Sociology

Culture in its broadest sense is defined as the total way of life of a people. In stricter terms, culture is also defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and relations, cognitive mindsets, and perceptions that are acquired through a process of socialization. It is thus through such shared pattern that members of one group identify one another and are able to differentiate themselves from another group.  Renowned sociologist Talcott Parsons, in his essays on sociological theory  states that Culture...consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human action which may be inherited, that is, passed on from generation to generation independently of the biological genes (2007).

There exist different cultures across the world with various peoples having their own distinct traditions and customs. Despite these manifest differences, Einhrich, (2004) cautions on the stereotypical tendencies that are prevalent throughout the world. He explains in his book party directed motivation, that some studies that try to explain behaviors of certain cultures are not entirely correct since they do not take into account other extraneous variables. For instance the notion that Hispanics do not make eye contact has been disputed since the study was conducted against the backdrop of American culture. On the contrary while with their kith and kin, plenty of eye contact is made since they do not feel shy and inferior. It is therefore advised that before making or accepting certain blanket generalizations, it is important to observe interactions among the group members themselves.

Culture is also commonly divided into two categories namely high context and low context culture (Ember, et al, 1998). This division however is mainly used to differentiate communication styles among different groups. People of a high context culture Asians and Africans have a strong attachment to their in-groups families from where they base their interpretations of life. Another distinguishing factor is that high context cultures are by and large collectivist.

Low context cultures tend to use words purely for communication with no reliance on cultural dictates e.g. western cultures. Relationships also tend to be transient unlike in the former where relationships tend to be long-term. In a narrower sense, low context cultures can be seen at an airport or supermarket, whereas a high context culture can be seen in a religious group or even a club. Unlike high context cultures, these cultures are characterized by individualistic tendencies.

 Ethnocentrism is used to describe the feeling of superiority of one culture over the other. History has shown that ethnocentrism has had many disastrous consequences such as murder. Hitlers vision for a pure Aryan race of Germanic descent is a case in point that led to the annihilation of 6million Jews. White powers, apartheid, anti-Semitism, are all concepts grounded in ethnocentric beliefs.
While ethnocentrism carries almost exclusively negative connotations, it has been found that just like the existence of positive racism, ethnocentrism too can have positive ramifications. (Tannen, 1994). A positive out come is the enhancement of group solidarity and the forging of stronger ties between among members of an in-group. Ethnocentrism within a religious group makes the group members feel a sense of acceptance and commitment.

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that draws heavily on immersion in a given culture and thereby collecting data through participant observation, conducting interviews and issuing questionnaires. It is in a sense the mainstay of cultural anthropology. An ethnographic research therefore differs from other methods of social enquiry in the sense it goes a little further through prolonged fieldwork of at least one year. In the social sciences, ethnography is mainly carried out by anthropologists and sociologists.

An ethnographic research attempts to view culture in its entirety by taking on a holistic perspective.  The ethnographer tries to view the world from the viewpoint of the respondents he is studying. This requires developing an in depth relationship with them, so that they are able to trust you fully to give you the information that you are looking for. (Parsons, 2007). An ethnographic research is also different to the extent that the researcher uses dialogue as a data collection method. The researcher does not wholly rely on a prewritten set of questions but leaves room for the respondent in expounding the conversation so as to collect as much possible information. A well researched ethnography is one that is free of any subjectivity on the part of the researcher. The researcher also has a duty to respect the culture he is investigating to avoid ethnocentric nuances from tainting his research. It is also vital that the researcher remains confidential about the outcome of his findings among the target culture so as to prevent a social desirability from influencing his research.

Authors have argued the fact that immigration has made rich countries dependent on poor countries. Arlie Russell in her book writes,  ... instead we see a wave of Third World Women pushing prams and minders of the aged patiently walking, hand in hand, with elderly patients. It is this influx of women from poor parts of the world that has created dependency syndrome. Statistics show that 30-50percent of new jobs created are low wage jobs. As a result due to the high market value of currencies in modernized economies, migrant workers will continue to pour in to get money that they ca send back to their country. Another truism is that people in the western world from 1965 to 1995 had drastically reduced their cleaning time by 240 percent. The compensation mechanism that subsequently follows is that help will have to be sought through cheap foreign labor.

Deborah Tannen is a communications expert whose books have been on the New York Times best seller list. In her book, Talking from 9 to 5 Women and Men at Work, she analyses conversational styles between men and women at the work place. She states that men have a report talk style of talking while women use the rapport talk. When women talk about problems they are not necessarily looking for solutions, as men are oft to do, provide a quick solution. Often times, they are just looking for someone to listen to them. At this point, men are confused wondering why the woman airs her problems yet she does not want solutions. A common misconception is that women whose intonation rises when asking questions and who are prone to seek clarification before arriving at a decision are generally perceived as weaklings. This, however, is a fallacy since research has shown peoples communication styles are but a product of their socialization. Deborah also emphasizes that no single communication style is ultimately superior to the other but that there are times when one is better than the other.