modern world include development in communication, community building, globalization, gender equality, and modernization. Globalization for example is seen by social scientists as a means through which cultural contacts that have been in existence for long will become extinct. Modernization is also seen to have the same impact.

Social science plays a great role in helping us view the world in a clear perspective. These sciences rely on logical and organized techniques to answer questions related to the world. The development, refining, application and reporting of the perception of social sciences is done by social scientists in a more organized manner. Research in social science minimizes the chances of overgeneralization of the world. Precise criterions are used in social science research to avoid illogical reasoning and conclusions. Risks of inaccuracy in observation are reduced by procedures used in social sciences. Social scientific methods minimize the likelihood of viewing the world in a more egocentric perspective. Geography as a social science helps in understanding the world critically. It integrates various disciplines bringing together physical and human perspectives of the world. Through social science and geography in particular one can easily understand why things are the way they are, are where they are, their relationship with other things and its importance to human beings. In the process of seeking solutions to particular problems either from the past or in the present, individuals uses knowledge and understanding provided by social sciences in order to reach at a practical conclusion (Illinois State Board of Education, n.d).

Illinois State Board of Education (n. d.) asserts that our lives are shaped by social sciences even without our awareness. If we take for example the economic aspect of social science, it greatly enables us to make concrete decisions concerning our choices. It helps us develop habits of saving and investing. It also helps us recognize the connection of what we learn at school with the real life. Social sciences help us recognize the role of the government in the economic world (Okediji, 2006). History helps us to recognize the mistakes that were done by our forefathers and helps us not to repeat them. Through history also we learn some of the greatest steps taken by our forefathers and thus we can follow them to advance developments. It allows for better understanding of the current issues that are of magnitude similar to a past event. Solutions to past problems can be applied to present situations because the effect of these solutions can be determined. Social sciences help us perform efficiently in the workplace. We are better able to understand the relationship existing between different people and thus be able to conduct ourselves in an appropriate manner. Learning geographical issues helps us in preserving the environment in our day to day activities. Social sciences help us live better lives in which everybody are responsible of all his acts. It helps us undertake activities that are aimed at competing efficiently in the world economy. Geography as social science creates a channel in which people can understand the world.

Social sciences also help us in understanding different social systems. People are better able to understand their role in the society as well as changes that occur within the society. This will greatly help in the process of contributing to the society. Sociology helps us to maintain a cordial relationship among other members of the society. Understanding the political system of the land helps us to become responsible citizens. We acquire the skills needed to participate in public and political activities. Through social science, the relationship between one country and the other international communities is enhanced (Illinois State Board of Education, n.d.).

Trigg (2001), states that the relationship between a person and the society is antagonistic. The modern societies have imposed rules that are followed by individuals. These rules encourage the incorporation o individualism and also its separation from the society. In terms of encouraging separation, individual rights take precedence over the community. Then society sets rules that are designed at incorporating virtues among its members. People are not supposed to touch one another in manners that are suggestive of sexual approaches in public. The modern society encourages individualism more than communism.

The main question that arises concerning individual-society relationship is whether one is part of the society or separate from it. Bearing on the fact that the society is a group of individuals distinguished from other groups by their common interests, an individual is part of it so long as heshe lives in that society. Whether part of the society or separate from it, people are not free, they are bound by the rules and regulations set by the society. The society is seen as a thing standing on its own whereas individuals are perceived as existing freely and independent of the society. A person and the society are strongly intertwined and mutually dependent. Individuals are closely merged in the society though they may be viewed as separate and autonomous. A person may have his own identity, but still the society merges as together in masses that constitute that society. The society has many rules that an individual is supposed to follow. These rules are either formal or social norms. Discussions of social leaders and in social networks are the ones that lay out social norms. Formal rules are developed in public debates and legislative structures. If individuals break any of the social norms they feel embarrassed. Breaking of formal rules is punished by fining, jailing, or both. Offenders of these rules are eliminated form the society by these punishments thereby reducing the chances of them repeating the offence. Any punished offender acts as an example to the rest. The qualities displayed by a particular society are the sum total of individual qualities.

The Systematic Model of Family Therapy, developed by a group of family therapists, highly considers the background and history of the clients and makes effort to understand what influences the families in order to understand and assess their situations. One of the principles of the Milan Systematic Model is to shift the focus of treatment for many family therapists away from observing interactive sequences as patterns and toward questioning family belief systems (Goldenberg  Goldenberg, 2008, p. 288). This principle is effectively conducted by systematic procedures and approaches. The aspect that I liked best about the model is its goal of helping families uncover the connections that link family members and keep the system in homeostatic balance through the technique wherein all family members hear each others thoughts and opinions (Goldenberg  Goldenberg, 2008, p. 289). If families can find balance in their relationships that is not rigid or forced, they may work out their situation faster and more effectively. Also, as opposed to presenting a direct prescription that the family may not be readily accept or apply out of fear or any other reason, the model offers the technique of ritualizing which helps families to be more open to the behavior suggestions of the therapy as the family members are given the choice of making their own prerogatives and the time for the prescriptions to grow on to them (Goldenberg  Goldenberg, 2008, p. 295).

The part of this model I would most likely integrate in my brand of therapy is the neutrality practiced in the approaches. Therapists are expected to remain allied with all family members, avoiding getting caught up in family coalitions or alliances (Goldenberg  Goldenberg, 2008, p. 299). However, this neutrality should not be confused for being inactive or indifferent. Rather, it should be seen as objectiveness for better yielding results.

The aspect that I would most likely incorporate into my own family therapy would be its weakness of breaking its own principle of neutrality. Sometimes, when it comes to the point of prescription, the therapists become too opinionated in order to reach for an endpoint in the therapy. The principle of systematically arriving with the differences should be absorbed by the clients with no intervention from the therapists.

Women have for decades been fighting the system, first for the vote, then for their independence, then for careers, and eventually for the equality of the sexes.  Unfortunately women should have watched what they wished for before now.  Currently women are more independent and liberated than ever before, and yet these same women are crying foul.  They are depressed, they are lonely, but they have their careers and their independence.  However, the price was higher than anyone expected. Women from all areas and womens advocates and magazines are all united in their belief that women were victims of themselves and are now paying the price.

Even television shows, movies and books are making it known that independent women are lonely, crazy, and even vicious spinsters that live in their own reality rather than in the world.  In the real world, the statistics show that the more liberation the female gender feels is available to her, the more crimes she is likely to commit.  The fact also remains that psychologists are saying that not only did the female identity change in the face of the feminine liberation, but it created a crisis that no one foresaw.

However, the reality is that women really are not that liberated.  In fact, most women who work full time make 20,000 or less a year, which does not sound very equal. Women still are more likely to live in subsidized housing, do not have insurance, have less retirement and make less then men even though that was to be taken care  of 20 years ago.  Women are stuck in what are deemed womens work such as secretaries and receptionists.  Companies work against mothers, single or married in regards to day care and family leave.

With this type of evidence and more, the claim that the feminist movement hurt women more than helped is unfounded. All the afflictions thrown on women in todays world were not started with women, but with big business, media, and other influential groups that want to keep women from truly gaining their equality. All the statistics are actually showing decreases in the ground that was gained in the 1970s and 1980s.  Women are more often discriminated at work and receive less pay then men in the same position.  Women are also feeling more threatened in the home and outside the home, the belief being that women need to be kept down.

Today, most women know the inequality it still there.  The feminist movement has made women more aware of their inequality rather than remorse for the supposed equality. The main problem for the depression and ill feelings in to the supposed equality but the lie of the media and corporations that it is the feminist equality that is causing all the problems for women.  The truth is that women are no more equal in todays world than 30 years ago.  As stated, the inequality is again growing, causing women to feel the need to push and keep the footing they have obtained.  The real culprit is those trying to keep women in their place, when the place is not gender specific, but enforced by gender.

Theory wars and cultural studies summary
In the past 10 years the world has endured extreme upheaval and change in all facets of live and government. These changes have influenced life and work with the media being the most influential factor of the times.  The media not only involves the intellectual news and events, but infiltrates the lives of people with sex, violence, and inane shows that serve no purpose. Cyber space and satellite television are taking over the lives individuals in society and influencing how they live, what they buy, and what they believe.

The biased undertow of the media is conservative in nature, and out to ensure the liberal governments of the world are held back and ineffective so that the more conservative and more media friendly leaders will regain power.  This phenomenon is not just occurring in the United States but also in the United Kingdom, France and all over Europe.  Conservatives is regaining its hold on the governments of the world with the help of the media.

The first factor in the media blitz is the theory wars.  From the 1960s through today, more theories have surfaced for more phenomena in social sciences as well as empirical sciences.  The liberal views began as theories for civil rights, human rights, feminism and such.  Without these theories the world would have remained conservative, but even a little notice and liberals try to gain their way. So it has been for the past 40 years.  Liberals gain the leadership only to have the media turn the public on them and reinstate the conservatives.

There are several ways in which to study the culture in which we live.  The Frankfurt School began in the 1930s and was based in the changes to industry and mass-production as well as the communications with the public through media. By the 1960s the Frankfurt School dwindled and the British cultural studies came to the forefront of the social production and reproduction as well as the overcoming of the social domination by one culture over others.

Now the world is changing again and the post-modern cultural studies are abounding throughout the world.  This post-modern view is focused on the social and racial influences and integration in every nation, the need for equality and the lack of discrimination of those of differing cultures. Disseminating the differences between modern and post-modern is not that easy.  Depending on the concept, the distinction can change.  There are phenomena that started in the 1960 that are considered post-modern.  However, that time frame was not even the modern phase.

The true concept of post-modern culturalism is not just media but the arts.  It is no longer about the political beliefs, but the cultural understanding of the citizens of a nation and the influence that the arts have on those citizens.

The book starts with Tsukiji which happens to be located in Tokyo and it has a huge market for fish. It also happens to be a major attraction for tourist and this is very odd as there is very little to attract tourists here. The book describes the market as a must see and the city has nothing else that is attractive. The author gives a thorough description of those key aspects of the market place of Tsukiji after justifying the city. He starts with the marketplace neighborhood in the 1930s, the layout of the form-follows-function that is done by avant-guarde, the importance of food to Japan, the role of Tsukiji, the importance of the marketplace to the economy and to the whole nation and the true anthropological study of the society that is living in the town. Then the author looks a little into the future and there reflects on the changing landscape in Tokyo. He also looks at the effects and the possibilities of moving the marketplace into a new location.

The book can be said to have some few drawbacks that can be realized as one reads it. One of them is that some parts of the books are too technical such that they will be understood by some specific people. For instance, the very first chapter may be said to be meant for anthropologists and they may question the legitimacy of the anthropology used. In addition, some of the materials that are used may confuse all the people that have never visited Japan.  I can argue that the book had some exaggerations or rather that the book fails to expand that are mentioned. None the less, the book is a good read and it can act as a guide to all those people who are visiting Japan. I can describe it as a rewarding read that focuses on one particular aspect that is found in Japan. It makes the reader to have more understanding of some aspects in Japan more than a normal sociological book would.

City of the Walls Crime, Citizenship  Segregation in the Sao Paulo
The author who happens to be a pioneer studying crime, fear and segregation that is in existence in Sao Paulo happens to pose an essential question concerning the urban changes and the citizenship in the so called contemporary democratic societies. She identifies a new segregation patter after comparing Sao Paulos data with that of Los Angeles. The authors insight illuminates the geography of the city and also its boundaries. She also presents the situation where there is lack of boundaries due to violence. She presents an account of violence in cities in an extraordinary way thereby bringing a rare depth of understanding and knowledge to this task. The book presents most of the obstacles and challenges which civil societies and governments face in these new democracies.

The book starts with a statement in the very first pages that can be referred to as an extraordinary method of dealing with a difficult problem. It is more than a comparative study and therefore can be termed as a genuine transnational and trans-cultural work. I find the book wonderfully ambitious and ethnographically rich. The book can also be referred to as being historically specific while at the same time it is theoretically bold. It is an analysis that is brilliant concerning the fears that are usually found in urban areas. The sophistication that is presented in this book should bring up new discussions on urban life and cities in the whole world and therefore its significance may be said to go beyond the situation that is presented in Brazil. I can therefore refer to it as a great book and I would recommend the book to all those students that are taking political science and any other person who feels he needs to understand politics better.

First stop in New World Mexico City, Capital of 21st Century
About fifteen years ago, David Lida moves to the city of Mexico in search for a kind of energy, culture and spontaneity. This is what he thought had been out of his life in native city of New York. When he arrived there, he found a thriving miraculous urban centre that has centuries of living history. Through the eyes of this American who happen to become an insider, this book is a street level panorama of the current contemporary Mexico City. That is from the dense urban politics jungle, the high art of sex industry to the interaction of everyday commerce, from the end of this city which is about five hundred square miles to the other. David captures what is referred to as the kaleidoscopic nature of city life in a perfect way defining danger and pleasure, lawlessness and justice, appalling tragedy and ecstatic joy which is in limbo between the developing and the developed worlds. This is something that will extend up to the twenty first century where David will still serve the role of an ultimate chronicler of the cities that are in existence at the vital moments in their history.

This is an interesting book but there happen to be some things which can be termed as being highly dubious. A good example is a claim that male adultery n the city of Mexico happens to be universal. This is what David was told by his feminist friend but this is not the case in reality. Men are the name from different parts of the world and therefore it is not likely that Mexican men are more likely to cheat on their spouses than men from the other parts of the world. Another one is a conviction that people in Mexico lie all the time. This is not true and I can refer to it as a mis-presentation of the fact. David was meaning that people in Mexico do not like disappointing other people.  None the less, the book is a great one and it is highly recommendable especially to all those people who love history and all those people who like to know more about what is happening in the cities.

Russia in the 20th Century and even today is considered a superpower, but in the early 19th century, it was the definition of what is today deemed Third World country.  It was far behind every Western country in terms of the industrial revolution. The revolution was far away and could barely be comprehended by the governing officials let alone the backward common people of Russia. Just because it was a backward land does not mean that there was nothing going on.  Russian literature, myths, symbols and imperialism was growing in the last 20 years of the 19th century with its center being St. Petersburg, the reason for the explosion of the modern Russian intellectual explosion.

Peter I started the city of St. Petersburg to be the center of naval operations and trading with its easy access to the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland.  The new city was to take the place as the capital.  Moscow was part of the old Russia. St. Petersburg would be the new more European Russia.  However, it was a Russian city and the Russian Tsar used his power to force labor in stone masonry and to drain the swamps surrounding the city.  He forced nobles and serfs to move to the city, even putting a moratorium on stone building until his city was completed.

The traditional styles of Russian building were against the law. All buildings had to be built within a specific ratio to the street and have Western facades.  However, the indoor of each building was not regulated and many buildings that were beautiful on the outside were slums on the inside. People revolted, but the squirmishes were put down quickly, and in the end St. Petersburg became the literary and intellectual capital of Russia.

In 1833, Alexander Pushkin wrote the poem The Bronze Horseman to tell the story of Peter I and his plan for the wonderful and modern city of St. Petersburg.  It tells the history of the city and the ways in which the eccentric views of the Tsar and leaders created the Westernized city and abandoned Moscow.  It is a tale of happiness and woe, but it is the true tale of St. Petersburg.

Amsterdam Summary
Amsterdam was built along the lines of the old rules but was based on the modern business practices and capitalism.  Amsterdam took over as the leader of commerce, given the power back to the north and away from the Genoese and Italy. While it did not happen overnight, the resurgence of the Dutch in trade and commerce, and their power to lead in trade was a surprise throughout the Mediterranean

Holland was considered by most of the trade leaders to be a poor country that could not care for even a quarter of its own citizens.  The land was harsh and often flooded. However, the soil was better than anyone believed, and the pastures were nutrient rich for the flocks of sheep and herds of cattle.  The small villages could be known for their vegetables and butter and their agricultural purposes, mainly the cash crops that were easy to raise, easy to reap and sold for much. By the 1600s the Dutch had far outmatched the English for the dying of cloth and England finally had to give in and accept the fact.
Each town was its own sovereign, but the different towns worked together to protect its peoples and its land. With this new found solidarity, Amsterdam, with it old world charm and its Venetian water ways were considered the center of this new partnership and its close proximity to the ocean and trade routes. It also meant that the immigration of workers created a population explosion.  Rather than discriminating against the immigrants, The Dutch gave them the menial jobs the Dutch people did not want, and these immigrants worked hard and earned a good living even though the majority lived in what would be considered slums. With plenty of workers the Dutch found their ground and created the Dutch Fleet and focused on fishing as well, thereby securing their place as a leader in commerce and trade in Europe and the Mediterranean.
 
Railroad Station Summary
Before the industrialization, the main source of travel by land was the stagecoach.  The roads and landscape was created by or at least molded partially by the movement of people in stagecoaches and wagons. The stagecoach was normally attached to a specific inn or tavern, from which it got its name, and since it was part of an inn, it was usually located in the center of the city.

With industrialization came the railroad, which was build outside the city limits and seemed almost as a horrible scar on the landscape of the city. As the cities sprawled outward, they eventually incorporated the railway yard.  These areas tended to be more industrialized and commercial, but they were also the areas in which slums were built and the poor lived, hence the saying of being from the wrong side of the tracks.

Architecturally the railway stations were made of steel and glass and stone, one side facing the city while the other side faced the farm land and fields of the countryside. This design feature was really the outgrowth of the increase in railway travel and the need for multiple platforms and many more passengers and trains on a daily basis. Through this two-faced perspective the railway became the gateway of the city, where the city met the countryside, and were the travelers could see both. Also the separation of the waiting rooms in the reception building and the platforms of the train hall created a different kind of gateway that could only be accessed at specific times for specific trains.  As the stations became more modern, the gateway of the reception building and train hall platforms faded away, and only the station, in and of itself, is the gateway in modern rail travel.

Urbanization and the creation of slums were thought to be a problem from the past.  The fast rate of industrialization proved to create desolation in cities of Western Europe and America.  The Third World countries still lived as they had for centuries, while filth and disease spreads through the newly densely populated areas.  The spread of plagues and epidemics created fear and the governments avoidance of the problems only made matters worse.  Child labor, unsanitary living and working conditions, no medical attention, poor housing, and limited food were all part of the daily lives of the poor living in the industrialized cities of Europe.

Now the Third World countries are catching up and are feeling the same deprivation as 19th Century Europe and United States.  The fact that most urbanized locations in India have slums that account for over 40 of the population. Some go as high as 70 of the population.  The living accommodations are worse than ever.  Latrines over flow, weather runs people out of their homes due to floods, cottage industries are helping the families make a little money, but most are being exploited and child labor is rampant.

The slums are also inundated with migrants from farming villages.  These villages send their young men to work for a mere 2.00 a day in rupees.  To these villagers, this little bit of money is the difference between eating and starving in their village.  Some of the slum rooms are single rooms that house up to eight people, sleeping in shift, and some actually working in the room as well. They are willing to give up their lives to ensure their families have money and have a place to live.  The slums are not just created by the poor, but by the rich tourists who require people to work for them during their stay in the country.  Rickshaw drivers and guides work to give the tourists a memorable experience for only cents at a time.  However, in times of epidemics of disease and illness, the tourists and the rich take leave and those left in slums are left to die.  Those living in the slums are the backbone of the urban city, but are treated as if dirt on the body or the country.

Graham Summary
Even just 20 years ago, the military focused on the battlefields being in rural areas, but with the fall of communism and the increased interest of the US military in the Middle East, training has to be change, because now the battlefields are cities, villages, and urban centers that are known to those who live there much better than those in the military.  The fact is that there are now many sites in the US and England that are used as urban training facilities for the military, so that the troops will no longer be sent into urban areas untrained and made easy targets.

During World War II there were towns created that replicated Japanese villages and Berlin tenements and were used to practice with all out war.  However, in this modern day it is not annihilation that is required, but a savvy soldier in counter insurgency and military occupation of the location.  The military is upping the ante by creating whole cities and slums that can be used by troops to role-play possible scenarios before being sent into real combat.  The reason they are working so hard to train the troops is because the average casualty rate is still around 30 of all soldiers in active areas.  One of the newest training tools is virtual reality simulations that help the troops to learn what is required to have a successful mission in the urban battlefield.

The most useful training mode is the video game.  Both the Army and Marines have their own versions of urbanization battle strategy games.  However, another use for these simulations is the ability to work with traumatized soldiers.  They can relive their traumatic moments and work them out so as to be able to relieve the distress the event caused.  Both as a training tool and healing tool, more and more types of simulations are being created to encompass not only the current needs of the military, but any future needs as well.

Since the beginning of the industrial revolution in the United States, New York City has been a leader not just in corporations, but in finance.  Many consider New York City to be the epicenter of the financial market in the United States, and possibly the world.  However, that may not be as accurate as it was 20 years ago or even 10 years ago.  At the beginning of the 21st century the New York Stock Exchange carried over half of all financial services worldwide.  By 2005, New York held only about 5 of the financial services, with most of the banking and exchanges moving out of state and overseas.

Recently, BATS exchange came out of nowhere and is now the third ranked exchange in the world of finance.  It is based out of Kansas City which has allowed for a low start up cost and thereby savings for its investors.  New York can not compete due to the fact that it has one of the highest cost of living and cost of doing business in the United States.

Overseas markets are claiming their piece of the financial market as well.  Nordic exchanges backed by Dubai, Chinese, Japanese, French, Swedish and the United Kingdom are all grabbing up profits and clients in the financial world.  The internet and electronic trading has opened doors for these exchanges and services more than ever before. With the financial leaders moving to other states and overseas, the future of New York is uncertain.

In the past, New York has always risen to take the next step and stay ahead of the game.  It was the financial center before the civil war. It was the industrial era leader funding corporations, railroads, and factories in the 19th century.  It moved from banking into investing leadership with the creations of the Securities and Exchange Commission, and while Europe was in the middle of war, the United States, mainly New York built its financial industry to help with the fallout of those wars, both at home and abroad.  Many believe that this is just another step in the grandeur of New York and that instead of being the financial epicenter, it will become the epicenter of the wealthy and the rich.

Packer Summary
Lagos is an island off of the mainland Nigerian Coast of Africa.  It is a slum from side to side, with people living on the streets and having no privacy.  Hundreds of thousands migrate to the island every year in hopes of gaining employment and getting out of the rural areas only to be led into a world of poverty that they will more than likely never leave.  Across the bridge into the mainland the slum spills over.  The gangs of Muslims and Christians fight with fists, knives and guns.  The rooms in which the poor live house seven to eight people with many sleeping on the floors. Other sleep on ledges and in gutters or anywhere they can find a somewhat safe place.

Lagos is a megacity that has had extreme population explosions in the last decade.  The island is also an iconic stop for artists and authors trying to alleviate some of the problems in the city.  Others see Lagos as a new type of urban lifestyle that defines western thought and design.

In the 1970s the civilian government had created a plan to make Lagos self-sufficient and a commercial capital.  However, due to the government upheaval and the military take over, the rejuvenation plans were destroyed as corrupt leaders took over and used Lagos for their own money making ideas. In 1999, a new government came into power and the overall reconstruction and revitalization plans of the 1970s were brought out of the dark and began to be implemented.  One of the first things the government did was to help with housing and sanitation.  While the city is not pristine by Western standards, it is 100 better than it was only a decade ago.

More needs to be done in the way of the economy and the population explosion of this island.  If it keeps growing at its current pace, then in all likelihood, something will give and the people will revolt.  It is surprising that this has not occurred yet, but most know it is only a matter of time.  Before then, much has to be done and only the government can make the necessary changes, but that does not seem like it will happen without provocation.  In which case, Lagos will continue until it explodes in on itself.

The paper elaborates the change in the world from rural to urban cities. The author identifies and accounts the changes that have happened in terms of causes, characteristics and consequences of global urbanization. The article also suggests how global urbanization has changed the thought process and living conditions of people around the world. Throughout the paper emphasis is given on global patterns and the world-wide process of urban development and urban character. Global urbanization has also erased the geographical, economical, traditional and cultural differences in the world. The key points focused in this paper would be concept, structure, historical evolution, urban growth and development, importance of study of geography in global urbanization and world economy and services.

The urbanization of the world is the biggest contributor in growth of our economy, and technology. Encouraging migration from rural to urban may reduce the cost spent on basic services like electricity, water, schools and health services, as people would be gathered in one area. In addition, it brings more economic opportunities and increases peoples income. When availability of land and cultivation of the same is difficult with the limited resources in the rural areas, it would be beneficial to shift to urban area for more opportunities. The disadvantage, on the hand would be increased population density in cities, pollution, lack of job opportunities, and congestion. In general, we are in the process of developing new culture called urban culture. This occurs due to major and dense population in the cities who have migrated from different backgrounds, beliefs, styles, values, and attitudes. Such modes of behavior and thought process are spread by movements of human population. The ideas spread well beyond cities and influence populations across the world.

The problem of discrimination versus the elderly has been a significant problem in the world and in Europe in particular. The problem of discrimination versus the elderly has resulted to many different issues and problems that has significantly affected the elderly people. Many organizations as well as individuals spoke against it and considered discrimination as a violation of human rights. This has prompted Europe as well as European policy makers, governments and entities like the European Union to act upon the problem and develop policies as well as ways and means to that this practice is stopped and does not happen again in the future.

I. Introduction
The traditional values of close proximity among family members and the protection of the old people in the community is one of the strongest characteristics of man. This is one of the foundations towards the creation of communities and societies. In many parts of the world, the elders provide a particular role in the community, although they are not expected with tasks that require the skill and vigor and strength of youth. Often, the elders are respected for their wisdom, for their role in propagating the oral traditions, beliefs and the overall culture of the community. They are the group of people who have a significant hold and influence over the people. In many cases, the image of an old individual depicts wisdom and guidance. As such, people who have great minds like religious leaders (shamans, priests etc) as well as folkloric characters like sorcerers and magicians are often characterized and depicted as one of the old people or is representative of the elderly. A few years ago, British billionaire Robert Branson and many civic minded individuals created a group aptly named The Elders. The Elders a group of different men and women from different fields around the globe, all of which believed to have and possess the wisdom necessary for them to conceptualize and affect change regarding the problems that the world is facing. These are just some of the examples of the role and importance of the elderly in the everyday modern life. In close scrutiny, it appears that not all of the elders are privileged or fortunate enough to be in a community or society and live a life wherein the elders are not marginalized and discriminated upon. Many elderly in Europe, for years now, has been the target and subject of acts of discrimination.

While this may come as a shocking revelation to those who maybe appalled by such condition in selected areas in Europe, this is nonetheless true - Europe is ageing (Bockel, 2007, p. 69). The shift of the attitudes and beliefs and the change in culture that now leans toward practicality and optimum productivity from its workforce have been sold to the idea that there is a rational, morally and ethically-sound justification for the discrimination of the elders in many aspects of life. It is missing the idea that discrimination, in itself, is already affront to the human race and the concept of protecting ones kin regardless of whether one is too young or too old (Council of Europe, 2006, p. 5). The notion of equal rights and its corollary, non-discrimination, are at the very heart of human rights protection (Council of Europe, 2006, p. 5). It appears that there is a shift towards a Darwinian approach to life - the survival of the fittest. In the world where the population is growing larger and larger by the minute, it is not surprising that people are actually supporting the idea that they should only go for the best possible options. Sadly, the elders are often not among those options, being denied with opportunities in the different aspect of life because of one reason they are old. There are many reasons to explain the shift in paradigm and outlook. In the past, being old does not mean being useless. Philosophers became aged men who are nonetheless sought by thinkers for their minds. Patriarchs and kings command the respect and possess the authority to lead a house or the entire kingdom even passes the modern age of retirement at 60. Now, the society has had a change in how they look upon the elderly. This resulted to the cases of discrimination - at home, at work and in employment opportunities, in accessing basic welfare needs like healthcare, in exercising political and civic rights and being politically relevant as a group of individuals. Indeed, the elderly has become a group of people that has to bear not just the continuing trend of neglect but also discrimination and marginalization.

II. Research Design
A. Research
The research is focused on discussing the different forms and manifestations of discrimination against the elderly in the society with focus on the two main problems of discrimination- work employment and welfare (i.e. health care, etc). Discrimination comes in different forms. Some display discrimination through the practice of employing only young individuals to work and marginalizing the elderly in the belief that they are feeble, weaker in mental faculty, slower, less agile, cranky and more difficult to shape and mold to fit in the corporate culture or way of life inside the company. In other cases, discrimination comes in the form of viewing elders as useless, pushing them out of homes and putting them in the care of complete strangers instead of the elders own family. In any case, discrimination targeted on the elderly has been a serious problem around the world. Europe in particular has seen its population of elderly people ensnared in the web of problems that arises from the practice of discrimination on the elderly on different aspects of everyday life.

B. Theories
The analysis of the cultural characteristic of societies looking down upon its elderly and putting less and less attention, effort and importance to the elderly has prompted the creation of new theories and the use of older, existing theories in the hope to explain such predicament. The key theory here is the Darwinian model of the survival of the fittest. Whether consciously or not, deliberate or otherwise, it appears that man and his society or community is looking at addressing the problem of growing population. One of the resulting consequences is the discrimination versus the elderly. The youth sector entering the workforce overpowers the elderly. Because of their physical characteristics like power, skill, fresh ideas and adaptability to change to working conditions (not to mention willingness for lower wages), they become a factor that pushes elderly people off the market. This is an enticing opportunity for employers. Because of the growing population, government funding centered for the youth and the young like health, education, social welfare etc., are being eaten up and consumed, leaving very little left to dispense for the welfare of the elderly. The fittest will be the one to survive, but the paradigm for selection of the society automatically puts into handicap the elderly because discrimination has already put the elderly in great disadvantage over and against other age groups when it comes to relevance, importance and significance in the society. According to Darwin, the fittest will survive, but equally important is the concept that the society should give everyone equal chances and opportunities for survival.  

C. Methods
The discussion and analysis of the problem on the various aspects and manifestations of discrimination against the elderly for a long period of time is made possible through different methods. First, there is the research targeted on a particular group of people and society wherein the different actions, manifestations and forms of discrimination against the elderly is present. This is followed by the analysis of the situation through the use of theories and other inputs from the professionals involved in this field, explaining the reasons as well as the rationale of this particular type of behavior among individuals and groups of people inside the society or community. This study, research and analysis is strongly hinged on the input, information and content of peer reviewed journals as well as scholarly sources like books and news from reputable news websites in the Internet that aided in the synthesizing of the information gathered and collected.

D. Target population
The target population is the people of Europe, particularly the elderly people in this continent where discrimination versus the elderly is a serious problem. What happens to this particular target population is viewed not just merely in the context and condition of this particular population and the society or community where they live in. It is also assessed and analyzed based on how this phenomenon happens in other places as well. The putting of the similar conditions side by side the conditions in the target population strengthens the bigger thrust of the paper, and that is besides the selected population, it also happens somewhere else. Collectively, this proves the problem of discrimination against the elders happening in the global scale.

III. Discussion
Professional researchers study the problem of discrimination versus the elderly in many different aspects. Politicians and policy-makers, advocacy groups, journalists and opinion writers have strongly wrote against discrimination versus the elderly, not just in Europe, but in a global scale, addressing discrimination versus the elderly in general and pointing out its inherent evil. Broderick (2009) referred to discrimination versus the elderly as unlawful. According to her, it is a frustration that is shared by a large group of people, considering the fact that the world is experiencing a longer life expectancy in the last few years (Broderick, 2009). Many individuals populate the elderly group and vis-a-vis, many individuals are affected or are set to be affected by the acts of discrimination targeted at this particular group. For Trafford (2005), it is a problem that has become pervasive (Trafford, 2005). Besides being unlawful, Broderick also pointed out that this situation is a major factor why the elders are suffering from eroding confidence and are more reluctant to pursue work altogether (Broderick, 2009). In job listings, they have coded messages that translate simply to the discouragement of elderly people to apply. In the workplace, the promotion is often offered to younger employees. Older people are often forced to tender less hours, accept lower wages than what should be in the context of legal and fair.

A. Discrimination versus the elderly in Europe
The problem of discrimination versus the elderly in Europe is a reality. Everyday, there are many different instances wherein the elderly is being discriminated against and marginalized not just at work but also in other aspects like welfare, healthcare, importance and priority in the family. This discrimination concerns their employment, their access to health care, education and financial services and their involvement in political decision-making (Bockel, 2007, p. 69). Because of this, institutions have already verbalized their recognition on this matter and the persistence of such a problem. Very often, the victims of discrimination belong to the most vulnerable groups in our societies, such as asylum seekers, immigrants, and members of ethnic and national minorities, the elderly or persons with disabilities (Council of Europe, 2006, p. 5). Individuals who direct discrimination versus the elderly often rationalize that this is just and reasonable. The elderly are feeble, weak, powerless and useless to the society. They are not expected to be productive and often reliant only on the support of family, friends or social welfare institutions.

The discrimination versus the elderly is pronounced significantly at work. In the past, many European countries do not have laws and policies that can protect the elderly from discrimination. Employers resort to employing younger work force, which is more mobile, more dynamic, more in tune with the current social conditions like trends and technology, and often requires lower or cheaper compensation compared to their older counterparts. Younger workforce do not threaten companies with compensation responsibilities that older workforce or the elderly does, like payment for retirement. Being relatively healthier compared to older people, younger workforce is less likely to be sick and sent in to the hospital, minimizing the companys spending and costs. Indeed, elderly discrimination at work and employment is a serious issue in Europe. In many cases, it transcends the boundaries of social status and financial and economic groupings of the society.

The poor and the non-influential people are just as at risk as those who are rich and popular. For example, actor Pierce Brosnan, a charismatic on-screen ladys man who has done many projects and has been one of the faces of the James Bond flick. He explained in an interview with a mens magazine how he took offense in the fact that the company has decided that it was time to have another old actor play the James Bond part in the belief that Brosnan was already old for the part, when Brosnan himself admitted that he still can, look and work the part (Playboy Magazine, 2005, p. 18). The problem with the discrimination of the elderly in Europe may have very little literature focused on actual experiences of people. Proof that it existed and was a problem was the fact that many countries in the past have made marked development and progression regarding the creation and implementation of policies which protects the elders from discrimination at work. Besides the country-based legislation development, there is also the fact that the European Union has constantly made the concern of the elderly and the threat of discrimination against them as an important agenda for the organization to tackle and provide a solution for. Indeed, countries, organizations and leaders have finally been made conscious of the problem of discrimination versus the elderly (Eriksson, Wolf, 2005, p. 12). The situation of the Elderly in Europe has received increased attention of late (Eriksson, Wolf, 2005, p. 12). This is considered as a positive development that can lead to the creation of actions, plans and policies that can help change the society and provide solutions to the problem in both the short term and the long term levels.

European socio-political and socio-cultural writers, critics and analysts have put forward the issue of elderly discrimination in many different platforms. For example, parliament assemblies in Europe have been used by politicians and socio-political and socio-cultural critics to point to the existence of the problem of discrimination versus the elderly so that attention, and later solution and change, can be achieved (Bocke, 2007, p. 69). For example, reports are being pushed forward to the consciousness of the people who can spearhead the necessary actions for change. These people have constantly reminded the government that elderly persons still too often encounter discrimination, whether in their daily lives or in an occupational context (Bocke, 2007, p. 69).

The elder people, as a group, are suffering from being discriminated against and marginalized in the society. This is reflected in the news coming from the traditional media like newspapers, radio and television, as well as new media like the Internet. The problem of discrimination versus the elderly as reflected in news is not simply reflective on work opportunities, but also in health care. BBC, a leading British news organization reported how the resources needed for the care of elderly with mental health problems have been inadequate. The elderly people who are migrants to the Europe are considered as a common target for discrimination. The impact of such acts is often twice or even thrice as harsh compared to how Europeans are being discriminated in their own land (Knight, 2006). The minority ethnic groups have their own set of elderly people and these too are suffering from the problem of discrimination in Europe. Websites like The Conference of European Churches pointed out that the problem of discrimination in the elderly is strong especially in areas like the Central and Eastern Europe. In these areas, people are in need of attention to address the problems they have to face with regards to ageing and how the society is treating them and their condition with unacceptable ways and means, including the use of discrimination and acts of discrimination and marginalization towards their kind (The Conference of European Churches, 2010).

B. Culture and discrimination of the elders
The prevalence and continued persistence of practices that define and characterize the acts) of discrimination on the elders is strongly affected, above everything else, but culture. If the culture is discouraging such practice and if the culture is more likely to frown upon practices that are detrimental to the welfare of the elders, acts discriminating elders would have not persisted. It would have not been completely eradicated since there will always be random practices of discrimination on the elders as a result of personal experiences. The range and extent of the practice on discrimination versus the elders has made it obvious that this is more than small, isolated practices. It is a set of practice that has been occurring and happening in many parts of the world through the years. Culture is the main factor for this occurrence.

In the United States, the culture prides itself with empowering the elders, by opening job opportunities for the elders and trumpeting the success of the phenomenon that is employment empowerment among the elders who are getting more and more work opportunities. However, inside the same country and cultural context is the prevalent practice of sending the older members of the family especially those who are not member of the nuclear family to nursing homes. It is a practice which, over the years have generated different stories about how the elderly die there, feeling unloved, depressed, restless and other negative behavior not because of the conditions inside the nursing home but because of how the elderly feels regarding the actions directed to them by their relatives putting them in nursing homes. This is a form of marginalizing the elders and putting little attention to them and their welfare. In other Asian countries especially in poor and financially and economically countries or in depressed areas inside these countries, there are many stories about how families maltreat their elders about how some are caged as animals about how some are denied medical attention in order to save money about how some elderly people are simply allowed to die to avoid a bigger financial burden that comes with providing longer care about how many elders are forced to retire or leave their jobs when legally they are still capable to work and about how companies are simply discriminating against elderly people and opting not to hire them and opt for younger work force which is also cheaper.

i. Culture and the role of culture in interpersonal relations, behavior, attitudes, values and perceptions  Culture is important. Inside the culture, man is dictated what he or she should do. If the culture in the place (for example, in Europe) has discouraged the practice of discriminating people because of age, the discrimination versus the elderly would have not been a problem. Culture is important because it is easily transferred and transmitted to an individual. This has allowed for the rapid spread and growth of cultural factors, features and beliefs. In the age of immense cross-cultural heterogeneity found across the world, cultural traits can be easily transferred and implanted in another culture, affecting the culture. In a place like Europe where human traffic is easy since terrestrial borders are easy to cross, the cultural characteristic of discriminating against the elderly can be easily transferred from one culture to the other, and thus influence its spread.

C. Potential problems the population has to deal with
The elderly population has to deal with many problems as a result of the discrimination it has to compete among themselves for the very scarce job opportunities that are actually given to the elderly they have to struggle and make do with what the government can offer them with regard to social welfare needs like health, medicine and other things they have to bear the psychological, emotional and mental burden of knowing that the society has discriminated against you and the government is close to being powerless to do something about it and make corrections to this incorrect social behavior. In a case to case basis, the complexities are magnified. The potential problems are bigger and more difficult.

There are many different journals that accommodate the needs of the elders by publishing the works of professionals. These works tackles the factors that are directly affecting the elders in the community or society and how they are being targeted by discrimination and bias because of their age. In an article written by De Mendonca Lima, et. al., (2003) published in the International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, it revealed that the elderly are being discriminated upon and these results to stigma upon the elderly, particularly those who have mental health needs (De Mendonca Lima et al, 2003, p. 679). This problem on discrimination targeting the elderly, particularly in Europe, just got a turn for the worse with information like this surfacing among professionals. This strengthens the idea that Europe indeed has a problem with regards to its elderly since their elderly are being victimized by discrimination. If this trend continues, then this situation can pose a potential problem in particular to elders who are in need of mental age. It is no secret that the individual is becoming more and more prone to mental health problems. If the society cannot provide enough care for the elderly as a result of the discrimination in the health and welfare aspect of the society, then this is a portent of how worse things would turn in the future should this problem remains unchecked.

D. Suggested possible solutions that could be implemented in a professional setting
The recognition of the problem regarding discrimination and the elderly in Europe requires a course of action. Since there are many aspects regarding discrimination and the elderly, there are many particular course of action that is needed to be explored to address this problem manifesting in different fields and spheres in the society. Each specific form of discrimination has its own distinctive features and requires specific attention (Council of Europe, 2006, p. 5). In view and recognition of the fact that there is a problem in discrimination directed towards the elderly population particularly in Europe, the next question now begs to explore the answer to the query on what can be done. The European Union, according to McDonald and Potton (1997) seems to be exploring the ways and means wherein the elderly can be protected from the threat of discrimination versus the elderly. This is by using the power of legislation and law, among other things, to curb the possibility of this phenomenon becoming a trend and later on a significant social characteristic which is morally and ethically unacceptable (McDonald and Potton, 1997, p. 293). In the paper that was supposed to tackle solutions and course of action, the European Union or EU also deliberated regarding the absence of a consensus regarding the course of action for protecting the elderly and the implementation of the necessary laws, as well as measures to address the issue ageism and its negative impact in the society particularly in Europe.

The ideal solution is to have policies that will be implemented in the professional setting. For example, professionals interacting with elders should be guided by policies that dictate the behavior of the professionals toward the elders and protect the elders toward the possible acts of discrimination that can be done and directed towards them. Also, the importance of being informed, of being vigilant, and in being proactive in fighting the wrong system in the society cannot be downplayed. In every issue of discrimination, like sexual, gender and ethnic-based discrimination, the society was able to hurdle such problem of the society not just because of what the legislators and the government did, but more importantly, because of the participation of the target and potential and actual victims. The same consciousness should be applied in the fight to abolish the social problem of discrimination of the elderly. For the government, what they can do is use the power of implementing laws, rules and policies to give the elders the means by which they can protect and defend themselves from cases of discrimination versus the elderly and to discourage those who are thinking of doing something like that in the future. Law is indeed a powerful tool that can be used to change the conditions of the society. For years now, professionals in the field of law particularly inside Europe has been believed to be working in this particular problem. This was reflected in the work of Meenan (2007) which explores the important aspects regarding the EU and its role in addressing the elderly and discrimination problem in the continent and among its member countries (Meenan, 2007, p. 39).

Solutions to problems that will require the participation of professionals, and solutions that can affect the professionals at the same time is being worked on consistently by concerned organization and groups. In fact, the demand for such groups and the roles and responsibilities that they undertake created many groups in Europe directed at helping the elderly victimized by problems like discrimination and the growth of these groups and their works illustrate the growth and persistence of the problem at hand. Groups like Active Aging in Europe, Europe Senior Citizens Union which provided an article in its website regarding discrimination versus the elderly in Europe, as well as Age Concern - UK and other research networks and social welfare groups in the continent are believed to be consistently working to bring to the fore suggestions and solutions to the problems created by the issue on discrimination versus the elders (European Senior Citizen Union, 2009).

The elderly should find it very satisfying that the EU is closely looking at the disposition of its member countries when it comes to protecting its elders from discrimination in all forms and in all spheres of the social life. Law has been, so far, the most powerful weapon for agencies of change like the EU. That is why the EU is relentless in discovering the loopholes in the laws of its member countries and is active in reminding them of their responsibility to address the situation and rectify the problem. For example, it has, in particular, investigated Spain and its state of protection for the elderly, to which the Spanish government was found lacking (European Union, 2007, p. 759). The committee observes that age does not figure explicitly among the grounds of prohibited discrimination (European Union, 2007, p. 759), In the countrys Article 14, it was explained that the Spaniard is only protected versus discrimination in the aspects of birth, race, sex, religion and opinion, as well as in any other condition or personal and social circumstance. But the committee was also happy to report development, especially on how Spain, during the next investigation, has been found with the necessary framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation that protects the welfare and interests of the elderly and protects them from incidence of discrimination (European Union, 2007, p. 759).

Besides Spain, other European countries were also examined by the European Union to see if the existing laws in the country are supportive of the elders and help the elderly fight discrimination practices in the many different fields of the society. According to the report of the EU, Italy, another prominent European country, has had a marked and positive progression regarding safeguarding the society and making it considerate to the plight of the elders through the laws and policies that the Italian government have been developing for the sake of the elderly and for the protection of the elderly from discrimination (Council of Europe, 2007, p. 756). This was followed by developments in the field of health care as well as decision-making assistance so that the elderly is assisted and is allowed to fully live their lives without the threat of discrimination stemming from their age.

In 2007, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has also noted that some of the actions that are necessary to rectify the situation and address the problem include the review of the social support programmes for the elderly (Bockel, 2007, p. 69). In the discussion of the protection of human rights in Europe, politicians argue about significant cases and problems in the continent. In the course of the discussion, they identified as one of the problems the discrimination versus the elderly in many parts of Europe. In the discussion, they identified the course of action and the path they intend to pursue to address the problem (Great Britain Parliament, 2006, p. 13).

IV. Conclusion
The elderly has been discriminated (Medeiros, 2007). It is happening in many places and one of them is Europe. Regardless of geographic underpinnings, the world should re-assess how it appraises and treats its elderly. It should re-examine how the society handles the problem of discrimination versus the elderly, see its impact and explore the ways and means for the problem to be remedied. The elderly maybe not similar in characteristics compared to how they are in the peak of their productivity, but they are nonetheless capable of being productive. As human beings, they should never be treated with discrimination and should not be marginalized. Like every one else, they have needs that the society should provide for. They can still contribute something that the society can appreciate and use.

The stress experienced by the mother is felt and affects the development of the unborn child inside her. Even with the fact that the nervous systems of the mother and the unborn child are separate from each other, strong emotions exhibited by the mother may cause hormonal and chemical imbalance to the child. This is primarily because the increased hormone and chemicals in the bloodstream of the mother passes through the placenta wall going to the baby, almost similar to the process on how food nutrients reach the child inside the womb. Since the hormones and chemicals from the mother are transferredreaches the womb, they, on one way or another, recreate the feelings of the mother and consequently transfers the feeling to the unborn child.

Prenatal stress causes complications in the pregnancy process. Complications may range from physiological to psychological birth defects. The unborn child in the womb is not fully equipped yet to protect himself. Thus he is very much prone to the negative impact that is brought about by the stress hormonal imbalance. One very crucial point that prenatal stress may affect is the offsprings developing brain. The effects of stress may or may not be readily noticed when the child is born. There are times when the effect is on cognition and behavior. Since the offsprings development did not undergo the normal and healthy process, the possibility of having of psychological disorders is great.

The unborn child in the mothers womb is generally helpless. His bodily mechanisms havent developed yet to protect himself from adverse effects of the happenings in his environment. His development relies greatly on the practices and habits of his mother. Thus, if the wall that his progress relies on is unstable, there is a great risk of a weak and unsound health. Directly or indirectly, the bodily process of the mother and the unborn child are intertwined to each other. Hence, prenatal stress is strongly discouraged.

Takakis analysis of the English views of the Irish and Native American races and the suppression of the Nathaniel Bacon revolt suggests that racism and racial conflict always has an underlying motive in greed and the lust for power.

The definition of the Irish as the racial other led to them being dehumanized in the minds of the English.  The English saw Englishness as the equivalent of being civilized and being true Christians belonging to the Reformed church, while the Irish were savage heathens, Catholics of a particularly degraded variety (Takaki).

The English saw themselves as inherently civilized, their brutal occupation of Ireland and genocidal campaigns of subjugation did not render them uncivilized in their self image. On the other hand, for the Irish, things like their pastoral lifestyle and tribal system of government rendered those savages in the view of the English (Noonan).

Irish attempts to resist the English occupation only served to reinforce the English opinion that the Irish were savages. For the English it legitimized using more and more brutal tactics in the attempt to suppress them.

The characterization of the Irish had definite advantages from a material standpoint. Since the Irish were just wild people they could be classed together with other creatures that lived wild on the land the trees, the birds and the beasts. The lands of the Irish were thus converted into terra nullis which the English could claim for themselves and take over without any guilt. Every subsequent colonization attempt used this model.

The characterization of the Irish as savages also meant that driving them off their lands had no more moral penalty than driving wild animals out of a forest in order to convert it into arable land. If the Irish resisted, they could be exterminated, men women and children, and it would be no more than an extermination of wild animals that threaten a human habitation.

The racial model of the other as savages was brought in effect in the Americas as well. In the case of the Native Americans, the effect of dehumanization was exacerbated by the dire straits the new colonists found themselves in. In desperate need for food and supplies, they attacked the Natives with whom they had earlier established good relations (Takaki).

An argument for the colonization of Ireland was that since the Irish were mainly pastoralists, the productive capacity of the land for agricultural produce was being wasted. This argument was applied to the lands of the Native Americans as well, even though it was known that the Native Americans farmed corn on a large scale. This shows that the savage as a (non-English, non-Christian) non-agriculturalist race was a rigid social construct with little basis in actual observations of the Native Americans (Takaki).

According to Takaki, the institution of slavery was built upon the tensions of an underlying class struggle. The plantation owners feared rebellion from their White indentured servants and started replacing them with Black in indentured servitude (Takaki). These were then replaced with Black slaves who were easier to exploit. Legislation was passed that allowed Whites to oppress the Blacks, gradually Blacks were deprived of all rights allowing White slave owners and White indentured servants to bond together over shared superior status to Blacks (Takaki).

The Nathaniel Bacon rebellion, although was based on the extremely racist view that the colonial authorities were over indulgent and overprotective towards Native American who should be driven off their lands or exterminated, nevertheless brought together Blacks and lower class Whites (Takaki). It was for this reason that it was seen as extremely dangerous by the colonial authorities who knew that the stability of the existing order depended upon the unity of lower and upper class whites in the oppression of Blacks.

There is a lot of stereotyping of the Asian American in the movies and other forms of commercial media. The stereotyping is based on the race or gender of the individuals who are portrayed in many commercial media all over the United States which creates an impression of what the Asian Americans are to other Americans. The commercial media has also been distributed to other parts of the world labeling Asian Americans women as exotic and sex hungry while the men are portrayed as gangsters and abusive. Movie producers have ensured that the Asian Americans appear more frequently in the movies committing undesirable acts.

Since the Asian American society in the United States consist of about 3 of the total population in the country and they are not evenly distributed through out the country, most Americans learn about the Asian community from these commercial medias. There is no sufficient coverage of the Asian American community in the popular media which could have changed the Americans understanding of the Asian society by revealing the biasness in the commercial media. However, the character of Asians living in America depicted by these commercial media does not reflect the true characters of the members of the Asian community (Mahdzan  Ziegler, p 1).

The Asian Americans in American movies have for many years been portrayed as evil scheming. The trend of depicting Chinese men in movies as ruthless and cold has not changed much since the beginning of the 20th century. Despite the fact that the Asian community have lived in the United States for more than a century and prospered in different aspects of life over the years, commercial media portrays them as new immigrants. They are depicted as speakers of broken English and people who find it difficult to be assimilated into the American community. They are also portrayed as greedy bandits who are out to bring to a halt the white civilization and laws in the world. The women are also portrayed as weak or passive and people who have accepted to be abused sexually by men (Tuan, pg 152).

In majority of movies such as Lethal Weapon 4 among others, Asian American men play the role of a gangster. This has resulted into a myth among the Americans that cities in China and other Asian countries breed criminals such as drug dealers, gangsters and prostates. Another stereotype on the Asian Americans in movies is them being depicted to have lower intelligence compared to the white actors. They are more often depicted to make unintelligent moves which cost their lives. For example in a popular movie, Rambo, a single white man (Sylvester Stallone) defeats an army in Vietnam single handedly in a quest to fight communism in Asia which portrays the whites to be superior. The interracial romance in many movies portrays Asian men to have no abilities to be ideal partners. Most of the Asian women in the movies have men from other races which depict that they prefer white men (Mahdzan  Ziegler, pg 5).

In conclusion, the stereotype of Asian American society in the United States and other parts of the world is a social construct of commercial media from Hollywood. It is depicted by the commercial media that the Asian men are ruthless gangsters with little intelligence. They are also portrayed as to lack ability to have a romantic relationship while the white men are portrayed to win all battles against Asians while being able to have relationships with Asian women.

The Jewish community as a whole including those in America, Europe, Israel and other parts of the world, has a distinctive blend of kinship. This has been observed as far back as during the biblical period of their origin and more so in modern times when their nation has been sidelined by the populous neighboring Muslim states. The Jewish community in America has been recorded as the largest diaspora community in the world. However, it has lately been described as ambivalent owing to the fact that it wants to be like the Americans in an attempt to affiliate itself with the American society and at the same time remain autonomous as Jews with a unique and individual way of life (Liebman, 1973).

American civilization has greatly influenced Jewish culture. The generation since World War Two no longer views being Jewish as an all-embracing way of life. Though, they accept it, their reaction towards their Jewishness is characterized as indifferent rather than negative (Liebman, 1973). Despite embracing modern civilization, familial solidarity still exists among the Jewish community as it enables them to function as a community and at the same time preserve their Jewish way of life. In America for example, young Jewish men are concerned with Israel with many enlisting to the army to defend its existence yet at the same time they are marrying individuals who are not Jews by birth or assimilation. This has been viewed as an extreme form of ambivalence among the Jewish community.

The rise of new religious pluralism where evidently there are no barriers or differences in value between Jews and other people who are not Jews makes it possible for American Jews to assimilate easily socially. They no longer study or observe the law, prayer has been relegated to another lesser level and private intercourse with their kin no longer takes priority. They are now actively involved in reform movements together with other Christian colleagues (Cohen, 1983).

Modernization, on the other hand has replaced the organic ties which distinguished the Jews and evidently recognized them as a covenantal community linked by a shared destiny with associational ties. The associational approach which they adopted is typically an America approach whereby the social order is based on affiliation to a particular organization or group which is chosen rather heritage which is acquired by virtue of the fact that you were born Jewish (Cohen, 1983). This affiliation enables the Jews to acquire not only membership in different organizations hence reinforcing their network of Jewish ties, but also becoming well enmeshed into the larger society and acquiring a social status.

However, though the associational ties provide the momentum for the continuation of Jewish life in American society, the organic ties still continue to be strengthened in an attempt to ensure they are protected in the event that their survival is threatened. The Holocaust, during which the Jewish population was greatly reduced, serves as a constant reminder (Liebman, 1973). Most of the citizens in America are originally immigrants, stemming from a wide range of ethic and racial groups, and what bind them together are their shared values. The American notion of nationalism is based on shared values and consenting to them forms the basis for citizenship. The Jews are therefore able to incorporate into the American society since they can easily share and accept this concept of American nationalism as they too are bound by a common destiny and shared values. However, their liberalism is legendary as they continue to relentlessly fight anti-Semitism as they are committed to Israel and maintain their survival while defining themselves as a nation by virtue of the fact that they were born Jewish which draws them together for self-protection.

With the advent of the world economic crisis in 2008, unemployment has emerged as the biggest social problem facing the Canadian society today. Traditionally, Canadian and American economies have been largely interdependent on each other with each ranking as the largest trading partner to one another. The meltdown in the US economy therefore meant that the Canadian economy took a beating, and one of the manifestations of this meltdown on the Canadian economy was increased unemployment. Many people are out of work today as a result of the crisis and in need of alternative engagement. Left without a source of income, these people may need social services such as counseling and other activities to keep them busy.

Technology is also presenting another problem. Technology may have made life easier for many, but with it came other problems that have weakened the social fabric that holds the Canadian society. People are now making more friends on social networking sites such as facebook and MySpace instead of the traditional human contact method. This presents a problem of creating a society that is made up of strangers and therefore no shared fears, aspirations nor destiny for the Canadian society. It is up to the social workers to create an enabling environment for Canadian people and especially the young generation to engage more with each other. One of the ways would be by organizing more social engagements for the people or helping the government develop programs that would reduce the problem.

Related to the above problem is juvenile delinquency. Juvenile delinquency is worrying to any social expert because it may signal a bigger underlying problem. Deviant children are indicative of deficient parenthood, which means that the society could be sitting on time bomb. Social workers have responsibility of educating parents on parenting skills. Parents may be well meaning when they overwork themselves to provide for their children but they are sometimes unaware that what they are doing could be harming the children. The social workers may for example come up with a checklist that parents can use to monitor their parenting skills and ways.

The changing healthcare environment has brought marketing front and center. Most of the trends affecting healthcare point to the need for increased marketing involvement, and all of the current developments in healthcare have a marketing dimension. As more interface is required between healthcare organizations and their environments, the role of the marketer will only grow in importance. More and more, marketing is becoming the action end of healthcare.

Research Objectives
Building awareness With the introduction of new products and the emergence of an informed consumer, healthcare organizations were required to build awareness of their services and expose target audiences to their capabilities.

Improving market penetration Healthcare organizations were faced with growing competition, and marketing represented a means for increasing patient volumes, growing revenues, and gaining market share. With few new patients in many markets, marketing was critical for retaining existing customers and attracting customers from competitors.

Influencing consumer decision making Once it was realized that the consumer had a role to play in healthcare decision making, the role of marketing in influencing this process was recognized. Whether it involved convincing consumers to decide on a particular organizations services or to speed up the decision-making process, marketing was becoming increasingly important.

Data Sources
Primary Data Collection (Reasons) Primary data collection involves the use of surveys, focus groups, observational methods and other techniques for the stated purpose of obtaining information on a specific topic. Primary research is likely to be used when certain types of data cannot be acquired from secondary sources.

Sources (1) conduct a set of interviews to determine current consumer attitudes about the service and (2) conduct a pilot study in which consumer perception of the proposed service is measured (primary experimental data) (3) Survey (4) Observation (5) Focus groups (6) Experiments (7) Case studies
Secondary Data Collection (Reasons) Secondary data refers to data gathered for some other purpose besides planning, marketing, or business development but that is nevertheless of value in the formulation of marketing strategy. Secondary data is the bread-and-butter of marketing research and should be used whenever possible. Indeed, the most effective marketing researchers are those who know how to find, access and interpret secondary data (Kindig, 1997).

Sources (1) examine hospital records for information relating to past introductions of similar services (2) Many of the sources of data used by marketers in other industries can be accessed by healthcare marketers, although it may sometimes be necessary to seek out health-specific data sources (3) Government Agencies (4) Professional Associations (5) Private Organizations (6) Commercial Data Vendors

Research Instruments
Marketers can gain access to the Internet for literature reviews and other sources of relevant information. Most bibliographic databases can be accessed through the Internet and any number of other sources. The data collection process can take a variety of forms, but will typically involve both primary data collection and the use of secondary data.

Research InstrumentPurpose  Reason for UseObservationData collection by means of observation is performed according to specified rules based on stated objectives. Observational methods are typically used in marketing research when data cannot be obtained through interviews or from secondary sources.Individual and Group InterviewsIn-depth interviews typically involve one respondent and one interviewer. The in-depth interview is of value when the respondent must be probed regarding his or her answers. Complicated questions or questions that do not lend themselves to simple dichotomous responses often require personal interviews.Mail SurveysMail surveys have the advantage of being a relatively inexpensive way to collect data. These surveys also provide anonymity to the respondent and eliminate potential interviewer bias.ExperimentsAllows for the isolation of a phenomenon in a controlled setting that eliminates other influences useful for testing concepts and materials.Case studiesAllows detailed description of a programs operation andor the experiences of participants identifies positivenegative attributes of the program provides basis for development of quantitative methods.Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI)CATI has become increasingly common among survey researchers, and inexpensive software has made this technology available to most interviewers.

Sampling Plan
Who Will Be Surveyed
A marketing activity must be directed to someone or something and a number of terms are used to refer to the target for marketing. After having answered the question What are we marketing, the next question becomes To whom are we marketing it Just as the healthcare product has been undergoing change, so has the healthcare customer.

Producers of consumer health products have always had their purchasers and insurance plans their members, but now the customer for healthcare providers is being transformed from a patient into a consumer, customer, client, or some other manifestation that is more in keeping with the current healthcare environment. Some of the targets of healthcare marketers are consumers, customers, clients, patients, enrollees, end-users (Pointer and Orlikoff, 2002).

Number of Respondents
How large s sample Much folklore surrounds this question. One false believe is that a sample must be large or it is not representative. In random sampling there are a number of important factors which affect the size of sample. Since a sample is only a partial reflection of the population from which it is drawn. It must be an acceptable representation of the population, but what is acceptable Ultimately this is determined by the researcher by evaluating (1) the desired size of the interval range around the estimated parameter and (2) an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.

Selection of Respondents
Given the wide range of customer types, it may be difficult to know where to best focus the marketing effort. The situation may not always be clear-cut. With a general medical practice or a hospital, customers may arrive at the door through a variety of paths. Patients may be self-referred or, in the case of the hospital, choose a particular emergency room. They may be referred by a physician or other clinician or even by some other type of referral agent (e.g., social service agency). They may be channeled to the organization by a health plan or managed care organization.

Market segmentation can take a number of different forms and some of the more common are describe below. Selection can be based on demographic segmentation, geographic segmentation, psychographic segmentation, usage segmentation, and payor segmentation.

Contact Methods
Research InstrumentPurpose  Reason for UseThe InternetThe Internet is already becoming a force with regard to health data. Although the focus at the time of this writing has been on consumer-oriented health information on the World Wide Web, data for use by health professionals is rapidly expanding.
Face-to-Face SurveysThese surveys represent a valuable method for collecting data when the respondent must be probed regarding his or her answers. Complicated questions or questions that require explication on the part of the interviewer can best be handled in a face-to-face situation.Telephone InterviewsTelephone interviews represent a quick way to acquire information. Using multiple interviewers in a telephone interview bank, considerable data can be acquired in a short timeframe.