Sociology

Consumer behavior entails the psychological process that consumers go through in recognizing needs, finding ways to solve these needs, making purchase decisions such as whether to buy a product or not, make plans about buying the product (Blythe 2008). Therefore, there are a number of ways, which a shop can ensure that its customers stay for longer inside the shop whilst doing their shopping.

Discussion
A way of letting the customer to staying more inside the shop is making them happy and contented to do their shopping in your shop. However, one solution is offering good customer service as this will make them enjoy doing their shopping worthwhile and interesting. There are some proven ways that make customers happy. These are been courteous, resourceful, prompt, under promise and over deliver and extend your service (Khan 2007)

To be courteous to customers is very important, as it will make them feel more appreciated and respected. The management of a shop should go for an extra mile and make the customer feel that they are sincere in offering their help when their help is requested. Shop assistants should always address the customer one at a time and refer to them as sir or madam as this will make them feel that they have their undivided attention. They should also try to have pleasant smiles on their faces, as it will even make the customer feel that it would be easy to approach them.

Shops should try to go an extra mile to be resourceful. When customers request for something, then the management tells them that they cannot fulfill their demand because of reasons such as it is the shops standard policy. The customers usually do not like to hear this and this can make the customer never to ever shop at the shop ever again. Therefore, the management of the shop should be creative as there are quite a number of ways to deal with a shops policies and make it a strategy to broaden the service way beyond the standard procedures so that customers needs can be contented.

Shops should cease giving phony promises and they should therefore make it a rule never to give promises when they cannot deliver. This is the greatest way to attract and keep the same customers to a shop, as the customers will feel that the management is transparent in all their dealings.

A shop should widen their services that they should add more services that can be convenient for the even if it is not part of their usual service procedures. A shop should therefore, do something for a customer that will make them feel that the management of the shop are genuinely interested in serving their needs for example open the shop doors for the elderly and disabled.

The management of a shop should consider having an area set aside inside the shop for relaxing such as a coffee or ice-cream parlor with wireless internet access. This can make the customers happy and gives them a reason to stay and they will take their time at the shop doing shopping and later hang out at this parlor. However, the negative side of this is that customers may just hang at the coffee parlor, and later maybe buy only a single item worth little money. According to (Khan 2007), some shops that are financially cash strapped not agree with this idea of an ice cream or coffee due to this reason.

The management of a shop should consider various in-shop incentives, such as promotions and attractive layout design to lure customers to stay longer in the shop and thus pass many sections of the shop. According to (ODougherty 2007), a lot of customer traffic around the store, does not generally mean many sales. This is because of some factors that influence customer behavior inside the shop. These factors are the features of the different brands found in the shop, the different characteristics of the customers and factors that are based on different situations. The attractive lay out design of a shop can enable the customers to go through all the aisles, product categories and gondolas because their attracted interest. The more the inviting a shop is, the longer the customers will stay and they will even become more loyal to the shop.

The management of a shop should intend to target a local customer base. That is, the management should know the neighborhood that the shop is based and know the kind of people that reside there. Therefore, for example if the people that reside in the neighborhood are young, the n the shop can try to design the interior with the latest designs to attract them as well as employing young staff, who can relate with them more. This may enable the customers to shop for longer in the shop, as they will enjoy their shopping experience at the shop.

The management of a shop should scale possible competition from nearby shops. For example, if another shop attracts young customers, the management should opt for a more serious atmosphere and even target different customers such as older customers. The shop can make the prices of their goods more or less, to make the shop even appealing. This can make the customers stay longer in the shop comparing the prices of different products.

A shop can introduce stamp cards to customers such as buy five, get one free. The shop can give a free good to any customer that buy after the management stamps the card when it is full of stamps. This will motivate the customers to shop frequently and for longer in the shop.

A shop should play good music and the one that targets the right crowd. The shop should listen to the customer feedback regarding the music. The customer may stay in the shop longer because he or she would feel comfortable and entertained while still doing some shopping.

The management of a shop should ensure that the shops bathroom facilities are very clean and everything is in good shape from the toilet basins to the taps. Nothing can make customers happy when shopping than using clean and attractive lavaratories. Therefore, customers can take their time shopping around the store, because they know, if the need arises to go to the bathroom, the lavatory is remarkably clean.

Conclusion
Shops are often challenged with making customers happy while doing their shopping, as well as staying longer in the shop. The factors that make customers stay longer in shops are such as been courteous, prompt resourceful, extended service and others. Good facilities such as clean bathrooms and the right music can make the customers feel comfortable and thus stay for longer doing their shopping at the shop. The right personnel in the shop should be friendly and ready to help the customers out when they ask for help. A shop should always show genuine interest to the customers, for example open the door to the elderly and disabled customers. This will make them feel that the shop is genuinely interested in them and thus will take their time in the shop.

Therefore, it is extremely vital for shops to make the customers feel appreciated and happy, and this will enable them stay in the shop for a longer period.

Bourgeois (1995) tries to bring into the limelight the do-or-die search of respect by the poor crack sellers of El Barrio (East Harlem) in his ethnography, In Search for Respect. In his straight and candid interviews with his respondents who are more than willing to describe the illegal economic activities that characterizes their neighborhood, Bourgeois makes it known that, though these people lives in abject poverty, they need to earn a living (search for respect), even if it means them engaging in underground economic activities. In fact, as Bourgois argues, the El Barrio dwellers are not law breakers as many may perceive them to be. He postulates that, law breaking is only experienced in the process of selling cracks and other underground economic activities, which in this case is not an illegal activity given it enhances the dignity of the participants. Even so, some El Barrio dwellers live very straight lives, holding steady jobs and leaving perhaps in the right course of searching for respect. 

As a matter of fact, indulging in crack selling is not a bad thing, after all, given it enhances economic independency. For instance, Primo (a chief crack dealer) opines that, it is incumbent upon every El Barrio dwellers to struggle to earn their own living rather than engage the society in blames and counter blames. To them, respect is about making money and earning ones life and not depending on an outside force. In fact, Primo puts it plainly that, If I have a problem its because I brought it upon myself. Nobody gotta worry about me. Am gonna handle it. Its my problem. (p.54) Moreover, majority of those low paying jobs require El Barrio dwellers to take low-level positions and hence being subordinate to higher authority making them loose their dignities. After all, the norms of high-rise and office-corridor culture are very distinct from the street cultures definitions of personal dignity (115).

Due to the numerous inequalities within the mainstream society the people of El Barrio tend to find respect in a unique manner. To them respect is not got from offices or even from houses of worship, it is a unique thing, because it is created and perpetuated in the violent streets. For instance, Bourgois offers that, street culture  creates a real environment for autonomous personal dignity (p.8). As it can be seen, these people just like those in the mainstream society need to make a living and at the same time cultivate an identity for themselves. Apparently, their identity is characterized by violence and drug selling. From these elucidations it can therefore be analyzed that, the drug selling and the violence that comes with other illegal economic activities, are just but awkward signs of the deep culture that gives shape to their identity and hence respect to the El Barrio dwellers. In fact, Bourgois boldly postulates that substance abuse is just but a vivid symbol that stands for a marginalized and alienated society.

Reasons for Engaging In Underground Activities
As Bourgois boldly describes the crack sellers in El Barrio, it is evident that, theirs is a do-or-die situation. There are virtually no other avenues (legal ones) for making a living except engaging in underground economic activities. Being immigrants from the Puerto Rico, a relatively poor country that he describes as being of no substantial economic importance to its citizens and even to the US, the El Barrio dwellers find it very hard to procure white color, or even factor jobs that can enhance a better living. In fact, he offers that, to reduce this seemingly engraved crack selling culture among El Barrio dwellers it is possible that the sell of drugs and other activities like gabbling be made legal.

Moreover, from the mouth of Primo, it is clear that the poverty levels in this part of the city are even much more than in other parts of the country. The only available jobs are found in the service sector, which is obviously beyond the boundaries of the Harlem community making it very hard for the El Barrio dwellers to access them. Again, El Barrio dwellers reasons that even such jobs are in most cases poorly paid, and as such, not highly respected. Moreover, the masses who are not lucky to get such jobs due lack of proper knowledge and skills, they will definitely end up being recruited as drug peddlers.

The other major reason that makes crack selling the main economic activity in El Barrio is the age-old social marginalization on dwellers of Harlem. Since its founding, Harlem has been known as a place for law breakers and drug addicts, and therefore anyone living there, whether they are from Puerto Rico or not they will be branded as societal outlaws and hence become economically marginalized, forcing them to engage in backstreet activities such as selling words (gambling), selling illegal drugs such as cocaine, engaging in illegal forms of trade, working as seamstresses, or even babysitting.

Thirdly, there excess supply of drugs in El Barrio causes many people to indulge in them and therefore denting their hopes of turning around the state of things. Again, it can be argued that there overconsumption of drugs leads to them being poverty. As depicted by Caesars habits of spending every penny he earns each day and then coming back for more Primo says, He always wanted me to pay him each night, but then hed take the money and break out to smoke. Hed come find me later, begging me for more money (87).  Bourgois also opines that most crack sellers are always broke because they tend to overspend the little income they earn  he calls it the tendency to overspend income windfalls conspicuously is universal in an economy that fetishes material goods and services (91).

In Search of Respect, Bourgeois ethnography outlines respect, structure and agency as three fluid things. He depicts respect as being a street-made thing whereby anybody who does not subscribe to the notions and believes of the street is perceived to be devoid of respect. On the other hand, he depicts the El Barrio society as being highly marginalized, a thing that makes its dwellers to huddle together albeit in illegal dealings. This huddling together is so intertwined that it forms an agency whose destiny is to mitigate the pangs of pain inflicted by the extreme levels of poverty. Rays crack sellers for instance, forms an intertwined network that is made up of crack sellers, their customers and even the entire members of the El Barrio community that benefits directly or indirectly from the crack selling proceeds. Most importantly, the search for respect which starts with shaping or even preserving ones dignity can be said to be structured and layered to accommodate all willing members of the community. As a matter of fact Bourgois argues, Rays crack dealers and their families, contributes on a concrete practical level to calling attention to the tragedy of persistent poverty a racial segregation in the urban United States (315).

Conclusion
When he went to El Barrio, Bourgois was well aware about the illegal economic activities that went on unabated in this poor part of the city. However, about a year down the line, he discovered that illegal sale of drugs or simply crack selling was not a preserve of a few people who are morally corrupt or even lazy to take up legal jobs like those offered by sweatshops or even in the construction sector. He discovered that crack selling had deeply infiltrated into the hearts of a greater number of the Harlem dwellers. As a matter of fact, crack selling played a huge role in shaping everydays lives for the majority of the El Barrio population. When people are marginalized and deprived of the most basic things in life what do they do The answer to this question lies squarely in the crack business that defines El Barrio. It is obvious that people must survive no matter what the circumstances maybe tough. Apparently, to El Barrio dwellers, this means of survival came in the name of crack selling. Most importantly, so that they may no be seen as a nuisance to the well-up in the society, they decided to search for respect in making their own money. They even refused to work in low paying jobs, choosing to subscribe to, the street-defined dignity of refusing to work honestly for low wages (130).

According to Cohen (1972), the redevelopment of Londons working-class neighbourhoods which favoured social elites or the gentry resulted in the marginalization of working class residents, loss of community and deterioration of collective power in the East End. Thus, there was a breakdown of socio-cultural interaction and dynamics that led to the development of youth subcultures. The objective of this paper is to examine Cohens perspective on the impact of rapid development in London to development in the 1950s which prompted the subcultures (pp. 99-102). These subcultures became a critical channel for socialization and political action but also created distance with mainstream society that led to conflict and alienation (Fiske et al, 2009, p. 1295).  Cohens perspectives, which were based on his examinations of the impact of Londons 1950s redevelopment highlights how public policies can have such a profound effect on individual and social order and perception. Today, many cities, not only London are dealing with an influx of migration which has significantly increased intercultural interactions. Though these trends have the potential to enrich society, there is also the challenge of having to deal with increased conflict and greater competition which often threatens already marginalized populations the most.

Background
In the 1950s, the city managers of London launched a rapid development project designed to revitalize the capital which still was not able to recover from the damages of the Second World War. This urban renewal project was designed to attract new residents as well as revitalize key areas of the city for trade and commerce. Many of the areas that were targeted for redevelopments were already resided in by working-class families who were then moved to what Cohen (1972) describes as fringe neighbourhoods. The areas were settled into by migrants who redesigned the areas according to their individual cultural and social backgrounds. This created a divide between neighbourhoods the new development was for the social elite, young professionals and affluent immigrants and the suburbs which housed the relocated residents were typically known to be run-down and underdeveloped areas (pp. 94-98). As the discrepancy of quality of life became apparent to authorities, the city planning authorities sought mitigate the situation by launching the development of high-rise housing projects specifically for working-class families. City administrators also endeavoured to attract back original residents through encouraging participation in new industries and trade and commerce channels (pp. 97-100).

However, Cohen believes that the effort further marginalized these populations and increased the social and economic challenges of urban life. Cohen also gives particular attention to what he calls the collapse of matrilocal residence, a term which he uses to refer to the tendency of nuclear family extensions to reside in close proximity to each other (p. 96). This further limits the capacity of families and individuals to sustain social ties and support systems which in turn is associated with the breakdown of shared values, mores and standards of conduct. Cohen also believes that the redevelopment created unprecedented economic and social stress among the working class. He points out that post-World War II, many family enterprises, traditionally the backbone of local trade and industries, were facing severe competition from industries and at the same time, labour and experts were being channelled to these industries from traditional family enterprises. There was even a campaign for the latter it was deemed nationalistic to support the growth on these large-scale private industries that suffered from the war (pp. 97-98). At the same time, there was also an effort to promote the modernization project as a national development agenda, to reposition the country as the leader of trade and commerce in Europe. The publicity is said to have severely hampered labour supply among community industries creating the notion of labour aristocracy.

The population that was most affected by these trends were new entrants to the labour market. The transition between the working environment of their parents and the working conditions brought on by the redevelopment were significant according to Cohen because they required not only the accommodation of new labour conditional but also a new social, economic and political order in very short period of time (p.102).  To cope with the stress of these developments, according to Cohen, these populations created subculture groups to have a sense of identity and social reference. From this perspective, Cohen characterizes subcultures symbolic structures, not actually representing the individuals who make up the groups, representing a lifestyle or social perspective that does not fully conform to mainstream society. Identification of these subcultures can be made through a set of social subsystems which include their manner of dress, the music that is associated with them, the language or lexicon used, and the rituals and customs that are coupled with membership or identity (pp. 100  102).

Analysis and Implications
According to a report developed by the World Bank (2009), the typical stress of community living are multiplies in urban settings because of the intensification of competition for resources, spaces and opportunities. At the same time, Rothwell (2003, pp. 23-28) points out that in time of stress, individuals need greater social reinforcement to be able to have a sense of security and belongingness. In the case illustrated by Cohen (1972, p. 99-100) of Londons redevelopment in the 1950s, he suggests that the economic, social and political challenges that the working class of the era had to deal with contributed to the increase of urban stress and the breakdown of traditional support systems which in turn created the platform for the development of subcultures. Similarly, Majhanovich (2002) points out that the development of subordinate organizations is an indication that there are populations feel under-represented or unrecognized without necessarily becoming a functional organization. Thus, their organization is a means of collecting power for representation or just recognition. This also supports Cohens (1972, pp. 99-100) assertion that subcultures are symbolic organizations, where membership is often individually defined and association can be only conceptual.

Cohens definition of subcultures can be challenging but studying the examples that he provides is a great resource in understanding his perspective. Some of the challenges in his definition lie in his characterization of the phenomenon as symbolical rather than a collective of individuals. Another area of difficulty is the mechanism how youth membership in subcultures actually delays adulthood. Based on Cohens perspective, there is a suggestion is that there is almost a combative relationship between subcultures and mainstream society. This can be particularly apparent in view of his characterizations of subcultures as having Mohawks or being active in counter-culture movements (pp. 101-102). New research is more liberal, if not democratic, in its view of subcultures, noting that any group that creates an association with a particular mode of life or belief system that does not fully conform to social precepts can be considered as a subculture (Neuliep, 2006, pp. 63-66 118-122). However, this should be seen in the context of contemporary society were diversity is more widely recognized and is being lobbied for in all sectors and levels of society.

Though Cohens paper is supposedly limited to 1950s working class London, he makes significant extensions from this population to include lower and middle class families. Essentially, Cohens main distinction is between what he considers the elite and what he considers as ordinary people. It seems that Cohen is grouping them together primarily because they did not have ready access to the areas that were eyed for redevelopment which implies that the population criteria used by Cohen was not based on socio-economic level but rather a geographic one. This raises some concern regarding the demographic and psychographic homogeneity of these groups. In turn, this may have an implication on the conclusions made by Cohen on the social and psychological impact of the redevelopment project. However, this may not have an impact on his theories regarding the development of subcultures but will challenge the rationale he proposes for their initiation which he generally attributed to socio-economic stress. In parallel studies developed by contemporary researchers such as Rothwell (2003, pp. 77-79) and Neuliep (2006, pp. 114-115) regarding the development of sub-cultural ethnic groups, they point out that motivations are more socio-politically oriented.

Analysis of the Cohen texts also shows some deficiency in the evidence that he provides for his arguments. These are not to the degree that one questions the authenticity of his assertions but some of his more emotive ideas could benefit from statistics or corollary studies to support the assertion that the 1950s redevelopment in London is a primary reason for the rise in subcultures that developed in subsequent years. However, it should also be recognized that since the text is already dated and thus, contemporary readers may not be able to readily relate holistically to the social conditions and context that are being discussed. Both Majhanovich (2002) and Fiske and associates (2009, p. 1248) point out that these generational divides can have a significant impact on how conditions are perceived and ultimately, how relationships and correlations are going to be recognized. It is also this rationale that Cohen (1972, p. 100) believes is the reason why some subcultures were constructed and perceived to be anti-establishment or to be non-conformist. It can also be one of the reasons why the subcultures are being associated with youth cultural and political movements young members of a society, when thrust into social independence, have to navigate to orientation inculcated to them by authorities whose experience is based on an antecedent social context and may develop a sense of incongruity. At the same time, because younger populations may have less social investments and responsibilities, there is greater freedom for self-expression and in developing subcultures.

Moreover, because growth and development are future-oriented and create social stress, younger members of a society who have yet to establish themselves are more vulnerable to its impact. According to Essess and associates (2001, p. 406), perceptions of competition, identity and social roles are often issues that become critical to an individuals self valuation and thus, the need for affirmative social memberships. Cohen (1972, p. 100 102) acknowledges the rationale for city planners for the redevelopment initiative but points out that they were remiss in mitigating its negative impacts. Worse, the efforts to reverse the resulting problems only increased the problems by the displaced working class families. Essentially, planners were not able to consider how the new social conditions can impact relationships, associations and identification of affected populations. Thus, these groups were not only further marginalized but were not equipped with access to traditional social groups to communicate their concerns or to lobby for action. In the article developed by Mueller (2005), peripheral populations are often sacrificed in the name of growth and development, however without the extension of the benefits of growth and development to these populations, quality of life cannot be raised. At the same time, the growth of disparities in social, economic and political status can be a source of conflict can then impede long-term growth and development goals.

Conclusion
Cohens analysis of the impact of redevelopment of London in the 1950s marks a greater awareness of the impact of public policies to social, economic and political dynamics that will prevail. Though the motives behind the redevelopment undoubtedly was motivated by the desire to improve the quality of life of all citizenry, Cohen makes a valid point in citing that he efforts contributed to the urban stress that working class families were already dealing with. However, the research would have definitely benefitted from more extensive empirical evidence or the corroboration of parallel studies on the development of subcultures. In conclusion, Cohens paper provides critical insights on the impact of urban redevelopment to various populations, the changes in stress that can occur, and the responsibility of planners in ensuring that programs benefit the public as a whole and not just a few. In todays context of ever-increasing cultural and socially diversity, subcultures will likely grow. In the context of its publication, there is no doubt that Cohen provided critical insights into the issue of not only youth culture and politics but also urban, growth and development concerns as well. The challenge now is not so much to control these developments but to be able to recognize such trends as a part of the growing diversity of modern societies and how to utilize them support growth and development.

This paper covers the introduction which focuses on the medicalization of marijuana and its approval by the California and Arizona societies by being passed by law as a medicinal drug. It also provides a thesis of why marijuana is available in society.

The Literature Review covers the available literature on the topic of medicalization of marijuana and its pros and cons in society. Thereafter the findings from the literature provided are discussed and finally a conclusion is presented.

Introduction
Marijuana has been used as medicinal drug despite it being generally viewed as a drug which is usually abused by people who want to feel good and as a result, display euphoria. Inciardi and Harrison (1999) research that therapeutic effects in cases of nausea, pain, epilepsy, asthma and hypertension have been documented for several years for both marijuana plants extracts and cannabinoids that have been purified. The Drug Enforcement Administration had been confronted severally to reschedule marijuana in acknowledgment of its possible medicinal purposes but these confrontations had failed until there was a publicized turnaround when Proposition 215 in California and Proposition 200 in Arizona were passed in November 1996 to allow the use of marijuana for medicinal use with a doctors prescription (p.69).

The aim of this paper is to discuss the medicalization of marijuana and other prescription drugs in the United States by exploring the pros and cons of their uses as well as the juxtapositions and comparisons of medicinal drugs from a sociological point of view thus illustrating the values of these drugs.

This paper therefore aims to give the values of marijuana since it has been proven to be of medicinal value. Gieringer, Rosenthal and Carter (2008) have presented cases of the medicinal value of marijuana whereby they state that it is helpful for eye diseases other than glaucoma. One individual has used it to treat a drusen cyst which is a growth that applies pressure on his eye ball (p103). The paper also aims to present the contribution of marijuana to the economy. Staley (1992) states Marijuana is Americas largest cash crop (p.5). 

Literature Review
Marinol, an ingredient known to be contained in marijuana has been shown to produce optimistic results. Karch (2007) states that Marinol which has been applied in the treatment of anorexia which is associated with AIDS will generate positive test results. This proves that marijuana can treat one of the greatly feared eating disorders especially in young women. Therefore those who have been worried about their body images will not have to anymore. 

Inciardi and Harrison (1999) research that in ancient times (1000 to 1500 B.C.) as documented in the four Vedas from India which are the oldest totally safeguarded religious texts, marijuana was used in religious ceremonies to free one from distress or anxiety. They also found that in the second century, it was used as an anesthetic in China as well as information that Greek and Roman healers suggested the use of marijuana to cure earaches (p.70).

Dart (2004) found that in the nineteenth century, marijuana was a major cause for the generation of revenue in various cities of the United States which brought a large wave of immigration into the United States from Mexico (p.1065). This shows that it created jobs for the low income earners and raised the countries Gross Domestic Product.

Staleys (1992) research concurs with the one above whereby he states that in 1986, the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) computed that the approximated value of marijuana crops added up to a total of 26.7 billion compared to other crops whose value was lower. Therefore it contributed in raising the countrys economy.

Gieringer et al. (2008) have proved that marijuana is a non-lethal drug unlike others. They assert that despite its psychoactive effects, it is an exceptionally safe drug unlike other psychoactive drugs such as alcohol, aspirin, opiates, nicotine and caffeine which are known to cause deadly overdoses. Therefore an individual smoking marijuana will smoke it continually without fearing the chances of ending up dead in contrast to one smoking cigarettes whose fatality is caused by the nicotine in cigarettes.

Marijuana is also shown to be a factor which is responsible for the promotion of commodity consumption. Corporations have exploited this and use it as a marketing strategy to attract customers to their products. This is especially when drugs regularly appear in Hollywood films. Blackman (2004) researches that a variety of films in the 1980s have upheld a positive representation of drugs like marijuana whereby they take up humorous marijuana scenes which result in sensitive personal revelations, creating and strengthening bonds of solidarity between different individuals. Hence, though drug use is usually taken up it provides liberating experiences for the characters (p.65). From this illustration therefore, viewers are encouraged to buy marijuana thus promoting corporations while also being comically relieved.

Smokers of marijuana are not prone to addiction as compared to takers of other drugs. Most people who take heroin, tobacco, cocaine or alcohol are addicted easily. Staley (1992) states that marijuana is the least addictive psychoactive drug. He strongly asserts that a considerable number of users are not addicts even when compared to alcohol and tobacco. 

Those who are chronic users of marijuana are justified to do so during drug testing for the purpose employment, acquiring insurance or law enforcement. Gieringer et al. (2008) have found that those chronic users should maintain a prescription for Marinol which has been legalized. They therefore emphasize that employees have the right to test positive for a legal prescription for a drug. Hence the ultimate result will be that they cannot be disqualified for testing positive for marijuana (p.32).

The Cons of Marijuana Consumption 
Although marijuana has been portrayed as being valuable in the society, it has some effects that are negative. Hoeger and Hoeger (2008) present the short term effects of marijuana such as tachycardia, which is a highly accelerated heartbeat, difficulty in attentiveness, irregular confusion, impairment of short-term memory and stability of speech, meddling of the physical and mental learning as well as increased possibility of a heart attack a whole day after smoking it (p.414). These effects therefore will interfere during communication with other people. They further state that the long term effects experienced are permanent brain damage, less resistance to contagious diseases, chronic bronchitis, lung cancer and even impotence (p.414).

Cases of exaggeration have occurred as a result of the use of marijuana. Dart (2004) investigates that a user of marijuana will turn violently murderous towards the nearest person using a knife, axe or gun to kill or injure that person for no reason (p.1065). Therefore it is dangerous to be around people who smoke marijuana since they display violent behavior as a result.

Some other health effects have occurred as a result of chronic smoking of marijuana. Shoshov (2003) provides examples such as the impairment of the bodys immune system such that it is not able to fight off contagious diseases and other serious ones like cancer. This was proven after tests were done on mice and it was discovered that when exposed to THC (tetrahydrocannabinol) which is the ingredient contained in marijuana, they are likely to develop bacterial infections and tumors (p.5)

Shoshov (2003) also portrays the effects of marijuana on learning and social behavior where depression, anxiety and personality troubles are some of the main characteristics associated with it. She asserts that smoking it compromises learning ability and the memory such that a person lags behind on intellectual, work or social skills due to the increased intake. According to research done, this unpleasant impact can last for days or even weeks after the effects of the drug wear off. In regards to school life, students have been shown to display low grades and even less likely to graduate from school in contrast to non-smoking students (p.5).

Shoshov (2003) also investigates its effects on pregnancy whereby babies who are born to women who smoked during the pregnancy period seem to have altered responses to visual stimulus, increased quivering and a high-pitched cry thus indicating that there is trouble with neurological growth. Observations have given portrayals of these children experiencing problems in later years. Some of these include behavioral problems, poor performance in duties involving visual perception, language comprehension, maintained attention and memory. In addition, decision-making also appears to be a problem for them (p.7).

Findings
The literature above has shown cases in which marijuana can and cannot be used and therefore the findings are provided below
 
Marijuana has been portrayed as being able to cure eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa which is a common disorder displayed in females. Watson (2007) states that anorexia arises from thoughts and emotions. Ninety to ninety five percent who suffer from it are female although the male percentage is rising (p.4). Since marijuana is a solution to this disorder, then ones who suffer from anorexia can take it and still maintain their positive body image.

It has been used as a relief from pain since in ancient times it was used as an anesthetic. In modern times it has been found through experiments that elements of marijuana are used in pain relief. Inciardi and Harrison (1999) found that there is evidence that cannabinoid receptors are elements of the pain control system. Therefore this shows likelihood of smoked marijuana being able to relieve pain effectively due to speedy absorption as compared to THC taken orally (p.78).

The marijuana crop is of value to the countrys economy as researched by Staley and Dart who state that it generated revenue for the economy of the United States during the 980s and the nineteenth century respectively. It has also created jobs for people who are involved in its sale and cultivation. This is illustrated in Darts research on how marijuana paved way for immigration of workers from Mexico to look jobs. The jobs concerning Marijuana were readily available for them.

The likelihood of death as a result of marijuana is minimal to none since no cases of death that have been documented. However, it has been stated that one of the effects of smoking marijuana is heart attack. It has also been researched that chronic smoking will weaken the immune system hence increasing the chances of one contracting Sexually Transmitted Diseases such as AIDS. Therefore this will result in stigmatization as a result of having the disease.

The use of Marijuana displayed in films has been helpful in attracting customers to buying it due to the comic relief characters in the films display after smoking it. However, the films encourage children under the age of eighteen to start smoking it should they ever get to watch them. They may start portraying adverse effects such as loss of concentration and memory as well as behavioral problems as submitted by Shoshov.

Smokers of marijuana have been researched by Staley as not being prone to addiction. The chances of addiction are said to be minimal compared to any other drugs. This means someone can be a chronic smoker of marijuana and never worry about getting addicted.

Marinol, which is a legally prescribed ingredient of marijuana, enables one to be qualified for employment or acquiring insurance. During testing, if one tests positive for marijuana with traces of Marinol, he or she is not likely to be disqualified.

Therefore, although there are some loopholes to the value of marijuana, positive results have been generated from its use in society such as its contribution to the economy and its medicinal value.

Conclusion
Marijuana has been medicalized due to its therapeutic effects on symptoms such as nausea, pain, asthma, epilepsy and hypertension. It has been further been used to treat diseases such glaucoma and other diseases related with the eye. Therefore it is fit to be used for medical purposes since experiments have been carried out to prove its medicinal value and its legality has been approved by laws that have been passed in California and Arizona.

Its contribution to the economy has raked it billions as provided by Staley and was Americas biggest cash crop in 1986. In the nineteenth century, it is said to have generated revenue and provided jobs for people who migrated from Mexico.

The Child Adoption and Foster system in Washington D.C. and Northern Virginia (NOVA)
A case study of World Association for Children and Parents (WACAP)
Adoption represents one of ways through which one can build or expand a family. Children who go through adoption are the ones in need of families who can range from infants to teenagers. Most of the children in foster homes and under adoption are victims of circumstances. The reasons for adopting a child are varied. For an adoption process to go through the reason given must be genuine. In Washington, the State Department of Social and Health Services (DSHS) works together with adopting agencies in placing children under foster homes for adoption. The DSHS provides the necessary information in regard to training in regard to adoption and foster care (Adoptioninvoices.com, n.d). At the initial stage of the adoption one is required to consider among other things the feelings about the presence or absence of genetically connection between the parent and the child. The development of a social bond will between the parent and the child which would determine the eventual comfort in associating between the two. Various agencies are involved in facilitating and conduction adoption processes.

World Association for Children and Parents (WACAP)
History WACAP
This agency was established in 1976 with an intention of assisting in adoption placements of childrens to couples wit the capacity to bring thee children in a stable environment. The agency has also been involved in provision of food, medical and educational support to needy children in various areas of United States especially in the regions of Washington D.C and Northern Virginia. In this case, the agency helps to identify children who are in need of an adoptive home. The agency also carries out the matching of the adopting families and the mothers who have plans to offer their children for adoption.  In addition, the agency helps in facilitating the process of adoption of either domestic or international adoptee outside this sate and United States. For international adoption, such children have to be categorized as orphans by the regulating agencies of their respective states (Wacap.org, n.d). Today this agency is one of the leading agencies involved in providing counseling, training, care, and other support in areas of adopting and fostering of children.

Mission of the agency
The World Association for Children and Parents aims at providing a life-transforming support to orphaned children and other kids who are in need of supportive families in through decisive placement of these children to adopting families. In its duty, this agency works towards avoiding unnecessary institutionalization of young children and adults by offering support through community based in-home placements to as many young children, youths and adults as they are in need of these services as possible.

Financial report
The financial report of this agency is very descriptive on the sources of funds for running the agency in the year to year basis. Most of the funds that are used by the agency comes from the fees charged during the adoption processing, donations from donor agencies grants from financial institutions and support from corporate organizations. This money is thereafter used to coordinate operations in foster care homes in and out of Washington DC and Northern Virginia.  It is the belief of this agency that, the support of a child under or out of foster care goes beyond facilitation for his of her adoption to include social and financial and sponsorship in pursuing education and provision of other basic amenities (Adoption Agency Ratings, n.d).

Summaries of operations
In its operations, World Association for Children and Parents distributes elaborate information bout the children who are awaiting adoption to legitimate foster parents. This is done through its website, and other adoption publications such as the adoption photo albums. The descriptions given about these children are brief so as to meet the legal requirement of protection of the rights of the child and increase the number of children who can be featured in a limited space. An interested foster parent is required to send a request to the agency asking about further details of the child he or she is interested in. The agency then later sends the all the information about the child to the especially the known health conditions and special needs if they exist. By this, the reputation of the agency is earned by placing the needs and the rights of a child first then that of a foster parent second (Bidding for Good, n.d). This agency works directly with government agencies of foreign states and authorities of Washington D.C and Northern Virginia.

The agency applies ethics and applies all means so as to have conducive and humane operations. This ensures that, all its adoptions remain legal and the children forwarded for adoption are not restricted by the laws of their country. This is in the accordance to the obligation of the Hague Convection on Inter-country Adoptions (HACIA). The agency works closely with the law organs of the country the child being adopted is coming from and  puts all its efforts to acquire  licenses, necessary certificates, endorsements and other forms of accreditations required by these states and countries to carry out adoption facilitation activities. In addition, the agency provides vitamins, necessary healthcare, education, and other necessary medical requirements, clothing and playing items such as toys to the needy children in children homes who have not found families who can adopt them.

Interaction with criminal justice system
As seen earlier, this agency works closely with the governments of these two states and the foreign states. At no single point does this agency have ever found itself in the wrong side of the law due to accusations of facilitating an illegal child adoption. In its over thirty years of operation, the agency has helped in placement of about 9,000 adoptions and none of them has ever been found to be illegal (Rainbowkids.com, n.d). The agency therefore enjoys cordial relations with criminal justice systems as it is always refereed to be as one of the most reliable adoption agency. Some of these regulations which have created a heated debate is the issue of same sex and bisexual couples not being allowed to access to adoption rights.

Services
Adoption services, financial, food, medical and education support to children under foster care homes and advice to the governmental agencies.

Training of the critical personnel
The staffs are well trained in advising would-be parents about the needs of a child and preparing them for the new member. They are also trained about on how to give physical descriptions of a child, place, assessment of safe living conditions, conducting medical checks, collecting photos and sometimes editing video shoots about the lives f these children while in and out of their foster homes. WACP has helped the state governments in developing a safe and ethical adoption and fostering procedures which has helped to guarantee secure placement of children given out for adoption in each of the two states (Wacap.org, n.d). The potential adopting parents or families must comply with the requirements of unlimited visitation by a social worker prior and after adoption to monitor the living conditions of the home and the progress of the child. During the pre visitations, the WACAP agency personnel carry out screening procedures on the families intending to adopt a child. The foster families are also required by the agency undergo thorough a thorough study on the state of their homes and a check on their criminal background. The post-adoption visitations and reports collected by the agency are aimed at confirming the welfare of the foster family and the child.

Motivation of the agency in its operations
The work of this agency is deeply founded on the philosophy of every children born unto this world have a right to grow up in a loving and supportive family. The access to good nutrition, medical attention and good education can only be guaranteed if the child is brought up in a caring and able family. Through necessitating adoption, the agency believes it has the capacity to provide a needy child with a chance of a life time that can end up changing his or her life for the better. For adopting parents, the agency has worked towards helping families who have the capacity to bring up a bigger family or those without a child to fulfill their dream of having a family of their wish (Adoption Agency Ratings, n.d). For every child that the agency helps to find a home, the agency believes it has achieved one of its goals of transforming the live of that child. On the other hand, when the agency helps a foster family who can make their dream of having a child or a bigger family comes true, it comes as an advantage to the agency and the family.

Ways of improving the agency effectiveness towards social goals
The agency plays a very special role in the life of children and the foster institutions and the adopting parents. This noble role can be made to stretch far and wide through the support from government and other social organizations. Due to its closeness tom the children in foster homes, the agency would be better placed if it considered carrying out counseling and therapeutic interventions aimed at assisting these children. It has been noted that, most of the children in foster homes are at a high risk of being affected psychologically, physically, and emotionally by the conditions they go through later in life help to improve the performance of the children in the post-foster care programs.

Prediction of future role of the social agency in criminal justice system
Most of the offenders in the criminal justice system are known to have a peculiar characteristic of practicing acquired tendencies. The knowledge about the past experiences of the offenders some of which may have gone through foster systems can be of great help in understanding how to correct most of these offenders. This brings into the picture of the central role that will be played by this reliable and experienced agency in solving some of these complex social issues.

In summary, the most basic thing that these children in foster homes require is love and care from dedicated families. It is the obligation of the agency to abide to set rules which govern the adoption procedures when carrying out adoption procedures. This is an important agency which has helped thousands of children find families which can adopt them legally without jeopardizing the rights of the child.

The state of people not having enough resources, food, clothing, and shelter is referred to as poverty. Poverty has got various effects to a person including inability to take part in recreational activities, pay for proper medication, and live a life heshe has ever wanted. Social interaction of the poor families as well as communities is negatively affected. All people whether rich or poor pay the cost of poverty. Poverty has got many faces that change from time to time and place to place (Chen and Sapsford p. 4).

As stated by Chen and Sapsford (p. 17) each and every action that people undertake is aimed at alleviating poverty. Poverty is therefore a call to action for both the rich and the poor - a call to modify the universe so that all may have enough to eat, access to better health and education, adequate shelter, protection from hostility, and a voice in the happenings of the community. Poverty cannot be directed to a single cause. On a universal scale, poverty has got diverse historical causes including slavery, colonialism, war as well as conquest. Its effects also impact people on different ways. Various factors that lead to continuation of poverty include ignorance, diseases, dependency, laziness, and dishonesty. Myers-Lipton, (p. 77) notes that if people make a decision to eliminate poverty in the society they have to first identify the factors that aggravate poverty and deal with them. The effect of poverty to a person, community or nation varies considerably depending on the situation. Though poverty is defined in many ways, one certain thing is that it is a complex social issue. Despite its diverse definitions, it can be agreed that poverty is a matter that necessitates everybodys attention. It is important that members of the society collaborate to offer the chance for each and every person to attain their maximum potential. Though the aspects of poverty in the U.S. have changed since colonial times, debates of how this condition can best be eliminated go on revolving around issues of economics and mortality.

Elimination of poverty requires better understanding and measurement. An international poverty line, which defines a threshold of income required in various nations is required to surmount material as well as social deprivation. Regular reports on the analysis of poverty in every nation are also required.
Human development that is, education and health care, is a major step to eradication of poverty.

Education in particular increases the peoples economic capacity to make a decent living. Education also strengthens the capacity of people to evaluate the effectiveness of their leaders. A well educated society does not fall to cheap and easy promises as a society that is poorly educated. Educated people are less likely to engage in corruption as compared to non-educated. Education therefore acts as a base for economic development and good governance. Provision of good and adequate healthcare is even a better tool for eradication of poverty than education. Good health allows people to make maximum use of the opportunities provided by education. Family planning is one of the healthcare programs aimed at alleviating poverty. Special attention in provision of quality health care and education should be given to the vulnerable groups which include women, children, and the aged. More attention should be given to children to make sure that they grow up to their maximum mental and physical potential. A major step in alleviating poverty is empowering the poor, paying attention to matters affecting women, and tapping their full potential. Fight against discrimination of women who make up the majority of the poor population is central to the fight against poverty (Chen and Sapsford p, 55). 

According to (Sawhill para, 11), proper child rearing is a long term solution to poverty. This is based on the fact that the way you bring up a child is the way heshe will conduct himherself in life. Proper guiding allows a child to grow up as a responsible and hardworking citizen. Getting a lot of children before and after marriage is a major factor that aggravates the level of poverty in a family. People should be informed of the benefits of family planning before and after marriage. Days when children were considered a source of wealth are gone. Young people should be encouraged to have children only when they attain their economic stability.

Adult education is the other key aspect in eradication of poverty. Adults should be taught how to realize, develop and utilize their talents. People should also be enlightened of their obligations in the fight against poverty. It is very important that people be made aware of the importance of paying taxes. Other issues that adults should be made aware of through education include independence, nutrition, positive as well as negative effects of human activities on nature, and environmental pollution. All these should be connected with powerful efforts to convert to forms of agriculture through which natural resources are utilized in a sustainable way (Myers-Lipton p, 24).

Self employment is the other important aspect of poverty eradication. Creation of employment as well as income opportunities for the victims of poverty is an important step to bringing poverty to an end. It is the high time people stopped waiting for white as well as blue collar jobs and looked for ways through which they can become self employed. Self-employment provides a person, who was initially poor, with money which heshe can use to purchase basic requirements. As a result of self employment, people will become more productive and therefore raise their standards of livings through amassing of private capital. Encouraging and rewarding hard workers in the society is another aspect that can greatly help in the fight against poverty (Sawhill para, 9).

Subsistence income is another measure that can be used to eradicate destitute poverty. A standard of social security to the elderly and mothers with children would be very helpful from both social and economic point of view.

As Myers-Lipton, (p, 35) asserts development of social services also plays a major role in eradication of poverty. These services should involve social investments from the government. Social services may involve construction of small scale industries that would come in handy and employ a considerable number of people. Development of sports opportunities would greatly help the youth by providing them with some cash.

Myers-Lipton (p, 46), states that good governance and effective aid are the other poverty eradication measures. Proper management of natural resources and other programs aimed at improving the living standards of a person is an effective aspect in the fight against poverty. An important feature in alleviating poverty therefore is carrying out reforms in the public sector. Public policy aimed at promoting social cohesion as well as maintaining social stability through the rule of law, democracy, and the respect for human rights is essential in the fight against poverty. Political instability attracts foreign investors in to the country leading to creation of jobs for the citizens. Proper housing is another strategy that could help alleviate poverty. Temporary structures build in the urban centers lead to development and growth of slums which have poor sanitation and security.

The influence Parents education and income on the children academic achievements at school
Parents have got a strong influence on their children either socially, spiritually, and also academically. This is because the children try to imitate and learn from their parents in all aspects. The most influential part of it all is that parents learn some concepts during their school ages that influences their ways of interaction with their children in the present times around the learning activities around their home.

The most evident part is that most of the parents that have got an educational background tend to talk to, and use more complex and varied language with their children which in turn have future prediction on their childrens language and reading skills throughout their childhood. In addition to that, these parents have got higher expectations for their childrens education which has an effect of a possible prediction of higher attainment by their children (Eccles, 2005, p.192).

Most of the parents with an education background usually make sure their children are exposed to many educational opportunities and also they make sure that they are enrolled in the best private schools and also to get good tutoring help for those children who may have some difficulties in their studies. The parents that have a low education background and that has led to them having poor and stressing jobs usually influence their children in one way or another. This is because through their jobs they influence the values and goals they have to their children. This is argued that the parents that are in the working class jobs are more likely to value intellectual curiosity than the parents in the professional jobs. The parents are also likely to put the model of the importance of intellectual activities at home. The research tests have clearly shown that the amount of education that the parents get is very likely to be very influenced by the various genetic endowments that are linked with the intelligence, motivation, and temperament (Eccles, 2005, p.197). Therefore, the parents are likely to pass of these endowments to their children and they are possibly likely to be facilitated in their achievements.

A prediction is made that shows that the parents educational experience predicts the parental expectations and that with this associations of the expectations with the childrens scores and on a test of the academic knowledge are mediated with the amount of reading and the extent of intellectual stimulation that the parents provide for their them. This shows how the children are really influenced by the parents education.

The influence of income on the education background of children shows that income of the parents has got effect their attainments. A study showed that the low income families instead have high expectations and performance beliefs that did not correlate well with their childrens actual performance that are essential in the restructuring the home and the educational environment. This is explained by the moderate income-earning mothers with high education who have expectations for their childrens academic achievements and that these expectations are related to their children subsequent achievements in math and reading.

Family income has got an influence on the childs education. Families that are having a stable life tend to influence each other whom their sons and daughters will marry. This cements their relationships and their family incomes as well. This will in turn influence the types of schools their children will be exposed to and in turn this will influence their children educational achievement through the kind of opportunities being awarded to them. In addition to that, the wealthy families that live in some neighborhood that is not conducive for their childrens learning, that may allow them to participate in risky activities, they may decide to keep their children away from home by enrolling them in schools and activities that are outside the neighborhood (Davis-Kean, 2005, 298). This provides the children with conduncive environment for learning.

Living in poor and dangerous backgrounds and having a lowly paying and stressful jobs can also undermine the ability of the parents to provide some cognitive experience support for their children due to their poor mental health. Therefore, these kinds of stresses can also undermine the ability of the parents to provide a warm, supportive, and consistent environment for their children. This adversely affects their advancements in education.

Research shows that parent education is related to warm, social climate in the home. This then implies that the mothers education and the family income are the important predators for the physical environment and learning experiences in the home. It is found out that the association of the family income and the parents education and academic achievements are also mediated by the environment. Therefore, it is found that the rich families are able to provide for both a good environment associated with the warm atmosphere from their parental hood (Davis-Kean, 2005, p.299). This stimulates the children achievement in the future.

This study shows that the socio-economic status and the education background of the parents indirectly relates to childrens academic achievement.

The notion that the government may have expected too much from Enron executives, given the scale of the abuses committed by the executives and the scope and scale of the resulting damage, is an extraordinarily difficult position to substantiate.  This case represented the largest bankruptcy in American history, a bankruptcy nearly all academics agree was primarily caused by greedy ambition and accounting frauds to inflate corporate balance sheets, and the better argument is that responsibility for stakeholder losses should be attributed to the American government for weak government oversight and Enron executives for unethical and fraudulent leadership actions and decisions.  The available evidence strongly suggests that Enron executives deserved to be punished, that this type of case is precisely why government needs to more carefully regulate accounting and financial practices that affect other parties, and that this type of fraudulent criminal enterprise in fact creates more victims than isolated crimes such as theft, burglary, and even embezzlement.  The scope of the damage is staggering.

As an initial matter, as a publicly traded company, Enron executives cannot escape responsibility by claiming to operate in a private marketplace.  The shares are publicly traded, held by individuals and organizations such as pension funds, and there are clear and unequivocal ethical and legal duties to a variety of stakeholders.  The primary duty is one of financial transparency, manifest most directly in the form of accurate accounting records, and these duties were deliberately and repeatedly violated.  One leading scholar of the Enron case, noting the pervasive fraud inherent in Enrons business operations, has gone so far as to argue that This situation should have raised questions-the same questions raised by Ponzis promise to increase an investors money by half in a three-month period. Like Ponzi, Enron had answers. Enron presented itself to the world as a market-maker, a firm that excelled at creating new markets  HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5036039648(Baird  Rasmussen, 2002). 

Enron used exaggerated claims of revenue sources, it deliberately hid corporate liabilities in order to trick investors in investing in Enron, and it used this invested money to pretend that profits were paying dividends rather than this newly invested money.  The corporate executives largely operated a Ponzi scheme and two parties are responsible.  The Enron executives lied, perhaps believing that profits would increase in the future to hide their fraudulant representations and actions, and the American government was lax in the form of enforcing existing rules.  Justice was never truly served because so many investors relied on the frauds and lost substantial amounts of money.  It can be argued that savvy institutional investors should have examined Enrons claims more critically rather than being enticed by the promise of unrealistically high returns because they had experts with the skills to perform such examinations for individual investors, on the other hand, it would be hard to assign any responsibility because they are ethically and legally entitled to rely on the accuracy of Enrons financial and ethical representations.  The main government response to Enron, and a number of similar corporate scandals, was to enact the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.  The stated purpose was to preempt state law and, more specifically with respect to the behavior of corporate executives and accounting practices,
The Act has been said to be unprecedented because, in addition to regulating disclosure and securities trading, the traditional jurisdiction of U.S federal securities laws, the law also addresses matters of substantive corporate governance and executive fiduciary responsibility  HYPERLINK httpwww.questia.comPM.qstaod5022588374(Shu-Acquaye 585).

Whether these new laws and regulations will prevent future Enron-type situations is doubtful when corporations have close relationships with government officials and when profit becomes the sole barometer of success in corporate operations.  Enron was an ethical disaster, a legal disaster, and it would hardly be surprising if more Enron situations occurred when the economy revives.

This paper tackles the categorical imperative theory of Immanuel Kant as well as its first and second formulations and how they apply to a particular case of infidelity.

Introduction
In his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, Kant defines an imperative as any proposition that declares a certain action or inaction to be necessary and practical (Kant, 1993, p. 413). The categorical imperative is a type of imperative which states what one ought to do under certain circumstances and it implies the moral requirement that we should act directly and unconditionally in order to achieve some end or purpose (p. 417). In the Groundwork, Kant distinguishes between the hypothetical imperative and the categorical imperative. The hypothetical imperative states that if one wants to do A, then he should do B, or he may choose not to do B or even A (p. 414). On the other hand, the categorical imperative requires that if one wants to do A, then he really ought to do B. It therefore follows that doing B is of an absolute necessity, is considered a moral duty, and is unconditional (p. 420).

An Ethical Situation and the Action Taken
The situation that is to be considered for the analysis is that of a young man who has a girlfriend and who once swore to love her and only her and not to cheat on her in whatever way especially by having flings with another girl. For many months he has kept this promise in order to make her happy and make the relationship work. However, one day this young man just happens to get to know one extremely beautiful young girl on Facebook, a girl who is more beautiful than his own girlfriend judging from the same standards. After a few secret exchanges of messages on the same social networking site, the young man meets up with her without telling anyone and they have a date that ended up in a sexual encounter.

Evaluation of the Situation Based on the First Formulation
For any imperative to be a categorical imperative or a true moral proposition, Kant proposes that this imperative should possess universality. This means that it must not concern itself with the particular physical details and circumstances surrounding the present situation, including the seemingly most pressing instinctual needs of the individual on which the ethical situation is focused.

Kant therefore states that there is only one categorical imperative and it is this Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law (p. 421).

In the situation, the young man clearly does not obey the categorical imperative when he decides to exchange messages with the girl on Facebook and later on meet up with her. If the young man made a promise of loyalty, then it is his moral duty to do so (p. 422). This means that if the notion of promising to be faithful to ones lover and breaking it is universalized, then, based on the first formulation of the categorical imperative, there would be no promises at all and no such thing as honest oaths between lovers. The young man is therefore, according to Kant, never justified in the infidelity that he committed.

Evaluation of the Situation Based on the Second Formulation
Another characteristic of the categorical imperative is that it should not only be a principle but that it should also be an end in itself, unlike a hypothetical imperative on which many human moral decisions are based. Thus, if a hypothetical imperative goes like, If you want to do A, you should do B, the categorical imperative should go like, Do B, for doing B is an end in itself and not a means to any other end like A.

Kant therefore states, Act in such a way that you treat humanityalways at the same time as an end and never merely as a means to an end (p. 428).

In our situation, the young man, based on the second formulation, has clearly violated the categorical imperative and this violation lies in the young mans making an oath of faithfulness to his girlfriend in order to make her happy and to make the relationship work. According to the second formulation, if you have made a promise in order to make someone happy and to make the relationship work, then you are not acting out of moral duty because if you are, then you will have made such a promise as an end in itself. The young man should have made the promise of loyalty just out of pure reverence for promise itself in exactly the same way as one decides to love not for the happiness of the other but for the sake of love itself. For Kant and the categorical imperative, true morality is doing ones moral duty without concerning himself with the results (p. 417). The young man in the situation tried to concern himself with the results. Owing to this, his promise was therefore not purely made and such a fact may have even been the reason behind his subsequent immoral act.

Conclusion
Kant teaches us that an action is good and moral not because it is based on reason as what the rationalists contend nor because it has good results as what the utilitarians say, but that it is done in obedience to an inner sense of duty  the categorical imperative. According to this principle and based on the scenario presented, one should make a promise of love and keep it because the fulfillment of a promise is universal. One should also keep a promise of love not for any other reason such as the happiness of the other but for the sake of the promise itself, for true moral duty is self-sufficient and does not concern itself with results.

White collar crimes refer to non-violent criminal activities that are perpetrated by businesses or individuals like office staff or sales people in the course of their duty. The terminology was defined by Edwin Sutherland as he presented a speech to the American Sociological Society. These crimes include misappropriation of funds, corruption, unjust competition, tax avoidance, and unjust labor dealings (Dininni, 2007). The original intention of the terminology was as a categorization of perpetrators but has extended to include a wide range of non-violent criminal activities that include aspects of deceit and dishonesty as their core component (Podgor, 2007).   
    
Conventionally, perpetrators of white collar crimes were prosecuted sporadically. It was also very rare for such criminals to face prison sentences or any reasonable sanctions. The major reason for this as been cited as the complexity of the criminal activities. A lot of finances are involved in preparing and trying the perpetrators (Podgor, 2007). However, in the recent past, due to the public consciousness on the huge economic burden to the society as a result of these crimes, law enforcement agencies have started to prosecute these criminals. Both the federal and state laws have enlisted the kinds of criminal activities that are considered as white collar crimes. The commerce clause of the United States constitution provides the federal government with the power to control these criminal activities. Quite a number of federal law enforcement agencies participate in enforcing white collar crime law.

Additionally, many of the states have their own law enforcement agencies for the enforcement of the legislation. In nations that use the Civil law in their justice systems, there are a few special enforcement agencies that are used in dealing with white collar crimes. Instead, ordinary law enforcement officers, often led by specialized financial law enforcement carry out investigations of white collar crime. As far as dealing with this kind of crime is concerned in the United States, the federal government has a number of enforcement agencies. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) supervises the financial markets to control and detect fraud. The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) has a list of the crimes that are considered white collar (Dininni, 2007). 

In the recent past, white collar crimes have been on the increase probably as a result of the transformations in demographic and economic factors. Changes in technology have also increased the incidence of white collar crimes. White collar crime has become a widespread predicament in the society. Nevertheless, this crime has for a long time been overlooked probably due to the fact that it does not cause direct harm to people. It has been assumed because it is not as dangerous as other crimes like homicide. As a result, the society has failed to realize the serious cost of these crimes to the United States production industry and consumers. It is evident that these kinds of crime whether perpetrated by businesses or individuals, have severe financial and social consequences to the United States society. In any situation where financial costs are involved, the net consequence of the variety of white collar crime is increased fiscal burden for the average United States citizen. This is because these kinds of crime increase the cost of business transactions. Such increase is ultimately passed on to the public by increasing the costs of products. Whenever a firm suffers a loss as a result of a white collar crime, it compensates by raising prices for consumers (Podgor, 2007). This can also result to lower pays for the workers or even cutting employment opportunities. The effect can continue to increase when the workers become unable to repay their loans and become unable to access credits. In cases of stock fraud like it happened in America in the 1980s, investors can loose trust in the stock market. This means that a country can loose a lot of money. The impact of white collar crime to the society is serious, but the exact statistics are very hard to come by. This is due to the secretive nature of the crimes and the difficult in finding correct data (Podgor, 2007).   

The rise of Information era has led most organisations to adopt the process of rationalisation, Rationalisation is defined as the organisation of life through division and coordination of activities on the basis of exact study of mens relations with each other, with their tools and their environment, for the purpose of achieving greater efficiency and productivity (Freund 1968). With this concept, the traditional differences in task, human relations, and doing business are becoming different and rationalisation is becoming more prevalent.  How are we affected by this Is there any impact of this to our cultural environment Does it provide benefits to our society

Not too long ago, we were always excited to meet and interact with new people, explore different parts of our world, and create our own gourmet meal for ourselves, our family, and guests we also prided ourselves in our work. Nowadays, it seems that almost everything has a defined standard structure in our society. In many companies across our country, there is a hierarchical authority structure with well-established division of labour and written rules and regulations. Jobs available can be as routine-oriented as possible with defined expectations and predictable results. This is just one theme of the process of rationalisation.

According to George Ritzers (1993) book entitled The Mcdonaldisation of Society, there are actually five dominant themes of the process of rationalisation, namely, efficiency, predictability, calculability, substitution of nonhuman for human technology, and control over uncertainty. Efficiency basically pertains to the selection of a method or fewer means to reach a designated end, such as sending an email or texting a person instead of meeting him or her face to face. The idea is essential to the needs of an industry or an enterprise, even though it is usually marketed as beneficial to its customers. A good example to illustrate this theme is fast food restaurants as they capitalise on the need of the consumers to get their orders as fast as possible.  Other examples such as ATMs, supermarkets () all portray how easy and fast customers can receive products and services. Although in reality, the customers are the ones who do the work previously done for them. They often even pay higher prices in order for the enterprise to operate profitably and efficiently.

The second component of rationalisation is predictability. As rational beings, people need to know what to expect. For instance, they need to be guaranteed that a certain activity will be fulfilling or that a certain meal will really taste good. A good example is the movie industry as it builds from the success of one blockbuster, after which a sequel is usually created with the same elements that made the first one a hit.

Calculability, the third element of rationalisation, stresses the quantity instead of quality of any product or service available. A good example is the educational system wherein students performance are rated solely in terms of letter grades or grade point averages. Although important, this system tends to overlook the other good qualities that a student possesses.(Ritzer 1993)

The element of substitution of nonhuman for human technology, which generally refers to the replacement of human labour by machines, is also becoming increasingly popular. For example, a lot of people working for companies in the manufacturing industry lost their jobs simply because their previous work can now be done by robots or machines. There are also industries such as the airline industry that require minimal human control, as most processes are operated with the use of computers,. Apart from the replacement from manpower to machine, there is also the concept of the so-called human robots, which happens when people do monotonous, controlled work that they look as though they have lost their essence of being a person.

Lastly, control over uncertainty, according to Ritzer (1993), explains that rational systems set up for greater control over the uncertainties of life birth, death, food production and distribution, housing, religious salvation, and many others. This method can also be applied in relation to control or authority over subordinates by superiors, control of clients, and customers and employees. An example would be the rational system employed in a typical fast food restaurant where counters that are set up to process the orders of the customers. The absence of waiters and waitresses, the limited seating, and the drive-through windows all tend to lead customers to do certain things and not to do others (Ritzer 1993).

As rationalisation is taking its course in our cultural environment,it is important to note that this is happening to many societies of different countries across the globe and it has its own numerous benefits. For an organisation operating on changing conditions, rationalisation provides an established structure to increase productivity and distribution of goods or services and provide control on potential risks. For the public, its advantages can be observed in the efficient services provided by good companies, 24-hour banking and shopping, and many others. However, in perspective our cultural environment, and so our lives become more controlled and more structured.  We rely on systems either directly or indirectly imposed on us and we are beginning to depend, if not already heavily depending, on these system. We are now becoming a society that is dedicated to themes of rationalisation, and huge consumption going through the day to day motions fast with uniformity without the sense of creativity and originality.

Abedi, J. (2004) The No Child Left Behind Act and English Language Learners Assessment and Accountability Issues Educational Researcher, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 414   

The article by Jamal Abedi looks at the major issues that touch on the implementation of No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. The article looks at the inadequacies of the limited English proficiency. The author notes the inconsistence of the program as well as the small number of students with limited English proficiency as the main factors that limit effective monitoring of the progress. The number of students within the limited English proficiency is not stable mainly because students move out of the category immediately they attain proficiency. This accountability is therefore threatened, which is a major component of the act. The author notes that the statute requires the learners to be assessed annually using standard test on mathematics and reading. This is followed on a progress report on the student proficiency. The author presents some of the technical issues that limit appropriate reporting of the learners progress using the limited progressive proficiency. These issues includes inconsistency in the classification of students in different states or districts, disparities in the population of students, classified as limited English proficiency, lack of stability of the subgroups, quality of assessment and the baseline scores. The author analyses how schools, districts and states have varying criteria of limited English proficiency which lead to inconsistence in classification and inaccurate reporting. The author notes that the small number of students in the limited English proficiency subgroup across the country is very small for meaningful analysis. The author uses data to bring his point forward. He also describes the possible causes of the technical issues raised and gives some of the measures that have been undertaken by schools and states to counteract these issues.

Gensler, R., (2006) Effects on No Child Left Behind Act of Special Education Regarding Standardized Testing, Law  Disorder, issue 1, pp 11-16

Rebecca Gensler, an educational specialist in the Indiana University takes a look at the controversial No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and its positive and negative impact on special education programs. The main aim of the act was to provide equal education opportunities to all children in the United States irrespective of their race, social and economic status, ethnicity and physical abilities. The statute requires all students irrespective of their conditions be subjected to the same standardized test. This was aimed at eliminating the biased hypothesis on the expectation of children of a certain background or physical ability. The author notes the major component of the statute which makes the schools accountable for what the children learn, how to improve their performance and informing the public on the results. She also acknowledges the steady progress in the attainment of the set standards in mathematics and reading. However, the requirement by the act that the learners who require special education treatment be assessed with the same standard test as their peers has attracted a big controversy. The student may have been identified as a learner who requires special assessment. The author notes that the act has had a positive impact on special education by increasing the expectations for students with special needs. However, the standardized tests are not appropriate in determining the progress in such students. For this reason, most of the students in need of special education facilities do not pass the standard tests. These factors negatively affect special education since the poor performance is blamed on the schools and the teachers. Due to the negative impact of the act on special education, the author makes some recommendations such as alternative tests and assessments that are based on the needs of the student in question according to the Individualized Education Plan.
Reeves, C. (2003) Implementing the No Child Left Behind Act Implications For Rural Schools and Districts, Naperville, Illinois, North Central Regional Educational Laboratories.

The production of this paper was funded by the institute of education sciences in the United States department of education. The author analyses the challenges that are presented by the No Child Left Behind Act which was enacted by President Bushs administration in 2001. The paper looks at the challenges that are faced by schools and districts as they try to ensure that the state proficiency standards in reading and mathematics set by the act are met by the year 2014. The paper also looks at the challenges that were faced in ensuring that teachers were highly qualified and met the requirement by the year 2006. The main challenge in the rural schools and districts as noted by the author is the small number of children in these schools as well as the geographical isolation of the schools. Schools in rural areas accounted for about forty two percent of all schools in the United States by the end of the twentieth century with only about thirty percent of the total number of students in the United States schooling in these rural schools. The author notes that the small size of schools in rural areas and small towns combined with the decreasing enrolment is a big challenge in the implementation of No Child Left Behind Act in these schools. These characteristics affect the funds and opportunities that are necessary in the implementation of the act. For this reason, the paper analyses the disparities in the funding of educational programs by the federal government which put these marginalized schools at a disadvantage. The paper analyses in details the challenges that are faced by schools in the rural areas in the implementation of the program. These challenges include accountability, recruitment and retention of teachers and funding. The paper concludes by stating that the rural schools are faced with many challenges. Unless assistance is given to rural schools, the No Child Left Behind program will not be fully implemented.

Uzzell, L. A. (2005) No Child Left Behind The Dangers of Centralized Education Policy, Routing, No. 544, pp 1-28

Lawrence Uzzell, a former employee in the department of education, a former member of the senate committee on education and now an independent researcher on issues related to educational policies analyses the No Child Left Behind Act. He looks into the details of the policy and the possible negative effects of centralized educational policy. He starts by noting how the enactment of the policy by the Bush Administration was received with excitement. The administration claimed that it was a great get through in domestic policies. However, Uzzell is quick to note that this policy was a contradiction of the Bushs administration ideologies of ownership society which was part of their reform agenda. The author notes that the success of the program is dependent on the ability of a centralized education program to perform excellently. However, the advocates of the program contradict themselves since centralized educational policies for almost half a century now had proved to be ineffective. The author describes how the statute of the act as a reform strategy is faced with challenges from within and is at war with itself. The statute forces federal and state educational agencies and officials to do things they are unwilling to do which is the major challenge in its success. The author notes the possibility of covering up problems in the implementation of the policy. He notes that the implementation depend on the data provided by the schools and education agencies officials which include the test scores, the teachers qualifications and abilities, graduation rates and incidences of violence in the schools. A danger therefore exists since it is difficult to determine whether the officials information is true. Due to the dangers associated with enactment of such programs, the author recommends that federal government should avoid enactment of such education policies and allow states to make education policies that suit them best.   

Young, R. D. (2004) Public Education A Primer on No Child Left Behind and Its Impact on South Carolina, Columbia, SC University of South Carolina 

The article looks at how the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act by President Bushs administration changed the role of the federal government in the education sector. These changes had several impacts on the education systems in different states in the country. The author narrows down to the impacts of the new law in the education systems in South Carolina. The author starts by noting how the federal government became accountable for the performance of the students, focuses on what works, expanded the options available to parents and give room for more flexible spending on education funding. Before analyzing these roles, the author looks at the changing role of the federal government in the education sector over the years. The changes in the role of the federal government in public education started with the enactment of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in the mid 1960s which increased federal funding of educational programs. More concerns on the involvement of federal government in public education rose in the 1980s when the achievement of the American students was reported to be low compared to the achievement in other nations. This report was followed by the enactment of the Improving Americans School Act of 1994 and the Educate America Act of 2000. When President Bush came to power, he did not hesitate to sign the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002.

The author notes that the enactment of the law has increased federal funding of the education programs in the country with a significant margin. The author also looks at the positive and negative effects of the act to the education systems in the states of South Carolina. The author also analysis the systemic challenges that the public education program is faced with in South Carolina. It is noted that a large number of children in South Carolina are faced with some risk which affects the implementation of education policies. The article also analyses the accountability plan presented by the state of South Carolina and how it was approved by the department of education.   

Every society is socially stratified. Social stratification is viewed in terms of the hierarchical arrangement that defines society. In most instances, the divisions are looked into in reference to wealth and power possession within society. Simply put, the term is used in regards to the concept of economic class.  The shared socio-economic conditions determine the classification of individuals. This basically presents a relationship characterized by inequalities in reference to the political, ideological, social, and economic dimensions (Barker, 2005).

In the present western societies, class divisions generally take three dimensions. The classes include the lower class, the middle class, and the upper class. Each of these classes may further be subdivided to smaller ones. This may take the form of occupational rankings. 

Cultural disadvantage as a concept is looked into in regards to the features that make a society or a culture lag behind others. Basically, one common feature is closely related to resource accumulation. Studies indicate that in some cultures like in the Khoisan culture no one is allowed to own property individually. This is reflected in egalitarian societies where each item belonged to the society. If items belong to the society, then it emerges that in such a community classes are not welcome.
Social stratification is viewed in different ways. In regards to this, the exponents of the structural functionalism believe that social stratification and cultural disadvantage exist in all societies (Holborn and Langley, 2004). On this basis, it is necessary to have a leadership hierarchy for social stability purposes.

Conflict theories, like Marxism look into scarcity of resources and the closed nature of social mobility in stratified societies.  In socio-economically stratified societies the upward mobility is highly limited. The wealthy class uses the control they hold to annul any potential class movements into the elite class. The increased demand for labour in modern society has led to the growth of the middle class (Lee, 1976).

Anthropologists seemed to favour social harmony as opposed to statuses in societies. This explains why they identified with kinship cultures. These earlier cultures stand contrasted with the economic oriented ones. They proposed reciprocal altruism as an antidote to the problem (Giddens and Carr, 2009).

Leisure and social stratification
Leisure forms an integral part of life to the well moneyed people. It is however held that leisure equally holds a big value in the lives of all people. For one to have meaningful leisure time, the individual must be in possession of cash to spare. This realization takes the issue further. In a sense, the amount of money available determines the options taken by individuals. The amount of money held by individuals is obviously a reflection of their classes in society (Barker, 2005).

People from the wealthy upper class can indulge in any kind of leisure as they may desire. This is premised on the fact that, to them money is never an issue, instead he issue always is how and where to spend the money. Basically, the top class has gathered enough and they can safely pass as a consumerism group. This class does not have to work to enjoy any desire (Barker, 2005).

The middle class forms the bulk of the society and presents the category of individuals obsessed with nice things in life. In this light, leisure is hotly pursued. It is an aspect that adds to the self esteem of individuals in this group (Giddens and Carr, 2009).

Individuals from this group harbour aspirations to make upward movements and join the upper class of the wealthy. However, this s a tricky proposition and only few people make it. The bulk which fails to make it, remain pretenders to the group. In order to feel good and part of the elite group, a host of individuals from the middle class copy the behaviours of the wealthy class. In this regard, the leisure time is spent in the same or copied manner as that of the elite group. This is the group that works hard to advance and as a result most of the time is spent at work. It is only during offs that the group goes for leisure (Giddens and Carr, 2009).

The lower class captures the members of society who struggle to earn a living. Usually, leisure is taken to mean time away from work. In light of this, this group of individuals cannot be assumed to have a leisure time. The immediate concerns of this group are to raise money for basic needs. However, leisure should not be looked into from the money perspective alone.   But due to the nature of leisure, resources play a crucial role in its indulging (Holborn and Langley, 2004).

It should be noted that in classless societies, the indulgency in leisure was done communally. Members could gather after the days or weeks activities to take part in proceedings. In this scenario, there was equality and leisure time was enjoyed uniformly.

Conclusion
In conclusion, it is observed that social stratification pervades the modern society in a manner hitherto unprecedented. This nature of stratification has affected the way in which people spend leisure time. It is finally held that each social stratum spends its leisure differently.