Sociology

Deviance is a key concept in understanding social problems such as crime and other behaviors considered as unacceptable or harmful to individuals and society. It is important to understand deviance because the response or lack of response of society to the behaviors considered deviant depends on its definition. What is deviant also have strong impact on how individuals build identities and develop attitudes and perspective over norms or rules. 

While the definition of deviant is complex, a number of general characterisations describe the definition of deviance. First is its universality and relativity (Conrad  Schneider 1992). It is universal because deviant behaviour is tied to norms and all social groups have norms. It is also relative because variances in norms determine what is deviant. Second is deviant as a social definition (Conrad  Schneider. 1992 Ferrante 2006). What is deviant is not innate in certain behaviours but determined as such by influential social actors. Third is what is deviant determining the rules and the corresponding sanctions enforced by social groups toward its members (Clinard  Meier 2008). Fourth is the definition of deviant as contextual (Ferrante 2006). Deviant behaviour becomes such depending on conditions, situations and parties involved. Fifth is the enforcement of rules and sanctions based on deviance through power (Clinard  Meier 2008), such as law enforcement authorities and the justice system.

Based on the common characteristics of the definition of deviant, what is deviant is not static, which means its definition shifts with normative changes in society. The definition of deviance results from how society defines this construct. While the definition differs across social groups, there are a number of theories explaining how society defines what is deviant. These theories help in understanding deviant and its implications on individuals and society.

Defining Deviant through Social Goals
According to the social control theory, society defines what is deviant by distinguishing the behaviours considered as inimical to the achievement of social goals (Kornblum 2008). Social goals capture common needs and wants of members of society in pursuit of wellbeing. One goal is to provide basic needs. Basic needs in the contemporary context mean attending school, having a sufficiently paying job, and living a comfortable life. Present day needs encompass the material and non-material components tied to the concept of standard of living. Another goal is ensuring order in the context of private property and public order. Individuals exert exclusive ownership of their private properties and protection of this private right ensures control. Trespassing and stealing are behaviours that go against the social order by violating property rights. No individual want other people enter their homes and use their cars and other properties without permission. There is then a common drive towards social order to protect private rights. Public order is also a common aspiration of members of society. The perception of the sanctity of life and its concurrent fragility influence the identification of behaviours as deviant. Killing or causing injury to other people, whether intentional or unintentional, is considered as violation of the sanctity of life, albeit the intention or lack of it in committing the act is treated differently. Social order is pursued by controlling the actions that violate public order.

Social goals determine acceptable and unacceptable behaviour according to the manner that actions support or defeat the achievement of social goals. Actions that support social goals are acceptable behaviour while those that defeat the social goals are deviant behaviour. These actions are then embedded into a set of rules or norms of social behaviour. These rules or norms are enforced towards members of society via a system of rules and sanctions (Clinard  Meier 2008). Acceptable behaviour is encouraged or rewarded while deviant behaviour is sanctioned. A development of the system is codification of the rules and sanctions into laws and punishments and integrated into the justice system. Laws and the justice system then become guidelines of determining deviant behaviour by future generations.

Social control is exerted through laws and the justice system to achieve social goals (Cohen 1985). Criminal behaviour is considered deviant behaviour based on criminal statutes defining crime and determined by the courts employing standards of practice and procedures of prosecuting cases. Behaviour rendered as criminal by the court constitutes deviant behaviour and individuals committing crimes are deviants. Enforcement of social control is through sanctions. Crimes are meted with certain punishments according to type, intensity, and mitigating circumstances in the commission of the criminal act.

Society defines what is deviant by considering behaviours that support the achievement of common social goals as distinguished from the behaviours that defeat goal achievement, which express deviance. To gain social control, behaviours considered as deviant are then built into a legal system providing penalties for commission. The legal system becomes an enduring structure expressing rules and sanctions but with the treatment of certain behaviour depending on the changing social goals and shifts and additions to behaviours considered as deviant. Social control creates deviant or reinforces deviant behaviours (Kornblum, 2008). Since what is deviant operates through power, groups with strong social influence determine deviant behaviour particularly relative to private property and wealth appropriation. Since private wealth excludes other people, those without property are likely to be forced to violate laws to gain wealth. The exercise of social control regulates deviant behaviour but it can also create strain (Merton 1938) to reinforce the commission of deviant behaviour. 

Defining Deviant through Cultural Constructs
Society also defines what is deviant by considering acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour based on socio-cultural codes embedded in the social structure (Merton 1938). Behaviours considered deviant are those that bring about negative reactions from the other members of the group. The socio-cultural codes are comprised of beliefs and values reflecting on the identity of cultural groups. These codes develop within a culture and signal the norms commonly shared within the culture and the uniqueness of that culture (Ferrante 2006). The socio-cultural codes are valued by members of the group. Deviant behaviours are then considered as those that devalue the socio-cultural codes or destroy the cohesiveness of the group.

Socio-cultural codes are rules of behaviour based on the values emanating from a culture (Ferrante 2006). These codes vary across cultures. This also means that the definition of deviant behaviour may differ from culture to culture. An example is pregnancy outside of marriage. In most western cultures, this is not encouraged but it is also not collectively sanctioned. An explanation is the individualistic values of western cultures making intercourse and pregnancy outside of marriage a personal decision. The issue is settled domestically. In the Muslim culture, pregnancy outside of marriage is strongly discouraged and heavily sanctioned. Apart from the integration of religious and secular affairs, collectivism is a strong value that explains collective social sanctions for pregnancy outside of marriage. In the western culture, pregnancy outside of marriage may be considered deviant behaviour but not heavily sanctioned while in the Muslim culture, this is considered deviant and in some cases even criminal behaviour and heavily sanctioned.

The well-established codes are integrated into the social structure to exact compliance and have a means of enforcing sanctions (Merton, 1938). In the example of social structures are rules, laws, processes, and systems that regulate and control adherence to socio-cultural codes. The social structure operates to determine deviant behaviour and impose sanctions (Cohen 1985). The Sharia law based on Islamic tenets determines deviant behaviour and the Sharia court determines violation and imposes sanctions. There are also similar structures in other cultures, albeit varying in stability and influence. These social structures reinforce the definition of what is deviant behaviour is these cultures. 

Acculturation of norms explains how acceptable behaviours are learned. Concurrently, deviant behaviour is also learned. The social learning theory explains that acceptable and deviant behaviour are both learned (Clinard  Meier 2008). The deviant behaviour of pick-pocketing is learned from association with people engaging in this activity. At the same time, deviant behaviours also reflect coping mechanisms to strict rules. Pick-pocketing is done as an easy means of acquiring money. While this is considered a criminal act, the risk of being caught depends on experience and the sanction may not be considered heavy when compared to the ease in obtaining money. Another example is abuses in the subprime market as deviant behaviour brought about by relaxed regulations. As such, culture is a construct within which deviant behaviour is defined by society and it is also the force that creates deviance.

Defining Deviant through the Majority in the Power Struggle within Society
Society can also define what is deviant as criminal behaviour based on power struggle as the circumstance that fostered this behaviour. The conflict theory explains unacceptable behaviour as criminal acts brought about by a power struggle between classes of uneven control and power (Clinard  Meier 2008). This adheres to the economic explanation of crime. Criminal acts are done to meet economic needs that are difficult to address given social inequality. There are a small group controlling majority of wealth to the exclusion of most people. The result is difficulty in meeting needs and poverty. With opportunities to gain wealth, individuals commit these acts to address economic needs. Deviant behaviour is criminalised by those in power because these acts operate against their interest. This also aligns with interracial inequality. Deviant behaviour is attributed to the minority by the majority. Discrimination and stereotyping describe deviant behaviour strongly attributed to minority. The majority who consider themselves as normal are the ones who segregate other people and establish perceptions of the minority as inferior or weak (Slattery 2003).

Criminal behaviour is stereotyped as acts of minority groups. Deviant behaviour defined in criminal statistics may support this stereotype in part. Current statistics indicate that while the incidence of violent crimes reporting has decreased for both white and black perpetrators, the incidence of blacks as perpetrators remains higher. However, in considering the inmates on death row, there are more whites than blacks based on latest data. (Bureau of Justice Statistics 2010) While the stereotyping of minority groups as deviant persists, this is not necessarily supported by statistical data on crime. With persisting inequality, the definition of what is deviant as attributed to the minority as imposed by the majority would likely to continue.

Defining Deviant through its Functions
Society also defines what is deviant based on the facilitating effect of deviant behaviours in enhancing social cohesion and improving social norms. This perspective then recognises deviant behaviour innate in social life. While such behaviour may have adverse effects on society, these types of behaviour serve a purpose. The functional theory explains the purpose of deviant behaviour as the stimulus to social progress (Kornblum 2008) or as a means of pursuing targeted outcomes such as wealth and success (Merton 1938).

According to Durkheim, society should provide leeway for deviant behaviour by not exercising excessively stringent rules (Kornblum 2008). By allowing deviant behaviour to occur to an extent that adversely affects society, society responds by calling for change to improve social life. Criminals cause harm to other people but there are also other members of society who work for a progressive social life. Without deviant behaviour, social development will stagnate. Burgess adds that crime can serve society within a certain limit (Kornblum 2008). When faced with crime problems, to an extent that puts pressures on social actors and institutions to realise the need for a responsive action, then change occurs. The rise in serious crimes pressured the justice system to implement changes including directing better law enforcement and more stringent laws. Social services were also improved to address poverty conditions that lead to criminal activity. Schools and communities developed social activities that deviates the attention of young people from vices and crime. Although, there remain room for improvement in these areas, these systems were designed and redesigned to address crime problems. 

Merton (1938) is also a functional theorist but provides an alternative explanation of the function of deviance in the context of American society. He also recognised the natural existence of deviance in society but explained that certain deviant behaviours are means through which individuals can pursue goals given social barriers to goal achievement. In the pursuit of the good life, the social norm is to exercise diligence and exert hard work. Education is the primary tool through which the ideal of a good life can be achieved. Parents encourage and support the schooling of their children. Schools encourage students to do well in their subjects to finish school and find good jobs.

Merton (1938) explained further that the path to a good life is not ideal for many people. In the United States, the ideal of the good life is the American dream of having a high paying job, having a houses and cars, going on vacation in foreign countries, and having all the amenities considered as expressions of a good life. Achieving this dream involves access to resources to get a good education. However, access to resources in America is unequal. This means that there are those who graduate from good schools and land high paying jobs but many are without the means to pursue higher education. Individuals respond to limited access in four ways. The first response is conformity. This refers to the ideal response. Even those with limited access accept the ideal of the good life and work hard to finish school by having jobs or doing well in their classes to get scholarships. These are done with the expectation that they will get a degree and land a good job in the future. The second response is ritualism. The difference in the ritualistic response is rejection of the ideal of the American dream as a social goal but behaviour still complies with expectations of finishing school and going to work. Wealth accumulation is not actively pursued. The third response is innovation. There is acceptance of the American dream but the means of achieving this goal is outside of the usual means. The means pursued can be considered deviant behaviour. Instead of pursuing higher education, an individual can use social connections to obtain a job and exploit connections to reach a managerial position. Another means could be to join the mafia to get easy money even without working hard in the ideal sense. These comprise deviant behaviour although the first is legal and the other means is illegal. While sharing the same goals, deviant behaviour became an alternative means of pursuing social goals. The fourth response is retreat. Individuals reject the American dream and separate themselves from society by creating an enclosed community or becoming a recluse. The fifth response is rebellion. Social goals are also rejected but the response is to actively change society instead of detaching from it such as through political activism and armed rebellion. Both retreat and rebellion are deviant behaviours in response to social goals. As such, social goals can also become an offshoot of both acceptable and deviant behaviour.

Defining Deviant through Labels
Society can also define what is deviant by using labels. The theory of symbolic interaction explains deviant behaviour as generated by the process of labelling expressed through reactions to particular actions that establish these actions as deviant behaviour (Slattery 2003). Social control agents usually do the labelling through the influence they exert. Labelling emerges from the existence of rules or norms with which to evaluate individuals not complying as deviants. Deviant behaviour is then defined by the imposition of labels on individuals and not by the characteristic of the behaviour (Kornblum 2008). Individuals are labelled as deviants and criminals by official agents such as law enforcement and the courts as well as social service and mental health institutions. Through labelling, certain behaviours done by individuals become defined as deviant.

Goffman (1968) explained stigma as the implication of labels used to define certain behaviours as deviant. Stigma is an implicit or explicit sign that degrades social identity in a manner that excludes the individual from being accepted in society. There are two aspects of stigma. One aspect is individual characteristics or behaviours considered as unacceptable such as deviant behaviour. The other is social norms that make behaviour deviant through labelling. To an individual, his or her actions may not comprise deviant behaviour but according to the labelling of influential social actors and based on social norms, these actions are deviant. While society set up norms to encourage acceptable behaviour through acceptance and recognition, it also creates deviant behaviour through labelling and stigmatisation.

Conclusion
Deviant behaviour is a social construct. What is deviant is not based on the action or behaviour itself but on the consideration or classification of the behaviour as deviant by society based on acceptable social norms. Deviance has no meaning outside of its social definition. There are different ways with which society defines what is deviant. These correspond to various theories representing different perspectives of deviance. Society defines what is deviant as violation of social control or the rules and structures set in place to facilitate the achievement of social goals or with compliance comprising a social goal in itself. Society also defines what is deviant by considering acceptable and non-acceptable behaviour based on socio-cultural codes embedded in the social structure. There are a set of acceptable behaviour in a given culture and deviance is violation of these accepted actions. The definition of deviance can vary across cultures. Society also defines what is deviant as criminal behaviour based on the circumstances that fostered this behaviour. The conflict theory explains unacceptable behaviour as criminal acts brought about by a power struggle between classes of uneven control and power. What is deviant is determined by those in power and most likely pertain to the actions of those without power committing actions intended to gain power such as by stealing money or other property. Society also defines what is deviant based on the facilitating effect of deviant behaviours in enhancing social cohesion and improving social norms. Deviance is innate to society and functions as stimulator of change. By harming society, social actors are bound to respond by improving social life. Deviant behaviour is a means through which individuals without access to resources in pursuing the good life in the conventional manner can achieve this goal. Society can also define what is deviant by using labels. The theory of symbolic interaction explains deviant behaviour as generated by the process of labelling and stigmatization.