Sociology

Social ideological frameworks illustrated in the works of social theorists Karl Marx, Emil Durkheim and Max Weber have vastly contributed to the growing number of intellectual discourses. The making of the so-called revised social science aimed to discount traditional social and cultural orientations with respect to major issues on economy, sexual orientation, class and race (Tucker, Kenneth H. Classical Social Theory A Contemporary Approach). Furthermore, these theories are often applied in understanding the very nature of human social interaction with the society and how the former mutually adapts in accordance to set of practices.

It is in this respect that the notion of human freedom was considered an embodiment of rationality, industry and democracy which proliferated way back in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (Tucker, Kenneth H. Classical Social Theory A Contemporary Approach). It became an intellectual by product following the aftermath of the French Revolution, industrial revolution, rise of the markets towards the period of European colonialism, which opened up a new type of dilemma unknown to the traditional society. The efficacy of social scientific explanation became a reliable method for determining human behavior as dictated by social life and which reason is the key to social progress (Tucker, Kenneth H. Classical Social Theory A Contemporary Approach).

The Bradford riots of 1995 and 2001 illustrate how these social theories may be applied using an in-depth analysis of the factors which triggered it. There are several questions these theoretical frameworks would like to ask (1) what factors influenced the materialization of the said dilemma (2) as far as social theory is concerned, in what way that these factors influenced human actions and behavior (3) did the outcome satisfied the basic concepts presented by these theories and (4) what are the limitations of the theorys application. The factors which triggered the Bradford riots may be summarized in the following areas (1) economic and social deprivation (2) racism and social segregation and (3) ethnicity and grouping.

Bradfords Condition Prior to Riot Incedents
From the periods 1960 to 1990, Bradfords textile industry lost a significant 80 of the jobs following the extinction of the wool textile industry (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). In 1981 alone, employment cuts reached 60,000 out of a population of 295,000 (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). Workers coming from minority ethnic communities (mostly of Pakistani Muslim origin) were the ones most affected, not to mention that 50 of their total population was under 18. The number of young workers increased as fewer jobs were offered in the labor market. Another factor was the minority groups underperformance in education. In 2001, passing rate closed at 17 coming from boys of Pakistani decent relative to 33 coming from white boys respectively (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002).  In a way, the information reflected how marginalized sectors were socially deprived not just the access to employment but also the access to quality education.

The issue on racism heightened hostilities between Muslims and non-Muslims which led to social segregation. As the national government declined the provision of social housing and as the role of education appeared to be a matter of parental choice in marginalized sectors, the issue on cultural faction became undeniably persistent among the general population.

Bradford is composed of communities coming from different geographical backgrounds. Relatives whose kinship was tied up to subcontinent areas like Kashmir and Mirpur, created communities of Pakistani Muslim origins on the basis of property ownership and intercontinental marriages (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). Although there were limited findings which prove the influence of ethnicity on the course of social mobilization in Bradford, families faced a new kind of stress brought about the support that it required. 

Causes of Social Segregation
Much has been discussed about the causes of social segregation but what exactly are its effects on the identities of the people involved The presence of mutual suspicion within Bradford communities triggered social connections to decline and as a consequence, created conflictual identities (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). The existing hostility among the peoples consciousness paved way for the construction of in-groups, creating a more collective, one-sided interpretation of the social condition.

Needless to say, the act of grouping protected individual behaviors from criticism and supported their interests against external groups. In respect, group mobilizations were easily organized. Most of these groups were formed by young individuals whose attachment to the society was relatively weak and thus, were strongly urged to create a familiar territory for themselves. 

Two Riots Compared
The riots in June 1995 were perceived milder relative to the riots of July 2001. It all started when a group of young individuals were arrested while playing street football. It was then that a group of 300 people marched in protest on the weekend of June 9-11, 1995 (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). Although there was no reported case of serious injuries, the mobilization caused a considerable damage in property amounting to 500,000 pounds. The protest lasted for 48 hours and there were no prior related incidents reported.

Following the series of incidents which occurred in Bradfords Lidget Green area and other Northern towns, an anti-fascist rally brought 400-500 armed people on the city streets upon the intervention of the British National Party (BNP) amidst the Bradford Festival (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). The group mobilization involved participation of white people including some women, but it was the young protesters who dominated in number.  According to witnesses, the group was spearheaded by a known activist of the far right who had initiated the tension from the city center. Police and public confrontation moved out the center causing a major damage in property amounting to 7.5-10 million pounds (Bradford One Year On Breaking the Silences 2002). Lives of the majority were placed at risk and 326 police officers suffered from serious physical injuries. Unlike the previous protest (1995), most convicted protesters received sentences in accordance to law.

The two riots differed with respect to (1) ferocity level, (2) target population the former mainly involved minorities in Muslim communities while the latter was mutually entrenched to both non-Muslims and the police (the Muslims becoming an organized threat to the BNP) and (3) the way on how the riot was provoked.

Analysis Theories Applied (Marx, Weber  Durkheim)
People aimed for social change and what triggered them to adopt a more radical method was justified by reason. The rioters believed that freedom from an existing oppressive social order was necessary in order for them to exercise their lives in a democratic manner without having to be criticized, culturally marginalized and socially deprived. According to Weber, rationality creates the conditions for freedom. Durkheim, in a more particular sense, saw reason as dependent to certain cultural traditions and which it may take in various forms depending on the society where it is embedded (Tucker, Kenneth H. Classical Social Theory A Contemporary Approach). Furthermore, Marx argued that rationality is a component of peoples democratic experience once social experience fused with rationality, social knowledge is produced from various classes.

The basic concept of Marxs paradigm (structural framework) on social class in relation to social change is focused on economic influence, so to speak encompassing the notion of the mode of production. The economic status of a certain society dictated the conditions of other institutions media, education, police and his so-called superstructure where government actions and decisions are embodied, including social and cultural response. It has been noted that what had originally triggered peoples radical reaction in Bradford, was their deprivation of basic family necessities the access to education, housing and employment. These necessities were threatened by the existing cultural order and the government had continuously suppressed the said conditions. As a consequence, people from marginalized communities (who mostly belonged to the lower class) felt the need to be recognized socially and culturally this resulted into the creation of a more collective awareness which was finally brought into practice.

These institutions, according to Durkheim, need to be deliberately reorganized in order to come up with an effective treatment for the said condition. Weber, on the other hand, argued that there is a vague influence of general laws on social processes instead, he emphasized on the importance of contingency and chance in human affairs and that human action can only be understood through process of interpretation (in which subjective meanings may be related to it).

With respect to how a certain society can be viewed, Durkheim used the analogy of the biological organism. He believed that the society is a system of interrelated parts and that individual activity is generated by the processes within the system as a whole (Hughes, J.A., Sharrock, Wes W.  Martin, Peter J Understanding Classical Sociology). Marx saw society in a holistic manner -one which is a coherent totality full of contradictions. He believed that peoples unfreedom is a result of their own creation, a product of the division of humanity into different conflicting groups one exploits and the other exploited. Weber argued that society is non-existent had it not for the individuals acting within it patterns of social organization according to him are based on individual subjectivities and that it is just wrong to see society as a real thing (Hughes, J.A., Sharrock, Wes W.  Martin, Peter J Understanding Classical Sociology). In short, these theoretical frameworks recognize the interdependence of the society and individuals and that it follows that a certain social organization is formed and sustained by everyday life routines.

Moving back to the Bradford riot cases in 1995 and 2001, cultural differences among the citys inhabitants created social factions within communities. These differences were observed in Bradfords major institutions and both Muslims and non-Muslims were aware of the existing issues on ethnicity and social inequality.

The government, being an oppressive state apparatus in the words of Marx, tolerated and maintained existing social order where one is favored over the other and thus, increasing the tension between groups with varying interests, finally leading to the formation of collective social organizations one against the other. The willingness and need of marginalized groups to acquire freedom from criticism and social deprivation were manifested in the degree of the riot ferocity. If the riot which occurred in 1995 was milder relative to the riot in 2001, it is suffice to say that cultural tension was even greater in the later period and that people were even more determined to be involved towards social reconstruction.

Furthermore, the fact that the two riots were dominantly involved by younger individuals identifies the portion of the population most concerned and affected, in this case the youth. Of the three theoretical ideas presented, Marxs structural framework would be considered most useful in understanding Bradford riots 1995 and 2001.  The theorys regard on the influence of social economic conditions to other social institutions provided a clearer grasp in understanding how social knowledge had materialized into a collective action. In line with this, Marx recognized the relationship between rationality and culture as interdependent in so far as any reason which is culturally-dictated is valid in the eyes of its people. For instance, what pushed people to march on city streets was the existence of a social order which was not favorable to them, defined by large employment cuts, unequal access to education and issues on racism, which became the determinants of class distinction. Those who were in power remained in control and thus, creating a room for exploitation intensifying the struggle between classes. Granting state authorities the power to suppress acts of misconducts and irregularities may pave the way towards extensive use of power. The arrest of young individuals which triggered the Bradford riot in 1995 had stimulated people to think on how power can be exercised by state authorities like the police, apart from its designated role as the state protector and that the power of reason was the only way to have the said order reorganized.

Theoritical Scope What Do They Neglect
The three basic ideological frameworks may be considered grounds for understanding the mutual relationship between human behavior and the society however, the validity of the basic concepts used may not be applicable to justify events in the post modern period when there are new identities, new forms of knowledge and patterns of social relationship including new sources of division.

Furthermore, these theories neglect individualistic explanations which state that the individual behavior is a by product of psychological make-up rather than dictated by the society. In education for instance, success or failure may reflect ones intelligence. Criminals may be associated to people with a type of personality disorder tagged as morally-deficient individuals rather than viewing it in a more holistic and sociological manner (Jones, Pip Introducing Social Theory).

Moreover, unemployed people may be perceived as lazy or scroungers instead of examining societal factors which caused their being unemployed (Jones, Pip Introducing Social Theory). If all of which is true and considerable as per the individualistic theory is concerned, why then is the conviction rate highest in young males and unemployed blacks Social theories suggest that there might be a way to explain why influences on human behavior cannot just be boxed psychologically and reduced biologically. Marx, Weber and Durkheim argued that human belief and action should be viewed as a result of social influences and which social conditions such as community class conflicts and issues on ethnicity are also pre-determined by human behavior.