Sociology

Since 1970s, more than 350,000 people have been dispossessed due to dam projects in Turkey (Ozkalayci and Icten 2005). The state claims 12,000 of those were relocated, while the rest had to migrate on their own (Ozkalayci and Icten 2005). Despite this scale, there have been very few attempts to study this phenomenon to date. Using the case of Tahtali Dam, this research aims to give an insight into the socio-economic and cultural effects of development-induced displacement and resettlement in Turkey.

The construction of Tahtali Dam in Izmir impounded eight settlements, displacing about 7500 people from 1400 households in 1996 (DSI, 1994). As per Resettlement Law (no2510), the displacees had two options receiving cash compensation for their lost assets and resettling on their own, or bequeathing all their compensation money toward resettlement by the state. Amongst the 600 households that had opted for state resettlement, 350 were certified as being entitled. On execution however, some of the earmarked houses were allotted to members of another community  the Kurdish. This left out 70 of the earlier qualified households not catered for. Although they were not initially part of the resettlement plan for Tahtali, these Kurdish people equally faced similar consequence of displacement during a dam project of 1992 in the south-eastern Turkey and had been waiting to be resettled since then. Pathetically, the remaining 70 entitled households, on the other hand, continually await resettlement relief 14 years after the construction of Tahtali.

This research will enquire into the displacement and resettlement issues with regards to their effects on peoples lives and livelihoods. It will explore the consequences faced over time by different groups, the adopted coping strategies, how both gender and generational roles were redefined, and how different ethnic groups responded to the new conditions. Related studies on this subject had examined how displacement led to deprivation of women by shifting cash value assets solely to husband, limiting their access to common resources or increase the violence against them (Colchester, 2000 Colson, 1995 Koenig, 1995 Pandey and Rout, 2004). Studies also revealed how displacement can influence ethnic tensions in heterogeneous groups (De Wet, 2000). This study will further investigate the Cerneas model (1997), which proposes eight impoverishment risks associated with displacement occurrence, with peculiarity to Tahtali Dam case.

The research will adopt a phenomenological approach through a field work of six months. Along with participant observation, oral history collection, in-depth interviewing and focus group discussions will be used as the main research tools. The potential informants will be reached through purposive and representative sampling in reference to gender and generation as well as socio-economic orientation and ethnic background. The research will chronicle the narratives of both the displacees resettled by the state and those who had resettled on their own and will also seek information from the relevant governmental and non-governmental organizations.

This research will hence facilitate a coherent understanding of the repercussions of the development projects in Turkey and contribute towards framing of policies to relegate their adverse effects. The findings is also expected to be of interest to a wider international audience as Turkey presents an ample range of issues that have considerable generic applicability to displacement and resettlement situations in the rest of the world.

Culture in its broadest sense is defined as the total way of life of a people. In stricter terms, culture is also defined as the shared patterns of behaviors and relations, cognitive mindsets, and perceptions that are acquired through a process of socialization. It is thus through such shared pattern that members of one group identify one another and are able to differentiate themselves from another group.  Renowned sociologist Talcott Parsons, in his essays on sociological theory  states that Culture...consists in those patterns relative to behavior and the products of human action which may be inherited, that is, passed on from generation to generation independently of the biological genes (2007).

There exist different cultures across the world with various peoples having their own distinct traditions and customs. Despite these manifest differences, Einhrich, (2004) cautions on the stereotypical tendencies that are prevalent throughout the world. He explains in his book party directed motivation, that some studies that try to explain behaviors of certain cultures are not entirely correct since they do not take into account other extraneous variables. For instance the notion that Hispanics do not make eye contact has been disputed since the study was conducted against the backdrop of American culture. On the contrary while with their kith and kin, plenty of eye contact is made since they do not feel shy and inferior. It is therefore advised that before making or accepting certain blanket generalizations, it is important to observe interactions among the group members themselves.

Culture is also commonly divided into two categories namely high context and low context culture (Ember, et al, 1998). This division however is mainly used to differentiate communication styles among different groups. People of a high context culture Asians and Africans have a strong attachment to their in-groups families from where they base their interpretations of life. Another distinguishing factor is that high context cultures are by and large collectivist.

Low context cultures tend to use words purely for communication with no reliance on cultural dictates e.g. western cultures. Relationships also tend to be transient unlike in the former where relationships tend to be long-term. In a narrower sense, low context cultures can be seen at an airport or supermarket, whereas a high context culture can be seen in a religious group or even a club. Unlike high context cultures, these cultures are characterized by individualistic tendencies.

 Ethnocentrism is used to describe the feeling of superiority of one culture over the other. History has shown that ethnocentrism has had many disastrous consequences such as murder. Hitlers vision for a pure Aryan race of Germanic descent is a case in point that led to the annihilation of 6million Jews. White powers, apartheid, anti-Semitism, are all concepts grounded in ethnocentric beliefs.
While ethnocentrism carries almost exclusively negative connotations, it has been found that just like the existence of positive racism, ethnocentrism too can have positive ramifications. (Tannen, 1994). A positive out come is the enhancement of group solidarity and the forging of stronger ties between among members of an in-group. Ethnocentrism within a religious group makes the group members feel a sense of acceptance and commitment.

Ethnography is a qualitative research method that draws heavily on immersion in a given culture and thereby collecting data through participant observation, conducting interviews and issuing questionnaires. It is in a sense the mainstay of cultural anthropology. An ethnographic research therefore differs from other methods of social enquiry in the sense it goes a little further through prolonged fieldwork of at least one year. In the social sciences, ethnography is mainly carried out by anthropologists and sociologists.

An ethnographic research attempts to view culture in its entirety by taking on a holistic perspective.  The ethnographer tries to view the world from the viewpoint of the respondents he is studying. This requires developing an in depth relationship with them, so that they are able to trust you fully to give you the information that you are looking for. (Parsons, 2007). An ethnographic research is also different to the extent that the researcher uses dialogue as a data collection method. The researcher does not wholly rely on a prewritten set of questions but leaves room for the respondent in expounding the conversation so as to collect as much possible information. A well researched ethnography is one that is free of any subjectivity on the part of the researcher. The researcher also has a duty to respect the culture he is investigating to avoid ethnocentric nuances from tainting his research. It is also vital that the researcher remains confidential about the outcome of his findings among the target culture so as to prevent a social desirability from influencing his research.

Authors have argued the fact that immigration has made rich countries dependent on poor countries. Arlie Russell in her book writes,  ... instead we see a wave of Third World Women pushing prams and minders of the aged patiently walking, hand in hand, with elderly patients. It is this influx of women from poor parts of the world that has created dependency syndrome. Statistics show that 30-50percent of new jobs created are low wage jobs. As a result due to the high market value of currencies in modernized economies, migrant workers will continue to pour in to get money that they ca send back to their country. Another truism is that people in the western world from 1965 to 1995 had drastically reduced their cleaning time by 240 percent. The compensation mechanism that subsequently follows is that help will have to be sought through cheap foreign labor.

Deborah Tannen is a communications expert whose books have been on the New York Times best seller list. In her book, Talking from 9 to 5 Women and Men at Work, she analyses conversational styles between men and women at the work place. She states that men have a report talk style of talking while women use the rapport talk. When women talk about problems they are not necessarily looking for solutions, as men are oft to do, provide a quick solution. Often times, they are just looking for someone to listen to them. At this point, men are confused wondering why the woman airs her problems yet she does not want solutions. A common misconception is that women whose intonation rises when asking questions and who are prone to seek clarification before arriving at a decision are generally perceived as weaklings. This, however, is a fallacy since research has shown peoples communication styles are but a product of their socialization. Deborah also emphasizes that no single communication style is ultimately superior to the other but that there are times when one is better than the other.

In current decades, there has been heightened awareness of the predominance of the middle ear disease, also known as otitis media (OM), as the most common antecedent of auditory or hearing loss among Native Australians. OM is an infection of the middle ear that presents itself in diverse forms. It is elicited by bacterial or viral contamination and is a complication of a simpler malady (such as a cold). OM commonly precipitates conductive hearing loss that is mild to moderate in intensity, and may be sporadic or persistent depending on the form of OM. Without effective medical care and follow-up, OM may become very serious and incurable, increasing the chance of total hearing loss. Sadly, the compelling repercussions of hearing loss  has its effect on the ability to communicate, to participate in schooling, attain advancing skills, and form connections among other people. This recognized the need for further examination in a range of areas concerning health, mainly Indigenous hearing health.
Prototypes and degrees of OM and hearing loss commence differently in Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, resulting in more serious aftermaths and necessitating different aid and services for the Indigenous population. Lack of information within the mainstream

Hearing Impairment in Australian Islanders   
health and education strata of the Indigenous ear health and hearing analysis being different is likely to have added to the limited understanding and rendering of existing knowledge, and prompted the development of appropriate policy and applications in the Indigenous context. Studies overseen in provincial and remote Aboriginal communities account that otitis media often occurs in infants within weeks of birth, which is usually undetected and untreated due to lack of health care, and repeated occurrences commonly lead to a chronic disease that carries on into adolescence and adulthood. It has been assessed that an Indigenous child experiences combined occurrences of OM that total about two-and-a-half years, in contrast with three months for a non-Indigenous child in Australias general population.

Otitis media is blamed for much of the hearing loss happening to the Indigenous people of all ages in Australia. Stages of otitis media (OM) and hearing loss differs across Indigenous communities throughout Australia, but are indicatively worse than those reported in non-Indigenous populace. The true extent of the point of issue remains unclear, but probing studies, large-scale surveys, and hospitalization abstracts provide awareness into levels of OM and hearing loss within the Indigenous communities. It is beyond the scope of this paper to consider shifts in levels of Indigenous OM and hearing loss over time, but reports from research studies conducted in the last two decades emphasize the endemic nature of ear disease, which means that it is a disease that is invariably present to a greater or lesser degree in people of a certain class or in people living in a particular area. Hearing loss in the Indigenous populace, and recent surveys and hospitalization abstracts point to the continued affliction of ear disease and hearing loss experienced by Indigenous Australians.

Factors That Have Resulted in a Disproportionate Incidence of Hearing Impairment and Deafness in the Population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples

Compared to the General Community
The Productivity Commission, the Australian Governments autonomous research and advisory body on the sphere of economic, social and environmental concerns involving the welfare of Australians, has marked that high rates of chronic ear infections have a direct link to poverty, crowded housing circumstances, insufficient access to clean water and operative sewerage systems, dietary issues and limited access to health care experienced by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.

Poverty in indigenous tribes
World Bank has upheld Australia as one of the richest countries of the world in 1995. The country has one of the most booming economies in the world which is mirrored in the lifestyle of most of its people. Its urban cities such as Sydney and Melbourne has a very prosperous and dynamic lifestyle. But although the standard of living in Australia is relatively higher than in other countries of the world, there is still an imbalance among the settlers of Australia pertaining to living standards. Australia is also an abode to a number of Aboriginals who have been, over the years, relegated to a lower social standing by the European settlers. This traces back to Australias history about the conflict between Aboriginal people and European settlers in Australia that goes back to 18th century, 1788 to be exact. This was when the first group of European migrants arrived in Australia and was confronted by the Aborigines already owning the land. Misunderstandings and conflicts led to a marginalization that has resulted in a huge contrast between the living standards of the Europeans and the indigenous communities evident in this present time.

The poverty being faced today by the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of Australia is a fruit of history. One of its present-day offsprings is the high incidence of hearing impairment and deafness in the population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander tribes.

The lack of financial capacity can restrict the adequacy of families to provide sanitary and healthful environments, especially in terms of diet and habitation, which in turn puts family members, particularly the young ones and teenagers, at increased danger of contracting diseases. Poverty in Australia is as bitter as it is in developing countries, and its Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, about half a million Australians, who are among the most impoverished. Dispossession, deprivation, racism and discrimination for more than 200 years have left Indigenous Australians with the lowest levels of education, the highest levels of unemployment, the poorest health and the most appalling housing conditions.
       
But whose fault is it really Should the Australian government take full blame for the plight of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples Why cant the government help them out of their poverty
 We all know that education opens a wide avenue of opportunity for everyone. But in the opinion of Coombs (1994), the Australian education system is still discerned by some members of Aboriginal society today as an instrument of assimilation children are there to be changed to be weaned away from the loyalties that have made them Aboriginal (p. 87). Education has been undertaken as a solution to what has been termed Australias Aboriginal problem for almost 200 years now. As an institution, school has been used, among other purposes to promote racial integration and stimulate Aboriginal self-determination (Fletcher, 1989). According to what has been stated then, is it the native communities deeply-seated immovable schema of education that is hindering them from moving on to progress A negative impact on educational achievement can have further negative life repercussions as educational achievement has been found to be linked with progress and advancement.

Overcrowded Housing
Overcrowding, poor housing frameworks, and limited access to affordable and suitable shelters in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities is still a big challenge to the Australian government and service providers. Ameliorating and increasing current housing stock is compulsory if Australia is to narrow the gap between economic conditions of the disadvantaged population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the general community of the country.

Congestion or overcrowding in places of habitation may contribute to poor hygiene and subjects the children especially, to the dangers of getting infected by other family members if there is already an ear infection epidemic in the home. Indigenous people living in remote areas abide in temporary dwellings, including tin sheds, caravans and humpies.  Having too many people confined to a small place also upsurges the noise level of the home area, which may result to further hearing deterioration and render hearing aids useless because of much background noise.

The place of dwelling has a huge impact on health. The components of place are the not just the infrastructure, but also the physical surroundings, availability of healthy environments and sanitation, accessibility to services, and socio-cultural elements of the locale. They are a mix of physical, social, environmental, economic, and socio-cultural influences. The actuality of these conditions is increasingly shown to have repercussions on psychosocial aspect of the individuals of that community and defines how various groups resultantly engage in health-promoting behaviors.

Indigenous communities living in areas across Northern and Central Australia who experience the most alarming living circumstances in remote Australia are the most apparent and enduring evidence of past government inadequacy. This is the exact opposite of the modern housing facilities enjoyed by the majority of the general population situated in Australias urban cities. Reconstructing economic opportunities in remote areas such as the Torres Strait Islander communities should be a major call for Australias economic participation reforms.

Insufficient Access to Clean Water
Majority of Australians abide in cities where large expenditures have been made to guarantee an adequate supply of water, even in the event of drought. An estimated 70 of Australians live in cities accommodating more than 100,000 inhabitants. These cities typify less than 1 of the area of Australia. The remaining 99 of this large area contains the other 30 of Australians. A multitude of those people live in smaller cities and communities and also have adequate water supply. On the other hand, some do not. For places not connected to main water supply, some arrangement for the supply of water is essential. This could be, for example, groundwater, stored rainwater or a junction of both.
       
However, for a number of small communities in remote parts of Australia, the provision of a satisfactory supply of water is a considerable challenge. Many of these remote areas are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.

A number of these communities still have insufficient water supplies and some do not have a constructed water supply at all. The provision of water supply to small communities in the boondocks is particularly problematic. The remoteness makes it slow and high-priced to get materials transported. It also makes it difficult to get support teams and maintenance services on site.
Because community members chiefly lack access to the needed technical training and to the specialized services that might be required for on-going maintenance, repairs and restorations to water supply systems is difficult.

Government administration departments and agencies have come up with resolutions to improve water supplies in remote Indigenous communities. Nevertheless, it concluded that no significant betterment in Aboriginal living conditions would take place without a number of other reinforcements. These included
acknowledgment of the need for community control in decision-making assimilation of difference between cultures development of the means for communities to acquire independent scientific and technical methods identification and application of the necessary adjustments in Government policies and programs

Inadequate Sewerage Systems
Domiciles without functioning water taps and showers, or with substandard means to obtaining clean water, operational sewage and waste removal methods make subsisting with good hygiene very difficult and increase the susceptibility of children to bacteria that is responsible for ear diseases.

In a sewerage service survey in 2001 of 1,216 Indigenous communities with a population of 50 or more found that 48 had reported sewerage system overflows or leakages in the 12 months prior to the survey. Also in a 2001 report, 7 of isolated Indigenous communities, denoting 1 of the entirety of the reported residents of all such communities, reported having no systematic sewerage system. Of the 327 communities which accounted a population of 50 or more, 58 reported overflows or leakages in the prior 12 months. Flooding also occurs in the dwellings in communities of this size. But recently, according to the Australian Bureau of Statistics, between 2001 and 2006, there was a 55 growth in the count of communities conjoined to a town sewerage system as their vital form of waste disposal. This developed in a proportion of people whose community had town sewerage augmenting from 8 to 30. As a result, a reduced proportion of people depended on water-borne systems and septic tanks (38 and 28 correspondingly) in 2006 than in 2001 (50 and 36). But still, not all people in remote Indigenous communities had access to some type of functional sewerage system. The microbes from external ear infections can be passed on to exposed individuals under conditions of poor hygiene and inadequate waste disposal sewerage systems.

Nutritional and Dietary Issues
Intensified degrees of excess morbidity and mortality from diet-related ailments among Indigenous peoples compared to the non-Indigenous population implies that access to healthy, reasonably-priced foods is an important health concern for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. In a number of remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander community markets there is frequently a limited variety of foods stocked compared to larger urban towns and more commercial areas. Selectively, perishable items such as dairy foods, fruits and vegetables are usually in short supply, of poor quality and are very expensive (Young 1984, Leonard et al 1994, Lee et al 1994).

Notwithstanding the cost of food in all rural areas is predominantly higher than in southern capital cities, several separate surveys have exposed that the cost of food in Indigenous rural and remote communities is even more exorbitant than those in other rural and urban areas. For instance, a Queensland survey done in urban, rural and remote areas recorded that the prices for a healthy food basket for a remote Indigenous family swung from 120 to 180 of Brisbane prices. The Torres Strait shopper can pay about 75 more for fruit and vegetables in contrast to consumers in Brisbane (Leonard et al 1994).

On the other hand, one study has pinpointed that Aboriginal women are more inclined to spend available funds on foods while the men tend to choose other goods (Rowse et al 1994). Abuse of substances such as alcohol and tobacco may also veer money away from food and other basic needs. For example, a study in remote communities of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people has shown more than 50 percent of their meager income was spent on cigars and beer. This is different to less than 20 percent being spent on these commodities in the Australias general community (Lester 1994,
Hoy et al 1997).

Limited Access to Health Care
Although health care in Australia is considered one of the best in the world, the Australian Federal Government has, in effect, coursed a system in which Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities receive second-rate level of service when it comes to the constancy of care than the rest of Australias general population  less on prevention, less on fundamental healthcare, less for surgery in health service institutions and less for rehabilitation. The evident of higher expenditure on hospital care is almost certainly less than it should be on a needs presumption, given the higher ailment levels in the indigenous groups.

Unfortunately, the Federal Government, through projects under its own direct control (i.e. Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme Medical Benefits Scheme, aged care), budgets approximately  .70 per capita on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people for every 1 spent on the rest of the general population.

The critical shortfalls are on vital basic healthcare and prevention and these are the turning points for improving Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health. Giving priority to early intervention in childhood to impede poor health consequences in adulthood should not be underestimated. Whats essential, most of all, is a comprehensive national program to reform Indigenous health care as a starting point heading to the improvement of health of the next generation of Indigenous Australians. Such projects should include a well-planned allocation of medical and health care staff linked with an increased advancement in health infrastructure, including basic vital healthcare and the advocacy of healthy lifestyles that can add to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health equality with other Australians.

Prototypes and degrees of OM and hearing loss commence differently in Indigenous and non-Indigenous people, resulting in more serious aftermaths and necessitating different aids and services for the Indigenous population. Lack of information within the mainstream health and education strata of the Indigenous ear health and hearing analysis being different is likely to have contributed to the limited understanding and implementation of existing knowledge, and influenced the development of appropriate policy and practice in the Indigenous context. Studies conducted in rural and remote Aboriginal communities report that OM often occurs in infants a short period days from birth, and repeated occurrences frequently lead to chronic illness that persists into adolescence and adulthood.

The lack of supply and the high demand of health care professionals with the motivation to want to participate in the process of becoming culturally aware, culturally skillful, and familiar with cultural experiences with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, under the circumstance of receiving even lower wages compared to those working with the general population presents still another problem in health access. At present, there is a deficit of more than 400 doctors, more than 600 nurses and related shortfalls in many of Aboriginal health staff and allied health workers attending to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders health services. Services such as vital primary healthcare cannot be optimally delivered without these professionals and health care staff. Current recruitment opportunities are impeded by the failure of Aboriginal-specific primary healthcare services to compensate the health workers with competitive salaries as compared to the private sector salaries in Australias major cities which are, in fact, higher.

Another point that makes it even more difficult for health professionals is their lack of cultural competence. Cultural competence is an essential constituent in rendering effective and culturally responsive assistance to culturally and ethnically diverse patients. Supernatural interposition, for instance, plays a very valuable role in the traditional health beliefs of Aboriginal people as it may support the ultimate ground why a person became sick. All health professionals interacting with Aboriginal people should have been briefed of the effects this may have on the provision of healthcare.

Concluding thought
The factors that have resulted in a disproportionate incidence of hearing impairment and deafness in the population of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples compared to the general community as briefly described in the previous pages can merely be compared to leaves of a tree of whose texture and quality is a by product of how the tree was nourished and from whence it has originated. It is only by nourishing its roots with more nutrients can we then see greener leaves. Solving the health problems of the remote communities especially the hearing impairment leading to hearing loss, will not only untangle the maze of problems they now face, but it will, in effect, improve the lives of these people in its total framework and over all quality of living.         

The case under consideration involves a referral to mediation by a social services agency, initiated by school complaints of potential or suspected, but not documented, abuse of a child. A proceeding is about to be initiated to determine whether the child should be removed from the home in point. Prior to filing, mediation has been proposed. Therefore, this paper discusses two of the most common and most relied on methods of mediation, in order to determine which method of mediation would do justice to the situation, and would serve the purpose of ascertaining whether the child is indeed under abuse or not, and if yes, then what can be done to intervene for the safety and betterment of the child.

The dispute is thus a parent-child dispute, and the interests of the child, being a minor, need to be safeguarded relentlessly. The family is a blended family, meaning to say that one of the parents has married again. The mother of this child is of the view that the child fails to get along with her new husband, and that the child is trying to make her choose between herself and the new husband. The stepfather is of the view that the child has never seen any discipline, and he, the stepfather, is just trying to set things right. The biological father on the other hand, is of the vehement view that the step-parent is an alcoholic and abusive, and that the child, his daughter, is just trying to survive in bad circumstances. Another important view that needs to be put on the table is the childs school counselors, who maintains that the child has severe emotional problems that need family counseling, but the family refuses to get help.

The two most commonly used and most effective methods of mediation are the facilitative mediation method, and the evaluative mediation method. There are two other methods, the transformative and the narrative ones, but for the purpose of this paper and this case, I would emphasize on the first two. Facilitative mediation necessarily takes into account the decision making factor of the issue at hand, the decision making being left to those who are directly involved in the case. That is to say that as is obvious from the name itself, this mediation method has the purpose of only enlightening the involved parties of important perspectives that they might have missed out on since they were emotionally involved, so that they may make better informed decisions. Thus, the mediator is merely that, a mediator, and not a decision maker. The case is similar to that of a doctor where the doctor can only assess the patients situation and guide them as to what might be appropriate, but the doctor cannot force the patient to undergo a certain treatment. The logic behind this system is that once the involved parties are fully informed of every aspect of the situation theyre facing, they will be better able to make a decision that suits all of them, and in turn, is more sustainable than a decision taken irrationally or under the pressure of emotions alone.

An Evaluative Mediation model on the other hand, include mediators who are not just there to evaluate the situation and enlighten the involved parties about the intricacies of the case, but are also legal practitioners with sufficient expertise in the field to which the issue at hand belongs. They offer not only guidance about the conflict under consideration in line with the law regarding the nature of such conflicts, but also offer evaluation in terms of strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities of each partys individual case, as they can be seen from the legal point of view, thus informing them clearly and firmly about their legal positions. They go one step further than facilitative mediation since they are able to, due to their expertise in the field, advise as to the probably outcome if the matter was taken to court. Additionally, since they have this position of an expert in the mediation process, they have the responsibility and capacity to offer settlement options as considerations that the involved parties must not overlook, especially if asked for.

In my opinion then, the case at hand of this abused child, requires Evaluative Mediation since this model has several advantages over the facilitative ones, and can guide the involved parties as to their legal standing and probable outcomes if the matter was taken to court. After all, the issue at hand is the sane development of an innocent child caught in a difficult situation.

A  very helpful book that is focused in sociological theory.
It is mainly concern of the person- You and Me.

Whats good about this book is that it is a Christian inspired book. It helps the society in the sense, it lifts up your spirit. And helped us  to behave in the right way.

Specially, in the  social aspect.

Its formulated for the college students to all young boys and girls
And it has its famous cite saying.

TO ALL THE PERSON WHO
LOVE TO LIVE
YEARN TO GROW
LONG FOR CHRIST

Sounds very interesting huh
Thats what I felt. And as I browse along, it really is a big truth.

This is about searching and finding lifes meaning.
Life, after all is a race a race that should be run. And win.

Gush forth is a book about life, and living, being in the social aspect and COMMUNITY.

Some of the objectives are

Knowledge
Attitude
Action in life

SOME OF THE TOPICS I CHOOSE

1. The path of Christian becoming

2. Gushing forth

it tells giving up everything like your possessions for heavenly

treasure.

3. the dimension of giving

one should not be selfish.

4. a commitment of life

by surrendering your life to God and following his commandments.

5. God, the life giving word

Words certainly work a lot of magic. They pump life and vitality.
Communication is very important.

6. Life, is a share in Gods fullness

man is created in the image of god.

7. the gift of life

when you feel life is beautiful Live day by day.

8. the deception of sin

trust god. Only him.

9. sin, wasting the gift of life

yes, indeed. .

10. have care in your environment
plant trees, participate in environmental projects in your
community.

The rapid incursion of immigrants into the United States has postulated negative impacts on the nations culture. The enactment of the US immigration Act in 1965 paved way for huge influx of immigrants which has caused America to be what can be defined as a multicultural society and not a nation. Social scientists argue that this influence of immigration is harmful to the cultural orientation of America as a nation and continues to endanger the US culture. The principal effect therefore borders the erosion of American culture hence threatening the heritage of national identity. This paper draws on the fact that the effects that the American culture suffers as a result of the contemporary waves of immigration are far-reaching and range from art to politic. This lays on the fundamental basis that right from history, America as a country has been characterized to immigration.

The Problem of Immigration
The entire problem of immigration and the subsequent effects to the culture of the United States stems from the sociological constraints caused by immigrants in America. Menjivar (5-8) postulates that the redefinition of America as a multicultural society and not as a nation forms the basis for the far reaching effects that immigration has exerted on the cultural foundation of the US. As a result of this, research indicate that the widespread problem of racism, individualism as well as the  concept of whiteness and otherness are the implication of immigration of Latinos, Hispanics, Mexicans and even Africans to United States (Richey, 202-204). Arguably, due to high number of immigrant, it follows that opportunities in areas such as educations, health care, jobs as well as other social amenities have been competed for by both native Americans as well as others a factor that has introduced a new speck of racial discrimination thus causing the erosion of the Americans cultural values.

In addition, as immigrants move into America, they come with their own customs and religious beliefs hence forcing certain aspects of American values to be discarded. For example, owing to the fact that some of the immigrants customs are deeply ritualistic, there emerges a situation where the question of Christianity in the public life of American is pushed aside in a bid to give equal recognition of such non western philosophies and religion (Rustebach, 57-59).

Understanding the Effects of Immigration on the US Culture
Many of these challenges are as a result of the establishment of the 1965 Immigration Act that gave rise to mass immigration to America from every corner of the world. However, it is important to point out that immigration in itself is not a big problem because, as evidenced in the recent immigrants, America has benefitted from diversified contribution of the immigrants in the light of occupational skills and talents. What is a major challenge to the social cultural dimension is the extraordinary scale of diverse immigration that stems from the Immigration Act of 1965 (Richey, 199-201).

Although there are positive impacts on this immigration, the far reaching ones are negative. Rustebach  (68-70) argues that immigration have an injurious impact upon the school system, and prisons, welfare and health care system, job climate and the overall economy. With the leading inevitable plane of acculturation as a result o immigration, social scientists hold that much worry is scaled on socio-economic dimension. As this becomes strained, it trickles its effects to the implications of the culture. Therefore, the concerns of culture with regard to immigration portend the understanding of competencies skills and social behaviors that continue to change with increased immigration. In addition, the values, patterning of interpersonal relations and world view of the general present American society are so much personalized because each immigrant reflects the cultural understanding and belief of their people.

Immigration has indeed changed our culture is a host of negative ways. In social theory, the concept of multiculturalism is far much different from liberal individualism. As such, productive elements of the American culture distinctively separate the American society with the rest of the world.

According to Caseli (62-65), American culture is as a consequence the interaction between the geography of America and the cultural elements of Europeans and this has extensively been affected on the basis of the ethnic composition. Presently, American ethnicity is been defined as a compilation many immigrants ethnicity thus bringing in play diversified race and racial segregation which largely strains the plurality and unity of the American culture.

Before the influx of immigrants into America, the national identity of Americans shaped the peoples culture. In this regard, a collection of value systems and norms characterized the American people. With the immigration of Latinos and people from different cultures, a new way of life was created (Marger, 217-219). Accordingly, American society has been reduced to play the role of a pot where numerous things are introduced. A phenomenon of this nature largely affects the national identity of American leaving the cultural outlook of US more fragmented. Presently, the Hispanic, Muslims, and Latinos as well as African want to identify themselves with their traditional cultural orientation as opposed to the American culture. Therefore, the value of the Americans mid white class has been brainwashed by cultural disturbance, racism and expansionism.

The Role of Immigration in Cultural Change
The role played by immigration in the change of America culture has brought about some hostility against immigrants which, according to (Brown, 123-127), forms the historical echo that has founded social and cultural discrimination. Within the precincts of sociological paradigms, demographics present a bigger impact on the cultural dimension of America. Caseli (345-347) notes that the contemporary American society is composite of immigrant who tend to acquire the continuity of the American heritage through socialization and education. Furthermore, the population of the America in this age is far much different and less rich in value that the anglocentric image that characterized America in the past. This is fundamentally attributed to upsurge in immigration.

Moreover, the increase in demographics contributes to the environmental impacts upon the American society. Menjivar (15-17) points out that considering a typical family of eight or more member migrating to America they would possibly acquire cars which essentially lead to pollution and depletion of resources. The underlying factor in this debate revolves around the notion of changing their lifestyles which adversely affects environment. Although this sounds more like an ecological problem, it impacts greatly of the socialization and cultural aspects such that American society is forced to learn to adopt the newer patterns of adopting the patterns of pollution and consumptions the environmentally destructive culture.

Essentially, the impacts of immigration on the culture of the America categorically border the spheres of expressive as well as instrumental culture (Caseli, 68-69). The qualities of culture as a unified characteristic of the Americans has been swept under the carpet and owing to the annually immigrants into America, the sense of shared meaning, sense of belonging and the inherent understanding as an American has been compromised because it does not mirror the cultural heritage of America. With regard to this, a sense of who a person is and where they belong has been overtaken by diversified cultural outlooks as well as orientations.

Globalization of American Culture
Immigration has exclusively facilitated a process of globalization. This has continued to stimulate a worldwide convergence of skills and talents that can succinctly function in the present economy of America and entirely influence on the culture of America. With the need for new interpersonal relationships, intercultural marriages and the development of new communication approaches in terms of language, the culture of the American has been influenced to change in many extensive ways. However, the American society has found it hard to integrate diversified views of culture in respect to the present cultural platforms especially in light of the cosmopolitan setting that has been created by Immigration (Rustebach, 73-74).

To augment this assertion, Caseli, (65-66) contend that although acculturation has become the basis upon which immigrants are forced to acquire job skills, language skills as well as become participants in the political process, it does not comprehensively take place. However, with the little acculturation that takes place, it remains evident that acculturation is significantly behind the change of the American culture. This perspective has widely influenced the principles of assimilation thus altering the original worldviews, values and interpersonal relationships in line with the culture. Similarly, America as a nation is no longer what it originally used to be. It is characteristic to a coherent and uniform system of society has been largely changed. Immigrants have eventually gravitated to the many sectors of the American society thereby leading to a divergent treatment of social networks.

Socialization, Economics and Culture
Many of the immigrants in the United States often experience the culture of America from the vantage point of poverty because it is evident that most of them begin their lives from poor urban settings. As such, they experience hardships in line with limited economic opportunities, violence, ethnic tension crime rates and drugs. Arguably, this shapes them differently as their cultures are somehow shed off to pave way for them to adapt to new sets of beliefs which guides their outlooks (Marger, 371-373).

 As a result, social theorists have maintained that this creates a structural inequality that leaves the immigrants bitter at the Americans and thus heightening a social rift between them. The resulting effect is further noted in the forms of crime rates and insecurity that overly changes the American world view (Brown, 146-148). Consequently, a concept that can succinctly be dubbed as American Apartheid is much implicated in the creation of cultural principles of despair, distrust and ambivalence to such economic forces.

In another scenario, youth immigrants facilitate the erosion of American values because, their engagement in deviant behaviors and as a result, asking them to give up their values for the cherished American worldviews and interpersonal relations amounts to disaster. But on the other hand, immigrants who came into contact with the middle class American culture equally manifest that similar story. A Recent survey into the effects of immigration on cultural ideologies indicate that  many immigrants hold on the perception that many affluent middle class Americans are not welcome but instead, dismiss them on the basis that they are worthless and thus can not partake into the American dream (Richey, 207-208). In this case, it becomes problematic for these immigrants to partake into the culture that rejects them and somehow decides to pay back for this psychological price with hatred as well as shame that overly shapes the perspectives of the American culture.
 
The behavior of the immigrants equally represents the foundation of cultural threat. It emerges that some of the immigrants are forced to pretend that they are committed to embracing the culture of the United States. This form of mimicking would in a way become an adaptive strategy of survival especially if it is applied to the issue of color. Menjivar (15-18) outlines that this survival strategy becomes ill intended and prompts that mainstream American to protect their children by a web of social net in a bid to move away from dystopian behavior that includes sexual experimentation, drug and substance abuse. On the same note, immigration provides a mechanism upon which immigrant youths with myriad socioeconomic problems to engage in such behaviors thus affecting not only themselves but the overall image of the American culture.

In addition, the current trends immigration into the United States are chiefly composite of heterogeneous and diverse cultural background. These lay the difference in light of the surface of the skin that heightens the conception of the other. In extension, the immigrants with families shed of the belief in family ties, hard work as well as secured future due to the behavioral, economic and social problems that they face. On the other hand, immigration brings about the value of multiple cultural codes. It is imperative that immigration leads to change and as a result, as immigrants inevitable undergo transformational change. Americans in the mainstream culture also are influenced to change. For example, in the present America, we eat, and speak so different from the way our fathers did twenty years ago. It has become clear that immigration has led to a cultural requirement which builds on negotiations as well as calibrations. According to Menjivar (23-24), through confounded and objective assimilation, the American population has embraced a commitment to nurture and cultivate creative blending of other cultures with the American elements of culture. As result, immigration undoubtedly leads to the trans-cultural competencies as well as hybrid identities which will extensively yield newer energies and potentials in the social world.

The contemporary world needs a new set of cultures and habits to facilitate what can be referred to as a new way of thriving into the new centuries. Immigrants should maintain social cohesion and a sense of belonging with their roots so that their children may equally get a chance to find identity thus not risk loosing social cohesion and expressive culture. With regard to this, the arguments of maintaining indigenous cultures of immigrants come to affect our elements of culture which forms a symbolic importance and a strategic platform towards social cohesion. As evidenced from historical experiences, policies of immigration should be a reason that tears our own social and cultural fabric but rather an opportunity for making and remaking our own image and heritage by skillfully making the immigrants to contribute to the projects of America whether on the social economic or cultural fronts.

Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is evident that immigration has far reaching effects on the culture of the Americans. This largely strengthens the old perception that immigrants are rooted in prejudice and ignorance. However, with globalization and industrialization, there should be immigration policies to facilitate the approach to reduce the negative effects that immigration poses to the mainstream American culture. The economic consequences of immigration on the immigrants as well as Americans affect the emotional paradigms that shape the entire perspective of immigration thus influencing the mainstream American culture. However, despite these effects, many American people are happy as evidenced in the way they comfortably live anywhere with these changes. The only impossible question that needs social scientist to addresses the assimilation of language and religion as aspects of culture.

School violence has been a related high risk culture that rocks most schools all over the world. Scholars, educators and learners have given their research on factors like bullying, teasing, social discrimination, violent video films, access to firearms and stigmatization as the main reasons for school shootings .School shooting have taken an increasing toll among children, adolescents and teens who are the major victims of shootouts on school campuses. Most of these shoot outs are committed by boys. Consequently, this has slowed down learning and developments in these institutions facilitating the need to curb the vice (Kimmel  Mahler 200397).

Mythically, it has been generally assumed that school shooters are influenced to engage in the vice due to certain characteristics common in their upbringing such as childhood abuse, absentee fatherhood, unstable family environment and violence at home. As much as this may be true, it is not always the case. Some of the school shooters have been known to have very good upbringing coming from stable and religious homes. In most of the cases, close friends and family are often caught unawares when a student of very good behavior commits the vice (Kimmel  Mahler 200398).

 Girls in their adolescence are usually stigmatized when perceived to be sluts by their peers. It most cases, when young adolescent girls come from abusive and one-parent homes, they are likely to portray poor sexual behavior. This may be because of the psychological trauma associated with their earlier experience or the lack of proper role models to guide them (Dunn 2010228). If such girls are socially rejected by their peers or perceived as sluts, then it may likely make them a threat in the school, as they can be tempted to engage in these shootouts.

Shooting on campuses as observed has shown that there is need to implement programs that will help curb and control the vice. Necessary action should be taken to ensure the safety of every student and staff serving in the campus. It is important to promote the rights, welfare, education, and health of both children and youth in learning institutions (Murphy  Alice 197649).

What is Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is a subjective mode of inquiry which allows the researcher to introduce their own bias to help produce a complete picture of human behavior (Punch, 2005128). The objective of qualitative research is to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the causes of such behavior. Researchers investigate the why and how of decision-making processes. Hence, the focus is data generation rather than prediction. As such, smaller samples are adequate to generate data.

The essential differences between quantitative and qualitative research are as follows 1) the objective of qualitative research is to gain a broad understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations of human behavior, while that of quantitative research is to quantify data and provide reliable generalizations of human behavior (for prediction purposes) 2) in qualitative research, data are not quantifiable whereas in quantitative research data ought to be quantifiable 3) quantitative research is ideal for validating hypotheses whereas qualitative research is ideal for generating meaningful categories (Punch, 134).

Qualitative researchers often use different approaches in data collection, such as shadowing, storytelling, ethnography, and grounded theory practice (Powell and Connaway, 2004). Contemporary approaches include action research, disaster risk reduction management, and actor-network theory. Data are usually collected through the use of structuredunstructured interviews, focus group discussions, observation, participant observation, and critical reflection. The data collected include life stories, informal narratives, literary texts, and short responses.

Qualitative researchers organize data into recognizable patterns as the basis for organizing reports. Ideal types are generated to serve as analytical frameworks (this should not be confused with theoretical or conceptual framework). Induction is utilized to generate more data, and to some extent present textual criticisms.

When should you use qualitative research
Qualitative research is ideal when structured research is not possible (Punch, 2005125). For example, suppose that a researcher wants to know the way of life of a particular tribe. Structured research does not provide flexibility in data creation because it condenses data into rigid categories. It is possible that data generated may vary from period to period (as in the case of ethnography). The researcher therefore is obligated to review hisher data from time to time. In structured research, this is not possible. If a researcher modifies hisher data, then the overall accuracy and reliability of the study is gravely affected.

Qualitative research should be utilized when true responses are not available (Punch, 2005125). For example, suppose that a researcher wants to know the traditional meaning of kali in Malaysian. The researcher has two options. He could either utilize the survey method or conduct unstructured interviews in a traditional village. Clearly, the survey method will not generate meaningful responses from the sample population (because it is the researcher who provides the choices in the questionnaires). Unstructured interviews yield meaningful results because the data generated are not contained within the researchers preferences. In short, by deduction, the researcher can derive the true meaning of a particular concept.

Qualitative research may also be necessary in situations where it is unclear what exactly is being looked for in a study (Punch, 2005129). Here, the researcher needs to be able to determine what data is important and what is not. Some studies focuses on the generation of a problem and in some cases, designing appropriate research methodologies. In most cases, however, qualitative research is used to explain (not validate) quantitative results.

Describe the process of coding data for qualitative research.
In qualitative research, data coding is perhaps the most difficult phase of the research process. This is because the burden of the researcher is to choose which data are meaningful and which are not. In data coding, the researcher needs to go through all the data to look for things pertinent to answering the research question. The research question though provides clues which data should be coded (since the research question is specific and concrete).

The researcher then needs to write headings, labels, and preliminary categories to determine meaningful data. However, a label or a heading is only a general indicator. It is neither the starting point of analysis nor the analytical framework itself. As a rule, new observations and insights should produce new labels. At this point in time, the researcher should not bring in theories relevant to the data. The researcher should also avoid coding data for personal preferences. The researcher should try to code the data as a complete set. The researcher may have interesting data not peculiar to the study. The coded data should be kept in a special file for future use. Note that analysis in this case is not discovering a story, it is co-creating a story with the data.

Qualitative or Quantitative Study
In the case, a researcher is called to investigate a problem. The library director hands a memo to the researcher. The memo says last year in your annual report, you said that reference questions were up, which was a good thing because it shows that people trust and respect librarians expertise, and that your instructional sessions are working by encouraging more people to ask questions. However, in the most recent annual report you just handed in for the current year, you said that reference questions were down, which is a good thing because it shows that people have been empowered by your library instruction, so that they are now more independent learners than they were, and dont need to ask as many questions. Other possible explanations are as follows 1) library users gained access to new forms of instructional sessions 2) there was a change of habit on the part of users (say, from engaging in instructional sessions to other forms of recreation) 3) users became bored of the instructional sessions, and 4) it is also possible that both claims (in the memo) are true. How can claim (4) is possible. This is possible because the specifics of the claims are situated in two different time periods.

The high demand for instructional sessions (last year) is good because it shows that individuals patronize this medium of instruction. One may also claim that the decline in the use of instructional sessions is a sign of educational empowerment (current period). This shows that individuals had gained some level of instructional sophistication. They could experience new learning habits with or without the use of instructional sessions. Hence, the effect of the behavioral change is also good.
In order to determine the specifics of the behavioral change, the researcher can both utilize quantitative and qualitative research methods (Powell and Connaway, 2004). Quantitative method will determine the causes of the behavioral change. Qualitative method will explain whether or not the decline in the use of instructional sessions is a sign of educational empowerment. If the researcher chooses to use both methods, then heshe will be able to provide a complete evaluation of the scenario.

In this essay I am going to be looking at two psychological assessments.  The first one being Child Sexual Behavior Inventory  Normative and Clinical Comparisons written by William N. Friedrich and Patricia Grambsch of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester Minnesota, and the second one being Medical Conditions and Child Abuse Inventory Specificity written by Joel S. Milner of Northern Illinois University.  I will evaluate the test history and development, the test administration procedures and the reliability and validity of the test.  I will then provide a critique based on the usefulness of the test and any future recommendations.  Finally, I will compare and contrast the two tests in regards to all of the above information.

The Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI) is used in assessing child sexual behavior for children ages 2 to 12 years old.  It consists of a 35 item behavior checklist and this particular assessment done by William N. Friedrich and Patricia Grambsch of the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota entitled Child Sexual Behavior Inventory Normative and Clinical Comparisons contrasted two different samples.  One being a normative sample of 880 children and the other being a sample of 276 sexually abused children.  It was determined that the sample of sexually abused children displayed more sexual behavior at a greater frequency than did the normative sample (Friedrich, 1992).

Likewise, the Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory was used by Joel S. Milner of Northern Illinois University in his assessment of child abuse as it relates to that child having medical conditions.  1151 parents took the CAP Inventory and the results determined that abuse rates were lower for those children that suffered from illness or injury at birth (Milner, 1991).

Both of these test models, the CSBI and CAP Inventory have been found to be effective for both studies in determining child sexual behaviors related to children that have been sexually abused (Friedrich, 1992) and child abuse and its relation to child born medical conditions (Milner, 1991).

In this paper I will determine the validity of these tests by looking at these criteria the tests history and development and theories behind them the administrating procedures and their effectiveness and the designated population and sampling information. 

I will then provide my own critique of these tests in regards to their usefulness and what can be accomplished with them in the future.  I will conclude by briefly comparing and contrasting the two tests.

Child Sexual Behavior Inventory (CSBI)
Test History and Development
The particular version of the Child Sexual Behavior Inventory used in this study was developed by William N. Friedrich and two others in 1986 (Purcell, Beilke,  Friedrich, 1986).  It was a test that was drawn from an earlier model entitled the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) authored by T. Achenbach and C. Edelbrock in 1983.  The CBCL itself has since expanded to include children up to age 18 (CBCL4-18) with a separate model used for preschool aged children (CBCL2-3).  CBCL4-18 is intended to be one component of a broad, multi-informant assessment of a childs behavioral adjustment (Doll).

Friedmans model originally contained 40 measurable items, however, after doing interviews with caregivers of sexually abused children, Friedrich decided to expand it to 48 items featuring additional factors such as the childs exposure to nudity in the family setting as well as bathroom habits in the household (Friedrich, 1992) the result was an instrument that yielded higher levels of both specificity and sensitivity and a higher overall accuracy in classifying abused versus nonabused cases (Bernt, 2001).  It has been an ever-evolving model determined to produce more accurate and efficient results.

Test Administration Procedures
The CSBI can be administered with paper-and-pencil format or by interview.  Friedrich suggests that it be done through the paper-and-pencil format so that a written evaluation is completed (Bernt, 2001).  The test is written at a 5th grade level and takes less than 10 minutes to complete.  The content is explicit given the subject matter and requires no official training to complete (Bernt, 2001).  The test does, however, require that the evaluator have graduate training in the area of psychology particularly in the area of child sexual abuse (Bernt, 2001).  Scoring is done in less than 5 minutes and is done by hand (Bernt, 2001). 

Designated Population and SamplingNorming Information
The CSBI is geared toward three separate age groups (2-5, 6-9, and 10-12 years old) and both genders.  Norms are derived from interview results from mothers or primary female caregivers (Bernt, 2001).  Other caregivers in the equation, such as fathers, teachers, daycare providers and the like, were addressed, however, the main focus of the norm was on the female caregivers (Bernt, 2001). 

It was found that the parent of the normative group, (versus the sampling group), were more educated and better off financially as well as the child was more apt to be living in a 2-parent household (Friedrich, 1992).  Also it was found that the sample group was more ethnically diverse but that the non-White children in the sample did not differ from the White children as far as scores go (Friedrich, 1992).

Reliability and Validity
The resulting coefficient alpha of the 35-item CSBI was .82 for the normative sample and .93 for the clinical sample.  These coefficients indicate appropriate reliability (Friedrich, 1992).  Bernt found similar results with the test in his review.  He found that the test reliability over a 2-week period was .91 and that over a 4-week period dropped to .85 (Bernt, 2001).  He also determined that the CSBI
has been found to discriminate between sexually abused and nonabused preschoolers between sexually abused school-age children and children treated for emotionalpsychiatric problems with no such history between sexually aggressive (with no history of sexual abuse) and nonaggressive sexually abused children and between sexually aggressive and physically and nonaggressive children (Bernt, 2001).

Critique of Test, Its Usefulness and Future Recommendations
The CSBI is a very useful tool in determining whether child sexual abuse has occurred and is, in actuality, the best scale to use in that it utilizes supplemental information such as projective tests, child interviews and physical examination but it also avoids the pitfalls that go along with child interviews with the use of the written test (Bernt, 2001).  The findings also provide support for the fact that sexual abuse rarely occurs in isolation but rather is associated with greater levels of familial distress and fewer educational and financial resources in the family (Friedrich, 1988).

The biggest issue with the validity of the test is that samples are drawn only from Minnesota and California.  More sampling needs to be done around the country in order to get a truer representation of the general population.

Also there could be enormous consequences to follow the event of false positives leading to child sexual abuse (Bernt, 2001).  Great care needs to be taken by evaluators and care givers to ensure that this does not take place.

The Child Abuse Potential (CAP) Inventory
Test History and Development
The CAP Inventory was created in 1986 by Joel S. Milner and was designed to screen individuals reported for physical child abuse in protective services settings, such as departments of social services, where abuse rates in reported cases range from 35 to 50 (Milner, 1991).  It has been used in hospital settings by Suspected Child Abuse and Neglect (SCAN) teams to look at patients that are suspected of abuse and for also those that are in the at-risk category (Milner, 1991).

Because it was created in a hospital setting, it seems only fitting that it be tested there as well (Milner, Gold, Ayoub,  Jacewitz, 1984 Milner, Gold  Wimberly, 1986 Milner  Wimberly, 1980).

The notion was also considered that those that scoring high on the CAP could be non abusing parents that experience a lot of stress in their lives (Grisso, 1986).

Test Administration Procedures
Over a period of 5 years, 1,151 parents were tested through a nonrandom selection process.  Conveniently, they were all parents of children with medical problems or who had their own personal medical problems (Milner, 1991).

The actual CAP Inventory itself is a 160-question test given in an agree-disagree format (Milner, 1991) that contains six descriptive factor scales Distress, Rigidity, Unhappiness, Problems With Child and Self, Problems With Family, and Problems From Others (Milner, 1991).  The current version (as of 1991) contains three validity scales a Lie scale, a Random Response scale, and an Inconsistency (Milner, 1991).  These scales are then used to form three validity indexes the faking-good index, the faking-bad index, and the random-response index (Milner, 1991).

Those in the test are originally approached by hospital staff and asked if they want to fill out a questionnaire.  If they are going to participate they are given an informed-consent form to fill out.  The test is completed in the hospital room or waiting room and upon completion, hospital staff is available for debriefing (Milner, 1991).

Designated Population And SamplingNorming Information
The CAP Inventory is aimed at parents of children with medical conditions or parents who themselves have a medical condition.  1,151 parents at Hillcrest Medical Center in Tulsa, Oklahoma answered the questionnaire (Milner, 1991).  The study contained 190 males and 961 females, all parents that either had a medical condition or had children with medical conditions (Milner, 1991).  All subjects participated on a voluntary, anonymous basis (Milner, 1991).

Reliability and Validity
It was found that, ultimately, Abuse scale scores were a result of parent and child relations and not directly derived from medical conditions with the child or parent (Talbott, 1985).  However, Milner in his findings found that medical problems could increase the stressors between parent and child and therefore, would have an effect on the relationship (Milner, 1991). 

The questionnaires were evaluated by hospital staff, data was collected and scores and percentages were given.

One fallacy of the study was that it only looked at a limited range of factors.  There are numerous other medical and non-medical conditions that could create stress and therefore skew the results of the CAP Inventory(Milner, 1991).  Also, other combinations of stressors and stress-related conditions need to be considered (Bhagat, McQuaid, Lindholm,  Segovis, 1985).

There also wasnt a normative group in the test.  This would help to gain a better comparison versus focusing solely on those with existing medical conditions (Milner, 1991).

Critique of Test, Its Usefulness and Future Recommendations
The CAP Inventory was used to try to determine if a child or parents medical problems increased at-home stressors that would ultimately lead to child abuse andor neglect.  The findings of the test revealed that there are many variables to consider.  There was a limited scope in the range of potential medical stressors and abuse scores (Milner, 1991).  The sample sizes were probably too small and there wasnt a normative in the study (Milner, 1991).  Nothing of real true value was determined from this test as there was just too large of range of specificity rates (66.7 to 100) on the Abuse scale (Milner, 1991).

So the question of whether or not medical problems with either child or parent lead to higher rates of child abuse still remains.  Future tests need to add a normative group and widen the range of factors to get a better idea of specificity on the Abuse scale.  At this level, I just dont see the test as being very useful. 

Comparisons Between the CSBI and CAP Inventory
The CSBI was clearly more valid in my eyes for the simple fact that there was a sample group and a normative group.  The CSBI utilized information from Minnesota and California, whereas the CAP Inventory only looked at patients from one hospital.  They both used questionnaires utilizing the paper-and-pencil method versus the interview method, which proves to be more effective in gathering data.  Both tests are evaluated by professional personnel, however those evaluating the CSBI had some form of graduate training where those evaluating the CAP Inventory were hospital staff, including doctors, nurses and psychiatric staff. 

Conclusion
Both of these tests could be useful tools in determining child sexual abuse and child abuse amongst those with medical conditions, however, I feel that the CSBI is far and away above the CAP Inventory in being able to derive information for their respective causes.  The CSBI found more hard data and is actually a useful tool used to determine child sexual abuse.  The CAP Inventory contains too many variables and not enough of a sample.  It also needs to have a normative grouping.  A lot of work still needs to be done in order for it to become a valid and useful tool in determining child abuse amongst those with medical conditions.

Everywhere in the globe, adults are concerned about the youngsters healthy development. They have been looking for solutions to behavior problems which are associated with teen pregnancy, school drop out, violence, delinquency, drug abuse and related behavior problems. Studies have given the indication that there are factors which can be attributed to increased chances of a juvenile becoming delinquent (Mandel, 2008).  It is therefore clear that, absence of these risk factors in the young peoples lives would reduce their chances of becoming delinquent. This paper will talk about the factors which increase the likelihood that a juvenile will become delinquent and why those factors are believed to contribute to juvenile delinquency.

Risk factors associated with delinquency
The risk factors which are associated with delinquency can be categorized into four individual, family, school and community risk factors. Among the individual risk factors, there is rebelliousness or alienation. The juveniles who fail to feel part of the society tend to believe that they do not have to abide by the rules of the society. They also do not try to be responsible or successful. These tend to lean towards delinquency. Rebelliousness and alienations mostly affects the people of color. The reason behind this is that such young people who are always discriminated against tend to react by staying away from the dominant culture. They also tend to rebel against it. As integration continues, there is diversification of the culture. These make people to have conflicting emotions about friends and family who marry, socialize and work outside the culture (Communities That Care, nd).

There are also juveniles who develop antisocial behavior which is persistent early in life. The children who are usually very aggressive during their childhood tend to become delinquents later in life. While aggression alone might not have a high risk, when it is combined with withdrawal, isolation, attention deficit behavior or hyperactivity, the risk of delinquency increases (Mandel, 2008).

Associating with delinquent peers increases delinquency Studies indicate that among the risk factors, peers seem to be the strongest. This is because friends tend to copy each other and do the same kind of things. The children who lack the other risk factors however are unlikely to associate with children who have problem behaviors. Juveniles attitude towards delinquency can as well be a contributing factor. Elementary school children in most cases express pro-social, anti-crime and anti-drug attitudes. They do not understand the reasons which make people to have delinquent behavior.

However, as the years go by, they start practicing the same kind of behaviors and their attitude changes. This kind of acceptance is the one that exposes them to the risk. Early initiation to delinquency can make a child to be one later in the future. Studies indicate that the children who start using drugs before they are 15 years old, have a higher drug problem than the ones who start later in life. Gang involvement is likely to lead to delinquency. This is because gangs use mob psychology.

Members of a gang can do things together which they would not dare as individuals. Joining gangs therefore increase the risk of delinquent behavior among juveniles (Communities That Care, nd).
Family factors could as well contribute to the same. Families which are known to have a history of delinquency are likely to produce delinquent juveniles. The younger family members tend to observe the older ones while accepting wrong things since they were done by their elder siblings. They end up copying such behavior and unless there is intervention, the behavior may be carried down to several generations. Problems of family management can lead to the same behavior problem. Poor family management is characterized by inconsistent punishment, excessively severe or total lack of punishment, parents failing to monitor the behavior of their children or parents failing to give clear expectations for their childrens behavior. Children end up not feeling the presence of their parents authority and they therefore do what they wish to. When delinquent behavior is ignored early in life, children grow up practicing it since they did not have anyone to correct them. Family conflict and especially between children and their care givers or between the care givers increases the chances of children becoming delinquent. Parental involvement and attitudes have influence on their childrens behavior. Parents who seem to condone delinquent behavior make their children to see nothing wrong in it. Parents who excuse their children when they break the law are likely to have delinquent children (Mandel, 2008). 

The school factors which can be attributed to delinquent behaviors among juveniles include academic failure. In most cases, the students who do not perform well look for areas outside the classroom where they can perform better. As they involve themselves with other activities where they seek heroism, they have high chances of engaging in delinquent behavior. Deficiency of commitment to school makes juveniles to stop seeing the viability of their role as students. This contributes to making them participate more in other activities rather than the ones related to education. This increases their chances of being delinquent (Communities That Care, nd).

The community can act as a risk factor as far as delinquency is concerned. A community where availability and accessibility to drugs is an easy task exposes the members to drug use. The communities which tend to accept some delinquent behavior as normal behavior encourages the juveniles to have such kind of behavior. Availability of firearms in communities exposes the members to violence and delinquency. Studies show that when a family keeps a gun, there is high chance of that gun being used. This is because of the ease in accessibility of such a weapon. The norms and laws which favor delinquency make it spread further and vice versa. For example, the communities with laws to regulate the sale of arms tend to decrease their use as well and hence violence and delinquency (Mandel, 2008).

Conclusion
Sociologists and psychologists have come up with many causes and reasons for delinquency among the juveniles. Many theories to explain the same have as well been explained. Since there are many people contributing to increased delinquency, among the juveniles, then it should be all peoples responsibility to fight it in all ways possible. Policies should be aligned to fighting the same. Parents, educators, communities and the general public should be responsible enough and should play their roles accordingly. On the other hand, juveniles have the responsibility to act right under all costs. They should be enlightened about the causes and impacts of delinquency in their lives so that they can make informed choices.

Have you ever wondered why the concept of fertility has brought about a great controversy in the world This is because the world religious views are different in relation to it. Additionally, the human reproduction field is one of the most extensively researched, since it relates directly to man. The differences in the religions mostly align themselves with the social values and the cultural beliefs that a certain society practices. Since different religions have different beliefs regarding fertility, social exclusion among societies has been the order of the day in the current years. This essay seeks to analyze the differences of the Islam, Judaism and the Christian religion as far as religious teachings on various concepts of reproduction are concerned.

Assisted reproduction
From the biblical times, there were women who were faced with problems of lack of children. God is revealed to be sensitive to all these cases, as he has always responded to the cry of the couples. A good example is that of Hannah as stated in 1 Samuel 1 in the Holy bible. Some Christian denominations are against the assisted form of productions such as sperm or egg donation, vitro fertilization, and use of a substitute mother (Whitney, 1996). Ordinarily in the Christian background, genetic heritage is of value. Similarly, spiritual and social heritage should also be put into practice. This is shown by scriptural references like the Levitical rule in the Old Testament. It states that when a man happens to die without getting a son, one of the biological brothers is supposed to inseminate the wife of the deceased so that his name may not be blotted out of Israel (Deut 256).This is seen as a direction from God in relation to sperm donation., so that the family lineage can go on. Therefore, assisted reproduction in the Old Testament is not condemned, as far as sperm donation is concerned (Whitney, 1996).

Additionally, Leah and Rachel in the Holy Bible had heirs gotten through their maids. This is compared to the surrogate mothers of today. Similarly, Abraham and Hagar produced an offspring as a result of the infertility of Sarah. God did not forbid this, even though there was rivalry afterwards (Whitney, 1996). 

In the New Testament, the Christians are supposed to deal with all things under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. The couple should consider the type of assisted reproduction that they will undertake, and think carefully about the amount of ova that needs to be fertilized in the vitro fertilization process and how the remaining embryos will be disposed. The process of discarding the unused embryo is unbiblical as it does not value the Human life. Multiple pregnancies are another form of assisted reproduction which raises a lot of questions as far as reproduction is concerned. The process often leads to very many premature deaths. Therefore, it is not right to fertilize very many fetuses which will not survive. This is not different from taking away the human life, which is condemned (Whitney, 1996).

  The issue of social exclusion brings itself out carefully. This is because there are so many things that the medical world can do as far as assisted reproduction is concerned. All the beliefs of the medicine technology are not practiced by Christians. The medicine world has control over the eggs, sperm or embryos when replaced in the uterus. This is not the case with Christianity as God is said to be the sole controller of the human lives. The Christians who do not have children should trust in God, just like Abraham did and he was given a son, even after having grown old (Whitney, 1996).

The infertility issue has been addressed in the Islamic law, in the religions holy book, Quran, Surah 4249-50, to God belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth He creates what He wills He bestows male or female, according to his will or He bestows both males and females and He leaves barren whom He will for He is full of knowledge and power (Ahmad, 2003). According to the Islamic law (Sharia), treating fertility is not a way of defying the will of God. However, it is a discovery of the truth by all human beings regarding the capability of any couple bearing a child. The act of seeking medical help for Islamic couples who have had problems in child bearing is very much encouraged. Such couples are seen to be supporting Gods message of creation. Assisted reproduction has to be in accordance with the Sharia law (Ahmad, 2003). 

The law is against any form of insemination, especially where the sperm of a man and an egg of a different woman other than the lawful wife are used. The law states that this act is not different from adultery. Therefore, it is seen as a very great and grievous crime. There are instances where sperms are preserved in refrigerators so that the wife can be impregnated upon the death of the husband (Ahmad, 2003). This is condemned by the Islamic law, because marriage in the Islamic religion is terminated once one of the spouses or all the spouses die. Additionally, it would deny the child the right of being brought up by both of his parents. The Sharia law condemns invitro fertilization, as it will lead to several of the cells being discarded, which is not in any way different from murder. When embryos are donated to a couple without children, it is a sin according to the Sharia law. This is because there is the involvement of a third party, who the husband would not be legally married to (Ahmad, 2003).

Judaism is not against all the types of assisted reproduction. This is however only when the sperm and the oocyte originate from the lawful husband and wife. The argument only lies on the real mother of the child. Otherwise, the whole process of surrogacy or sperm and oocyte donation is not condemned. There are several controversies on whether the child belongs to the gestating mother or the one who produces the oocyte. However, the Jewish law states that the real mother of a child borne from such a circumstance belongs to the one who contributed the oocyte (Corington  Burns, 2006). 

Cloning
The Christian religion has a stand as far as cloning is concerned. To start with, all the human beings are created in Gods image. Therefore, they are the unique forms of creation. In regard to this, the life of the human beings should be valued and not treated as a commodity. The cloning process has been supported by those people who need transplants of some organs in the body, which have no donors. It is believed that once cloning is used to replace damaged organs in a human body, there are fewer chances of the organ being rejected. This process is however met with a lot of controversy because the life of the human being appears to be reduce and cheapened (Got Questions, 2010).

When the organs are being made, there has to be a mass destruction of the cells. All these cells are seen to go to waste, therefore denying the cells a chance to reach the maturity level. The societys beliefs exclude those of the bible. Several people believe that life never begins at conception. This is not true according to the Christians. This is because the bible has stated in Psalms 13913-16, For you created my inmost being you knit me together in my mothers womb. I praise you because I am fearfully and wonderfully made your works are wonderful, I know that full well. My frame was not hidden from you when I was made in the secret place. When I was woven together in the depths of the earth, your eyes saw my unformed body. All the days ordained for me were written in your book before one of them came to be (Got Questions, 2010).

David declares that God knew him right from conception. Additionally, prophet Isaiah states that he was called by God when he was still in the womb of his mother, Isaiah 491-5. John the Baptist was filled with the Holy Ghost when he was in the womb of his mother Elizabeth. All these scriptures support the fact that life begins at conception. Therefore, cloning is not only against the cultural and social values of Christianity, but also excludes the advancement of technology as a field which is not God ordained (Got Questions, 2010).

The religion and the traditions of the Jews support any form of embryonic research. According to Judaism, moral status is never ascribed to a developing embryo until it has gone through forty days of fertilization. The Jewish religion has a social value of saving the human lives. Therefore, they are in full support of cloning in cases where new organs are required. They also believe strongly that the embryonic stem cell lines are important as they lead to the healing of various diseases, like some types of cancer (Levine, 2009).

This is not different form the Islamic religion. The leaders of the Islamic religion believe that the derivation of human embryos so as to develop other organs is not harmful. This is because they are in full support for the saving of lives. It is only when the fetus reaches the later stages of development that it is referred to as a legal person. In 2003, the Islamic support of cloning led to very successful stem cell lines in Iran (Levine, 2009).

Abortion
 The way the Islamic religion approaches the issues on abortion is very complex. When a fetus has not yet reached a point of having a soul, it is referred to as a mere lump of tissue and blood. Therefore, getting rid of such is not a sin. However, when the child is expelled after being fully developed, it is a great sin, which is referred to as infanticide. The Holy Quaran has strongly condemned the act of infanticide (wad).The book states that in the judgment day the infant girl buried alive is asked of the claim she was slain (818) (Suad  Afsaneh, 2006).Abortion of a fully developed child is also related to killing children, and it is strongly condemned. Do not kill that which God has made sacred except for just cause (Suad  Afsaneh, 2006). Once the fetus is developing, there is an angel who is sent to the developing child so as to breathe the gift of life to the baby. The Islamic religion excludes itself from abortion which is supported by feminist movements. It states that the life of a human being is so valuable, and therefore there has to be a strong reason to justify its cause (Suad  Afsaneh, 2006).

The Old Testament of the bible has got no open teaching which regards to abortion. Therefore, the attitudes of the Jews towards the concept of abortion is based on the insights of the Jewish teachers (rabbis).The rabbis have also been known to argue on when or not abortion should be considered as wrong. Most of them state that once the fetus has fully developed, then it is very illegal to terminate it. This raises a great controversy, because the Jews believe that life is sacred and all the human beings have been created in Gods image. The Jewish law states that all the couples should give birth to at least two children. If they do not have the ability of getting their own children, they are supposed to adopt. The Jews place more emphasis on the mothers life. Therefore, if any danger is seen, the mothers life should be saved first (Religious Studies, 2010).

There are certain cultural beliefs that define the legality of abortion in the life of the Jews. If men who are fighting happen to hit a pregnant woman accidentally, and the woman gives birth to a premature baby, the offender is supposed to be fined all what the woman asks for. However, if there is any kind of serious injury, there has to be revenge, as stated in the old testament in the book of Exodus eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, burn for burn, wound for wound and bruise for bruise (Religious Studies, 2010).

The rabbinic law continues to state that If a pregnant womans labor becomes life threatening, it is permitted to dismember the fetus in her abdomen, either through medication or by hand, for it is like an assailant pursuing her in order to kill her. Therefore, abortion should be treated as a way of defending one self any time the mothers health is at risk (Religious Studies, 2010).

The Christians have diverse beliefs in regard to abortion. The Roman Catholics believe that the human life starts at conception. They claim that the fetus is a full human being which has got all the rights to live. Additionally, Catholicism claims that the biblical teachings on the life of man relates to the fetus. The sixth commandment, Do not Kill is a strong support of this. If the parents, especially a mother of a certain child has no ability of bringing up the child, the child should be given out for adoption. The life of a human being is sacred because it is created by God (Religious Studies, 2010).

The Anglicans and the Methodists believe that the life of a baby begins when he or she has a chance to survive independently without the help of the mother. If the mother is in danger, she has a right to procure an abortion. Also, conception through rape has all the justifications for abortion. An organization known as The Christians For Free Choice believes that the conscience of the woman is the factor that determines whether abortion should be procured or not. This conscience is guided by God. The decision to keep or terminate the pregnancy depends on the willingness of the woman (Two paths, 2010).

Abortion has not been mentioned anywhere in the bible. Infanticide, abortion and abandonment were allowed under the Roman law. However, it has been practiced in the human history records. There are several biblical verses which show that the human life is valued. A good evidence is the events that preceded the birth of Jesus and the John the Baptist. The baby in the womb of Elizabeth leaped when Mary mother of Jesus visited her (Two paths, 2010).

Generally, there are several people who have serious and deep doubts regarding the morality of abortion. Abortion is regarded to be less serious as far as other crimes are concerned. There are several situations which are used to justify abortion, including teenage pregnancy, rape, incest and a defective fetus. Additionally, mental retardation, unstable families and emotional health also leads to abortion (Two paths, 2010).

Conclusion
From the discussion above, it is evident that the topic of fertility has evoked a lot of controversy. That is why there is a high level of exclusion in societies today as far as religious beliefs are concerned. This is because they practice all the social values that are defined by their different societies. All the same, all the religions in the world should ensure that the life of man comes first as far as fertility is concerned.