Sociology

Though many countries today attempt to legalize prostitution emphasizing economical benefits, its legalization might have numerous social and moral long-term negative consequences. First of all, morality of the society and the perception of the community, especially of young people, might be shaken if prostitution becomes legal. Second, political aspects of legalized prostitution should be considered since it consumes thousands of young women and children as a part of organized crime within sex industry places all over the world. Third, prostitution is always associated with human trafficking and legalization of this service will not prevent from forced labor and sexual services around the world, which dramatically increase the level of HIVAIDS. Finally, the effects of legalized prostitution on the young generation might be unpredictable. Thus, the current paper discusses each of these aspects related to legalization of prostitution separately, though emphasizing the position against such legalization.

Morality of Prostitution
Within society today the words whore and slut are still the most powerful insults that can be leveled against a woman. The power behind these words derive from the belief that to consent to selling your body in such a fashion as prostitution, is to degrade yourself as a person and your essential humanity as it is tantamount to a form of sexual slavery. The socialized deafness of men toward women, and the likelihood that a man will interpret a situation to have stronger sexual overtones than a woman will  leads to the common belief among men in justifiable rape. Under such situation a man thinks that a womans behavior is being responsible for triggering his own actions. Legalization of prostitution will negatively influence the societys morale sending the message that it is absolutely normal to pay or accept payment for the sexual services.

Political Aspects
Corruption among law enforcement officials and government agencies play a key role in the successful operations of the criminal network of gangmasters and related criminals that traffic in human slave labor and support prostitution services (King, 2004). In many cases political aspects can be observed in the form of usage of the developing countries in need by the developed countries, mainly with the purpose of political, economic and social domination and control. As King (2004) and Sens (2004) emphasize, the profit of modern slavery is around 8 to 10 billion annually, mainly through forced labor of children and prostitution. Wars and political confrontations still continue in the African and some Asian countries, where slavery became a tabula rasa for the expression and confirmation of political prejudices (Stubbs, 2008). For example, Sudanese Islamism advocates the enslavement of black Africans, Christian and Muslim, in pursuance of a medieval ummah. Janjaweed proclaim the women they rape to be slaves, an appellation that chillingly evokes the violence inherent in imperialist subjection (Stubbs, 2008). The enslavement survival betrays the liberal democracy incompleteness when economic aspects remove such enslaved individuals from the political sphere (Sens, 2004).

People Trafficking and Slavery
Whether prostitution is legal or illegal, it will not stop human trade and human trafficking from the developing countries to the developed ones since the demand for sexual services around the world is much higher than the voluntary supply. Thus, there will be always a necessity to convince, cheat, and abuse young women and children to meet requests of those, who want and are able to pay for the sex services. 

Modern slavery in the form of forced prostitution is more dangerous and traumatic since it mainly involves children and young people who are threatened or forced to leave their homes and work for their masters without their personal will. Bales et al. (2009) emphasizes that globally there are more than 27 million slaves today, which is much more than at any time in the world history. There are more than 27 million victims of slavery all over the world. According to King (2004), every ten minutes a child or woman is trafficked into the United States for forced labor, including forced prostitution. As most common, children slavery usually presume psychological problems since kids witness the daily violence and threats at the hands of gangsters and pimps, experience trauma of observing humiliation and sexual exploitation.

Millions of people are sold till now like objects, being forced to work for little or no pay and are at the mercy of their employers. Poverty and great need of vast amount of cheap labor from Africa, America, and Far Asia are considered as the main reasons for modern slavery since children are sold abroad by their parents or relatives, children are trafficked among West African countries and young women seek financial improvement in other countries ending mainly like prostitutes. Intimidation, threats, and violence have been used by the modern slave traders, or person-traffickers to threaten and force victims to engage in illegal actions related to sex or work under conditions that are comparable to slavery for the financial gain of traffickers.

In case of sexual exploitation or violence gender is not determining, though females are hurt more. While being young they are begging on the streets, though when female slaves reach the age of fifteen or even thirteen, their masters stalk them in a manner of sexual harassment and violence. More often than not, the gangmaster instigates sexual activity with a young slave girl and succeeds in violating her completely. These female victims usually have two choices in dealing with sexual harassment they could either give up their bodies to the desires of the gangmaster or refuse submission, thus, experience physical abuse. Sexual exploitation and abuse simply characterize the daily reality of many child and, mainly female, slaves in many countries of the modern world.

Prostitution and AIDS
The number of HIV AIDS victims increases day after day. There are many ways to transmit HIVAIDS throughout bodily fluids, such as unprotected sex, blood transfusions, intravenous drug use, and dirty needles spread HIV throughout blood and other fluids. Moreover, HIV visors can be transmitted from the pregnant woman to her unborn child during the pregnancy time or in some cases from a mother to a baby throughout breast milk. Based on the statement that HIV is a global disease that can influence anyone, there are excessively high infection charges in definite regions of the world. In addition, the main way of spreading HIV is throughout varied communication. Because of the organic attendance of more exterior area in the open sex organs of females, women characterize a high rate of illness for the disease.

Influence of Legalized Prostitution on Children and Teenagers
BBC News often discusses the issue of modern slavery in order to increase public awareness about such critical problem. Ian Urbina (2009) from the New York Times tells the story of a 14-year old homeless Nicole Clark who accepted young mans offer for a place to stay in return to have sex with other men for money, which she would find out later. She was threatened to become homeless again and being beaten and hurt, thus, had no other choice but to accept his orders. During 14 months Nicole was forced to be a prostitute until she escaped from garage apartment, where she was locked for months. Urbina (2009) stresses the attention to the fact that usually children who run away from home return within a week or so, but those who do not, the desperate struggle to survive on the streets usually means selling their bodies. The longer children and young people are on the streets, the more likely that they are to become involved in crime and uncooperative with the authorities (Urbina, 2009).

Conclusion
Poverty in the 21st century roughly underlies all aspects of the phenomenon of modern child slavery. The issue of slavery most often lies behind the reasons and circumstances they were given up or sold into such conditions. Despite the existence of anti-slavery laws and standards aimed mainly at stamping out child slavery, there are still millions of gangmasters, who not only gain from child slavery, but also believe that they will, in more cases than not, get away with it. Defining what modern slavery is, or even finding out the level of it around the world, is not sufficient if the practice is not seen to be punished. As the oldest tyranny, slavery is resistible only when enslaved and free recognize the fundamental right to liberty of enslaved men and women everywhere, and the fundamental barbarity of those who would enslave (Stubbs, 2008). According to a large number of previously written books, articles and reports on slavery, it is clear that many children and adults became slaves because of various circumstances completely beyond their control due to exogenous threats used as a catalyst for effective slavery development.

American culture should re-consider its attitude to the issue of legalized prostitution and other related aspects to prevent any further desensitization of the society. It is the responsibility of adults to bring up their children in the morally and socially healthy environment where future generation can develop and grow as mature, well-educated, and wise young people.

When reading the arguments from both sides on the legalization of same-sex marriage, its interesting to note that at no two points do the perspectives of Andrew Sullivan or James Wilson intersect. Perhaps this is why I have such difficulties in following the argument of Wilson. Like Sullivan, I believe that to recognize homosexuality as a natural occurrence, no more chosen than skin color, is to erase much of the social inequality that plagues Americas relationship with the gay community. The question of same-sex marriage does not undermine the traditional values of marriage, as asserted by Wilson, but instead elaborates on the definition. The declining success rate of heterosexual marriages is not caused by a loosened definition of marriage and family but instead by social and political changes which have given both sexes equal rights in divorce and child custody laws. As the legal restrictions and social  inequalities that existed between male and female relationships began to be altered, they no longer felt themselves to be trapped in marriages that may be unhappy or unhealthy. Just as the law and society changed to recognize women beyond gender roles, so too must the law and society recognize homosexuals as integral parts of our population. As American citizens they should be afforded the same rights as anyone else. Having not chosen to be attracted to someone from the same sex, they are no less deserving of their right to marriage and family that the white heterosexual male or even a woman or minority heterosexual. So why does this tolerance, both legal and not part of our social morality, why does it not exist in respect to homosexuals.

Sullivan makes a strong argument, that teamed with Stephanie Coontz examination of the evolution of family structure, illustrates how closely the subject of homosexuality touches on the delicate, and much defended, institution of marriage and family as solely a heterosexual right. As the issue summary preceding the opposing perspectives of Sullivan and Wilson notes, on most areas of homosexual civil rights, Americans are supportive. They do not believe that there should be allowances for job place discrimination or legal condemnation of homosexuality as  abnormal, wrong, unnatural, and perverse  (76) but many still do not support the idea of same sex marriage. Part of this, I think, and both Wilson and Popenoe illustrate in their defense of traditional values and marriage, is simply fear. It is fear of change and fear created by individuals such as Popenoe and Wilson who see the change in marital structure as a precursor, and ultimate destroyer, of the family unit.

It is here where the debate between same-sex marriage and the  decline of the traditional family  intersect. Deeply rooted in the objection to same sex marriage is the idea that it is to be defined, not only by biology but by God, to be between a man and a woman only (Wilson 84). Wilson more deeply delves into the subject of heterosexual marriage as a mean for procreation and the instilling of social values. He rejects Sullivans assertion that  Gay marriage is not a radical step it is a profoundly humanizing, traditionalizing step (82). For Wilson, recognizing gay marriage would be devaluing heterosexual marriage, it appears simply for putting it on the same level with homosexual unions.

Tradition is what Wilson and Popenoe profess to want to protect but as Coontz, shows there never has been a golden tradition of family. Marriage itself has evolved to reflect the changes in our society from womens rights and civil rights of minorities, as a country we have redefined out rules on marriage, divorce, and family to reflect the changing needs of our nation. The question remains, why cannot we not do the same when it is gay rights that hang in the balance If there is no such thing as traditional marriage, as shown by Coontz, than why do we cling to this ideal The first step, as Sullivan recommends is to recognize that the differences between heterosexuality and homosexuality are not contradictory to one another but instead that exists separately but equally as two manifestations of manwomans nature to seek out companionship.

Following the September 11 attacks, the world suddenly became aware of radical extremists in the Muslim religion and suddenly every media channel and newspaper lunged at an opportunity to get insight into these extremists and terrorist groups. During the immediate time following the attacks, Muslims in the West began being persecuted and numerous instances of organized attacks against Muslim institutions across the West (United States Department of Justice, 2010). Even though the sentiment was negatively held, over time the intensity has declined and numerous reasons can be attributed to it.

One major reason for the changing perceptions and attitudes is due to the influence of the media, most popularly the Television. It has been effective in creating perceptions and has been used extensively by all the players in recent years in collectively gathering people who hold similar opinions regarding certain ideologies.

This paper will attempt to answer the effect that the role of television has had in creating perceptions between the Muslim world and the West. Rather than taking a slanted view, this paper will discuss the perspectives and perception formulation of both the Muslims and the West (the United States majorly).

The Muslim Perspective
Following the September 11 attacks, the West realized that the Muslim regions which include the Middle East and Asian continent countries, have had a deep seated contempt for the Western countries. This contempt could be said to have been made possible by the narcissistic and hedonistic image that the United States portrays via its television (Graber, 2009).

Since most Middle Eastern people have had little to no exposure with any Americans and few have visited the country, their only link to the American lifestyle is through their television. Therefore the content that they are exposed to becomes their guide to understanding the Western lifestyle and ideologies. Even though in the recent past the United States has sent plenty of aid to these Muslim countries and has invested heavily in their economies, as an aim to re-build its image and to cease the dissent amongst the two people, the overall opinion of the people is still inclined negatively towards the Western state.

Keeping this in mind, the United States has even acknowledged the important role that the media, primarily television, plays in forming perceptions and attitudes. Holtzman suggests therefore that to actually decrease the anti-American views, the U.S. Government should take the support of local television channels and use them to air positive actions and elements of the United States government and its people (Holtzman, 2007). The television broadcasts should try to clear the air of misconceptions and try to bridge the gap between the cultural groups in his opinion.

Taking account of the extent of effect which the television has on the minds of the people, British studies have indicated that the mosques and other assumed terrorist training camps have a lesser influence for making teens join the jihad rather they are motivated to take up arms due to viewing footage from Palestine and Iraq, were the Muslims are being persecuted by the Israelites and the United States respectively (Haddad  Golson, 2007).

Muslims as a culture are people who are collectivists and are strong in their religious standing. However, the liberal Western views act as an agent to increase the intensity of dislike of the Muslims with the Western culture. Due to the portrayance of the Western culture in the media and the gradual inflow of the cultural aspects into the Muslim culture, the television has led to a change in the opinions and has led to the creation of a progressive Muslim. These are people who steadfastly hold their own opinions but are tolerant towards others as well. The creation of these Muslims acts as a positive as well as a negative, as it gives the fanatics an excuse for hatred against the West.

The Western Perspective
As is the case with the Muslim population living in the Middle East and abroad, so is the case with the Western countries. Most of the populace has had little exposure to the Middle Eastern culture and their knowledge about the people comes from studying the immigrants from the Muslim nations. However, these immigrants practice their religion and other cultural traits in private and cannot be a true reflector of the Muslim culture in general. So the other source which is left for the West to formulate their opinions on is the television and movies.

However the portrayal of the Middle East and Muslim countries is depicted as a backwards and uncivilized. Every aspect of the Muslim culture appears alien to the liberal and independent nations who fail to realize that the Muslim culture is rich in its own sense and has its own beliefs and opinions. Therefore the portrayals in the popular media usually do injustice to the Muslim culture and people (Aguayo, 2009). 

Even before the September 11 attacks the increase in Muslim related content increased in all the media sources and in a content review from article publications, it was observed that the negative comments regarding Muslims was much higher as compared to any positive comments being expressed (Ali  Khalid, 2008). This can also help understand the negative sentiments of the Muslims towards the West similar to the Golem effect, where a negative opinion leads to a negative performance further consolidating the negative view held by the authoritative figure. The downward fall of the Muslims in media can be said to be attributed to this phenomenon.

The West has however tried to overcome this problem by highlighting Muslims in a more positive light and allowing greater opportunities for them to voice their opinions. Muslim channels are being licensed and similarly Western shows dealing around various topics are adding Muslims in episodes to provide some knowledge to viewers regarding the Muslim culture. Efforts are being done to differentiate terrorists from Muslims in news and television broadcasts.

The Success factors for television influence
Before the advent of television and cable satellite, the isolation led to both the cultures being unaware of each other and a state of obliviousness. However, due to improved communication networks and more flow of information, the Muslim culture became more and more exposed to the Western ideologies and opinions. Similarly the West became aware of this wide region with limitless potential yet with a lack of infrastructure and facilities.

The influence of other mediums such as newspapers and the internet have been influential in formulating opinions as well, yet the television is a means of gathering news and information in a specific package with limited cognitive efforts. Therefore news or figures heard on the television are hardly questioned.

Also, thanks to the inflow of hundreds of channels, people have gotten the option of finding a source of information which aligns to their specific needs. This refers to the concept that people would rather listen to opinions similar or shared to their own rather than listen to diverging opinions. Channels have now developed their own fan following with people watching television shows which display their shared opinions which in turn leads to a radicalized view of their opinion.

The American nation has numerous outlets and relies heavily on its pop culture mediums for all its sources of knowledge, virtues and truth. These mediums include the television, internet, music, movies and songs (Johnstone, 2006). Through television shows and other sources, the people wish to find rationality and studies indicate that most theological and spiritual needs are being met indirectly through these mediums. People yearning for understanding rely on the content expressed in these mediums and thus the television can be said to influence heavily how the people react with each other and the biases or perceptions that they hold towards each other.

The Resulting Effect
Keeping in mind that both the cultures have diverging lifestyles and opinions and that neither has the complete understanding of the other, the result is that there is conflict between the two. The West fails to acknowledge the cultural richness of the Muslims and treat them as a backward civilization which needs saving. While the Muslims take this unwarranted domestication as an assault and resist the notion of changing into the Western mold.

The use of television as a means of creating political outlets has also increased in recent years as there are now numerous television shows specifically addressed to the Middle East and the war on terror. The concept of suicide bombers and terrorist attacks have become more mainstream in television action adventure shows yet a subtle change can now be noted in the manner of their depiction. In recent years the television has tried to build a more lenient approach towards the opposing culture and even in the portrayal of a terrorist attack, television shows try to exhibit the duality of the cultural elements. Aside from simply showing extremists, shows try to show progressive muslims as well (such as the character of Waziri in the popular forensic investigation show Bones). Muslims are being shown at better living standards and the notion that all bearded people were terrorists has gradually declined. 

Similarly, there has been an increase in progressive muslim activities and through the promotion of these said individuals who use their Muslim culture and the reach of the television as the medium, they have been able to allow better understanding of their culture to the Western world. Muslim musicians, comedians and actors are entering the mainstream channels and they have been very successful in conveying the Muslim culture and affiliating the Western world with the Muslim beliefs and opinions.
There has been an increase in the television viewership as new shows and channels are drawing more and more people and these shows are ranging from detailed content such as forensics and murder investigations to comedy and animation. This has allowed newer platforms for expressing opinions and the Muslim element is more frequently shown than before.

Conclusion
The misuse of the television at such a critical stage in the political arena led to the persecution of an entire culture rather than rightfully targeting certain elements. The persecution of the entire culture via a global campaign held through internet, movies and the television resulted in a biased opinion of authorities towards the Muslim followers. Given the damage that the Muslims have received through negative portrayals in the media and television and news in general, it would take a lot of time and effort to resolve the negativity which exists. However, using the same mediums which caused the damage in the perceptions in the first place, the television can be used to highlight progressive Muslims and could be used to encourage greater support from the Muslim community to support the war on terror and to clear the air of suspicion which is predominant between the two cultures. Similarly the Muslim television networks can work on helping their people realize the benefit that the U.S. Government has done for them and not to attack the U.S. nation on an institutional and personal level. Only through positive dialogue and use of proper media can the perception be improved and peace and stability be achieved. Consistent news from both sides holding neutral views rather than side-taking angles would help the reinforcement of the perception that it is meant to be created. If there is inconsistency then the damage would come in a shaky perception of the cultures and no strengthened bonds.

Many criminologists are concerned today whether juvenile offenders should be tried and punished like adults or according to the juvenile justice system. By thoroughly analyzing each chapter of the book Recriminalizing Delinquency Violent Juvenile Crime and Juvenile Justice Reform by Simon Singer, the current paper will provide explanation of the main reasons for juvenile delinquency and possible ways of trying and punishing the young offenders. In addition, the paper discusses the issue of juvenile justice system and its difference from the adult justice system on the basis of rights of the convicted person, terms of hisher sentence, punishments and rehabilitation, and rights restoration after completing the sentence and paying all required fines.

Book and Related Issues Analysis
Adolescent delinquency and later adult offending have been proved to be the main reasons for the increased problematic behavior among young children whose anti-social behavior took roots in the early childhood (four-six years old) and later under the various negative influences led to more criminal consequences and juvenile delinquency. Their persistent oppositional behavior, conduct problems and physical aggression in the preschool and early primary school years are usually the strongest predictors for the future anti-social behavior and negative long-term outcomes (Farrington, 1991).

Chapter 1 Recriminalizing Violent Juvenile Crime (pp. 5-23) provides historical background for the occurrence of waiver legislation in New York concerning violent juvenile crimes by analyzing the case of 15-year-old Willie Bosket that triggered a crisis in the juvenile system of New York after murdering two subway passengers. When the delinquent acts of juveniles are very serious, they may be considered crimes and the juvenile may be tried in the adult system. If being admitted guilty, children at age from 10 till 17 are usually sent to the divisions of youth services. Singer (1997) is convinced that despite Willie was only 15 years old, the jury should consider the seriousness of his murder crime, which should not be neglected due to his young age since it is absolutely obvious that murders have been done consciously and on purpose, thus, Willie Bosket should be charged according to the adult justice system. 

While the main purpose of the adult criminal justice system is to punish the criminal according to the level of his crime, aim of the juvenile justice system is to apply rehabilitation or mentoring of juvenile offenders in order to prevent further crimes and change their delinquent behavior. Since juveniles might not being fully developed mentally or physically, they cannot be accountable for their actions in the same way as adults do in the level of responsibility and potential for rehabilitation. Chapter 2 Taking Stock of Juvenile Justice Reforms (pp. 24-45) and Chapter 3 Recriminalization on the Move and Its Legal Rules (pp. 46-74) analyze the social and legal circumstances that influenced juvenile justice reforms, including the beliefs, crisis and administrative concerns about the ability of the system to identify juveniles as delinquents and offenders. 

By the federal standards, any juvenile under the age of 18 who committed a crime is a subject for juvenile delinquency, which can be considered as a crime if heshe was 18 or older (Rashid, 2004). However, robbery and murders committed by Willie Bosket go beyond the issue of crime prevention and should be punished accordingly (Singer, 1997). If a juvenile is thirteen years old and admits guilt, heshe can be given informal disposition to meet requirements of a consent decree. It is believed that his criminal actions might be influenced by external forces like parental neglect, inappropriate living conditions or relations inside the family. Though, if a juvenile is seventeen years old, as mentioned in Chapter 4 Contextual and Legal Reasons for Identifying Juveniles as Criminal Offenders (pp. 75-96), hisher guilt might be considered more serious being heard either in juvenile or criminal courts, especially in the case of violent felonies like kidnapping, rape or murder like in the case of Willie Bosket (Rashid, 2004).   

While Chapter 5 The Case Processing of Juvenile Offenders from Arrest to Disposition (pp. 97-151) describes that juvenile delinquents experience after the arrest, Chapter 6 Recriminalization and Organizing for Deterrence (pp. 152-164) addresses the issue of restorative justice system that is mainly based on the idea that if local citizens participate in reacting to crimes, finding out their reasons and analyzing the circumstances, communities could face with fewer crimes and be strengthened. Until restorative and community justice are less attractive for courts in comparison with the traditional justice system, restorative justice approaches are more used in cases of juvenile crimes than adult crimes. Recently, juvenile delinquency became a very important and complex problem since juvenile crime rates increased dramatically. The main reason for such situation is that many children are growing up homeless, in single parent homes and in poor living conditions. Recently ethnic groups in detention have the following order African-American, Caucasian, Hispanic, Asian, and Native American. During recent years the number of minority youth in detention increased by 80 in comparison to only 10 of white youth. Minorities make up two-thirds of the detained American youth (Kurki, 2002).

According to Chapter 8 Concluding Real Reasons for Recriminalizing Delinquency (pp. 187-196), the majority of juvenile criminals are gang members, rapists, and murderers, have serious problems with alcohol and drugs and are mentally ill or retarded. Criminal behavior of juveniles is influenced by many factors, including social psychology, family situation, surrounding environment, economic situation, and others. As Fisher, Cullen and Turner (2000) wrote in their report, many college female victims do not characterize their sexual victimization as a crime since they blame themselves for their sexual assault or cannot perceive offender from their college mates as a rapist or criminal. Such situation gives red light toward the concerns on the lack of awareness about sexual harassment and victimization among young people (Singer, 1997). Moreover, today social implications of crimes also include such terms as date rape and domestic violence, which were largely neglected in the past. Juvenile criminality especially blossoms in the college campuses, which were used to be perceived as ivory towers, though recently, became hot spots for juvenile criminal activities.

Steps to Address Juvenile Delinquency Issue
As a proposal of actions to prevent juvenile delinquency, which can be implemented by the administration of each city and country, following aspects should be carefully considered. For teenagers without crime history and their families the suggestions are the following (a) educational programs about the effects of drugs, weapons, gangs, alcohol, etc. (b) recreational activities that help to fit the personalities and skills of different children, including sports, art, photography, hiking, music, dancing and others (c) community activities like church youth groups, boy scouts, girl scouts, and summer camps to help to tie teenagers to the community and give understanding of each persons place and role within the community. For juveniles with crime history the following activities and interactions might have positive effect (a) different programs that help to end repeat offenses and help teenagers to adapt to free life after being in juvenile detention facilities or adult system and (b) involvement of such teenagers into different activities or trainings courses, lectures, outdoor activities, communication with other children that have the same situation or, on the contrary, without any crime history. Other ways to prevent juvenile delinquency is to implement preschool programs, social process interventions, cognitive-behavioral interventions, careful assessments of juvenile crime on the subject on whether to put them into adult or juvenile systems, and ability to provide necessary treatment, training and education for juveniles that are committed to state facilities (Dimeglio, 2003).

All these actions are very important both for children with crime and without crime history. However, the main attention to any child should be given both in the family and school where they perceive the main part of information. Parent training and family support interventions should be developed in every region to provide social support services like day care, family needs assessment, medical care and other services.

In the general sense, success is defined in terms of three of the most well-known symbols namely, money, fame, and power. This three are generally the standards by which success is measured, thus people tend to work harder in order to accumulate money that will give them both fame and power. In this sense, success is an innovation for change. That is, change in lifestyle, change in social standing, and change economic status.

Innovation is defined as any idea that was perceived to be new by the individual considering adoption of the idea (Harris  Kinney 2003, p. 7). Given this definition, Innovative activities imply originality and newness which means that both the approaches and the activities must be new to the environment in which it is being presented. To achieve innovative change this requires the application of innovative ideas to real-world situations and problems relating to the struggles or processes towards attaining success.

The concept of innovative change however, has been best explained by Waterman and Peters (1998) wherein they pointed out that innovative excellence is an orientation towards business change which is flexible and aimed at meeting the needs using original and exceptional solutions (Innovative Change in Higher Learning). Waterman and Peters explained that innovative excellence is in itself a change for the purpose of excellent improvement. Given this concept, success as an innovative change means that there should be an innovative activities or approaches leading to an excellent improvement.
Given the concepts above, success as an innovation for change requires innovative ideas, or policies that are design for achieving an exceptional improvement. In the context of the company, the companys corporate vision can provide an important focus, direction and road map towards achieving that success or improvement. The resulting changes from this pursuit of success will undoubtedly affect everyone in the organization and might even result to changes in other aspects of the business operation but all these changes should fit together towards the common objective.

Thus, for any company to achieve success as an innovative change, Harris and Kinney asserted that it requires a policy change that fulfills the following criteria First is originality and Newness. This type of policy change needs to be original and new to the environment the policy is presented. Second is the practical application and action in which innovative ideas should be acted upon and applied to real-world situations and problems. Finally, it should expect significant impact. This means that innovative change moves beyond incremental change (p. 7).

To achieve company success however, some steps need to be carefully implemented. Step one should be PLANNING. Planning according to Kaufman (1990) is a logical, orderly process towards change (p. 281). The purpose of planning Kaufman asserts, Is to initiate immediate actions that will result in the greatest probability of reaching the desired objectives by a predicted time (p. 281). In this case, planning should be design for future change activities, and increase awareness and understanding of the business process. Next step is ORGANIZING which is intended to train and organize people to do business. The third step is EVALUATING which designed to measure, to identify and to evaluate the current policies and processes. Fourth is IDENTIFYING the appropriate strategy and polices, and finally, DESIGNING and IMPLENTING. While these last two maybe self explanatory, designing means to develop policies or create activities that are designed for achieving outstanding improvement.

Implementing these steps in a way that is innovative using policies that are also innovative can result to a success that is innovative for change.     

A Comparison between Saudi Arabia and United Kingdom in terms of culture, freedom and gender roles
Migration from one nation to another is increasingly becoming a common practice across the globe. This has been attributed to reasons like search for better life, education, freedom and cultural change. Different nations have different lifestyles. This has been closely attributed with the differences of constitutional laws, types of governance and levels of civilization. Other factors factoring in such difference are religious, ethnic, cultural and social and political stability difference among nations.

A comparison of life in the United Kingdom and in the Saudi Arabian republic indicates a great difference. Saudi Arabia is mainly an Islamic nation whose governance is well defined in its Islamic law constitution is compromised by religious beliefs (Long, 2005). UK on the other side boasts a clear distinction between religion and the state (Jirage, 2010). This gives its citizens more rights of choice thus making them more liberal. Still, the people of United Kingdom practice the culture of change more than are those of Saudi Arabia.

This essay is written as a discussion comparing between Saudi Arabia and United Kingdom. The author in particular takes a look at the similarities and differences between the two nations in terms of culture, freedom and gender roles.

Saudi Arabia and United Kingdom have many differences. The two nations have what sounds to be a similarity in that they all uphold respect for life and negation of criminal activities (Jirage, 2010, Long, 2005). However, the perception of life and crime are quite different in these nations. The Saudi Arabia constitution is written according to the Islamic law (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010). This means that most of the concepts of life as defined in the Koran are deem fundamental. In this perception the question of abortion is a crime punishable by death (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010). Still, according to Saudi Arabia suicide can sometime amount to holiness thus having constitutional contradict. This culture is quite different from that of UK.

According to the culture of UK, life is a fundamental right of any one. However, freedom of choice particularly on the question of abortion is respected (Jirage, 2010). Death must be natural and thus no act of suicide is considered holier than another. This can be sufficiently explained by the fact that the constitution of United Kingdom is not based on any religious belief. Another difference is found in the culture of dealing with crime in the two nations. In the UK, criminal acts are subject to the rule of law which effectively defines the rights of a crime offender. On the other hand, in Saudi Arabia, crime is mainly subjected to the rule of the Islamic law (long, 2005). This evidently compromises the rights of the criminals to legal defence.

On youth culture, Saudi Arabia has prohibits the youth from engaging in certain lifestyles. As an example, it is a criminal offence for ladies not to fully cover their bodies (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010). This is basically defined under the provisions of the Islamic law. Victims of such are commonly seen as prostitutes. However, in the UK dress code remains a matter of choice by an individual (Jirage, 2010). According to the western civilization it is a normal or basic right of the youth to demand their rights from their parents. This practice is basically evident in the open relationships that exist between parents and their kids. Nevertheless, things are quite different in Saudi Arabia particularly for the girl child. 

Behaviour among the youths of Saudi Arabia is quite different from UK. Sex before marriage is a serious crime in Saudi Arabia that is punishable by death (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010). Still, this means that the nations culture is based on zero tolerance to immorality. On the other side, the UK culture regards sex as a right of choice. In fact it is a common culture among the people of UK that sex among the youth is a sign of maturity and self-realisation by the individuals. Socialising and partying is quite common among the youths of UK. This is however regarded as a vice in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, unlike in the UK, acting in self interest even when not offending others is a vice in Saudi Arabia.

Another major different between UK and Saudi Arabia is found in the provisions for right to freedom. Freedom has been established as one of the most fundamental rights for every one to enjoy. Of all rights, the right to expression is very importance as it mitigates oppression in the society (Sullivan, 2006). Individuals in the UK enjoy this right of expression not only at the individual and family levels but also at the government level. Here, an individual can stand for or against any law or policy affecting them. However, in Saudi Arabia, the freedom of expression is very limited if any (Moaddel, 2002). Families are bound to adhere to decisions by men regardless of whether such decisions are offensive. Critics of government policies in Saudi Arabia are termed as criminals in Saudi Arabia.

Religion is by nature a matter of individual choice. In the UK, the law which ensures law and order in the community is non religious (Jirage, 2010). Therefore, it is a basic human right to choice the type of religion to practice or even to choice not to practice any. In the case of Saudi Arabia, the law is fundamentally based on the Islamic religion (Long. 2005). This means that all members of the nation must practice Islamic. It is in fact due to this reason that other religions like Christianity are quite unpopular. Evidence has shown that those who practice other religions in the American nation do so in secret as they can be subjected to punishment by death if notice. This is a negation of an individual right to religion.

Freedom of want and fear is crucial in ensuring happiness, comfort and acceptability in the society. This is because it is by getting what you want that makes ones life complete. In the United Kingdom, individuals enjoy the freedom of want and expression of fear provided it does not offend others (Jirage, 2010). Even children here have the right to say what they want and what they dont want under the constitutional provision for freedom of choice. However, in Saudi Arabia, the freedom of want is only limited to the Islamic law. Under this law one must always choose what does not violate Allah and Mohammed His prophet.

The last set of difference between UK and Saudi Arabia are gender roles. The campaign for gender equality has been a heated debate in the community. However, true to the letter, whether men and women must be equal or not should remain an issue of individual perception. By virtual of the fact that we are all human beings, we should all enjoy equal human rights. This is what has been perceived in most Islamic nations as a misleading concept of western civilization seeking to destroy Islam.

In Saudi Arabia, women are seen as property by men who should only serve in the house. Women here are rarely allowed to work and even own property (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010). Indeed, it is due to this reason that the girl child enjoys limited or no rights to education. Still, the Saudi Arabia nation discriminates women on the religious front, at workplace and more in politics and leadership. Another thing is that by the fact that men are seen as the head of the family, they provide for all family needs as well as make decisions in the family. It remains a contradictory notion in Saudi Arabia that a woman should drive a car as it symbolises power and leadership (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010).

On the side of gender roles in the UK, men and women are virtually seen as equal members of the human community. This makes women enjoy equal employment opportunities (Jirage, 2010). Such are a direct result of UK nations recognition that individuals should be discriminated based on abilities rather than gender. On equality, unlike in Saudi Arabia, a woman can file a divorce case against her husband. This is quite indicative of the fact that in UK, both women and men can serve both the role of serving or commanding.

In conclusion, it has been established that there are many differences between Saudi Arabia and United Kingdom in terms of culture, freedom and gender roles in the community. The Saudi Arabian nation has a culture that is embedded in the Islamic faith (Mobaraki  Soderfeldt, 2010). This is further complicated by the constitution which is also written according to the Islamic law. The nation has limited rights to freedom particular on women. Still, Saudi Arabia is evidently practicing discrimination against women by limiting their roles only to family matters.

UK on the other side recognises the importance of separating the law from religion. This gives its citizens a liberal culture that is not limited by government interference but by individual choice. The nation recognises the right of its people to express their grievances on government policies affecting them (Jirage, 2010). And lastly the nation upholds equality for all in the society thus allowing women to do anything a man does.

Today, many teenagers are frustrated with inconsistency in America.  They hear their parents scold them for something they do themselves.  They see politicians do what they promised not to do before they were elected.  They encounter clergymen who violate the very morals they were told to value.  Whats a kid to do  While society blames them for its ills, they need an outlet to release their frustrations.  And sometimes, social drinking is a means to vent.  By lowering the drinking age to 18, American society will enjoy the benefits of more consistent policies, a less tempting world and a law that is at par with the rest of the world.

In America, 18 is the accepted and legal age for adulthood.  At 18, American teenagers are already authorized to do many things.  They can drive a car if they pass the written and practical tests.  They can go out and vote for any candidate that they pleasea candidate who may improve the country or destroy it.  They can get drafted into military service, or they can join voluntarily in the war against Afghans and Iraqis.  They can get a job and earn money.  They can get married to whoever they want, and in some states, they can even get married to someone who is the same gender.  And if they cant have any children, they can even adopt some.  They can even fly a plane and become a commercial pilot if they receive training and a license for it.  So why single out drinking  It is inconsistent for an 18-year-old to have the ability to shoot down innocent Afghans or Iraqis while restricted from drinking a can of beer.  The inconsistency will only make rebels out of them.  It will urge them to drink more.  Furthermore, people make mistakes at any age.  Even if youre an old politician, you can make grave mistakes that can affect billions of people around the world for decades, centuries or even millennia.  A drunken Alexander the Great or Hitler can do this and yet there are also many responsible 18 year-olds in America who know when to stop.  Just because you are young doesnt mean that you are immature.  And just because you are old doesnt mean that you are mature.  To the contrary there are many immature old people, and there are many mature young ones.  It was not the young who started World Wars I and II.  And it will not be the young who will start World War III.  It will always be the so-called mature people.

Moreover, anything forbidden is always tempting.  If you leave a closed box in a room, and tell a kid Ill be going out for about an hour.  Whatever you do, please dont open that box.  Once you leave, he will surely be tempted to open it more than if you had not even mentioned the box at all. Also, it can be a dare to many teenagers.  For example, bullies could say, youre chicken or youre a sissy to someone below 21.  This would prompt them to drink more to prove themselves.  Seniors in fraternities and sororities may also mock students who dont drink and label them as not part of the in-crowd.  It would definitely promote binge drinking.  In addition, even if you restrict teenagers from drinking, they can always ask or pay someone older to buy alcohol for them.  When theres a will, theres a way, as the saying goes.  In fact, during the Prohibition or Noble Experiment of the 1920s and early 30s, alcohol was banned just like illegal drugs, but the social situation became worse.  Alcohol was traded just like illegal drugs, and many famous gangsters like Al Capone and Bugs Moran profited from bootlegging liquor.  Al Capone would eventually control 10,000 speakeasies (establishments that illegally sold liquor) , and he would become the Chicago king of the bootlegging underworld from Canada to Florida.  Crime increased.  Numerous other crimes such as murder and theft increased as a result of the Prohibition.  Restricting teenagers from drinking would also have a similar effect.  It teaches them to break the law, and the social implications will be worse than allowing them to drink at 18.

Of course, some people will still argue that 18 is still immature--that they can potentially endanger themselves and others.  In fact, to reduce teenage drunk driving and the consequential accidents that take place, lawmakers lowered the drinking age to 18 in the 1980s.  But was it the right decision  Is drunk driving all there is to the drinking spectrum  Drinking is not just all about drunk driving.  As you can see from the Prohibition experience, there are numerous other serious crimes that can potentially involve it, including murder and theft.  And the cost of additional crimes such as murder and other social ills will certainly be greater than any reduction in drunken driving cases, which can actually be reduced through proper driver education and management.  While lowering the drinking age may not eliminate drunk driving altogether, it will still make the law more consistent and it will eliminate the temptation to open the closed box.  Many countries in the world, including Europe, do not have this temptation.  So they dont drink more than their counterparts in America.  For example, Professor Dwight Heath mentions that in Spain, Italy and France, youngsters learn how to drink moderately, learn how and why to avoid drunkenness, and learn that intoxication is a sign of immaturity or weakness.

In conclusion, drinking is not just about intoxication.  It is also a social activity that is used for venting frustrations and for increasing rapport with others.  In a way, it is also a manner of expressing yourself to others.  So why limit this expression  Freedom of expression has always been the hallmark of America.  And lawmakers should not take away this freedom from them.  Be consistent.  Be just.  And be fair. Lower the drinking age to 18.  It is the right thing to do.

Ethnography as a Discipline
Ethnography is a method used to observe and document human interactions in a specific cultural context. It is a qualitative research project which describes and analyses every day practices. Contemporary anthropologist Clifford Geertz defined ethnography as a thick description of culture which focused on qualitative study rather than the use of statistically-oriented method of gathering information (quantitative research Hoey, Brian A.). The aim of ethnography is to interpret a certain culture based on documented daily life practices and events. According to Geertz, these events represent webs of meaning which serve as a ground for cultural constructions. Ethnographers often allow these meanings to emerge from an ethnographic encounter (emic perspective), rather than interpret these representations from a more distant point of view known as the etic perspective.

In addition, the discipline often requires time and participation of the ethnographer so as to better understand their observation. The so-called participant observation is a method used in ethnography where the ethnographer becomes a participant of the study and is given the opportunity to detach his or her own interpretation of the subject at hand. Thus, personal biases with respect to the study are disregarded and meaning of a cultural construction emerges on its own.

Participant observation often requires long-term engagements in the field. Ethnographers choose to stay with their subjects where in they themselves become a part of the culture itself. In fact, others have been able to establish lasting bonds with the people they study  a manifestation of how long would it normally require for an ethnographer to understand a foreign culture apart from its own.

Information is often acquired through sets of interviews which vary with respect to methods used by the ethnographer. More often than not, the use of open-ended questions is popular in ethnographic studies. These questions are answer-friendly and would give respondents the opportunity to freely express their answers in a more convenient manner. Ethnographers, on the other hand, gain more access to insights from their subjects.

Ethnography may be applied regardless of the culture being studied. The discipline is flexible in nature as to there are no restrictions with respect to how data should be gathered however, meanings of the various representations acquired should be free from personal interpretations so as not to sabotage the innate cultural construction.

The Ups and Downs of Ethnography
Ethnographic study has other various advantages. It uncovers the true nature of the cultural system in general  one that is free from personal biases and a study that would encourage meaning of representation to come out of its own. Ethnography often generates unexpected results about a certain cultural system which may appear unusual but at the same time a lot more interesting to the student. In addition, it allows the student to be involved in human interactions which would suffice his or her needs according to the needs of the subjects.

Apart from advantages, there are also major drawbacks with respect to the methods used. One, ethnographic study requires considerable time to produce quality results. Although some ethnographic methods are designed to gain results in a few days, major studies require weeks or months of critical analysis to understand every data acquired. Others prefer to live with their subjects as this may be the only way to learn certain practices which have become a part of their everyday activities. Second, the presentation of ethnographic results with respect to its qualitative nature, may appear unusable and inapplicable to other designers and researchers. How information is acquired for one particular study may not be suitable as a method for another. Third, most ethnographic studies use small-scaled target population (small number of participants) to limit research cost, communication and effort. The use of large-scaled target population requires a considerable amount of money and greater amount of effort to produce quality results regardless if data is acquired through observational study (visual), contextual inquiry (questions are required) or participant observation (ethnographer joins the subject).

An Ethnographic Study of Gender Influence on Social Behavior
Most common ethnographic studies focused on the influence of gender relations to social behaviors which are often manifested in peoples everyday activities. The Student Contribution An Ethnographic Study of Gender Influences on Social Behavior of Members at a Private Golf Club (Peter A. Shotton, Dr. Kathleen M. Armour  Paul Potrac) aimed to understand ways on how gender issues influence daily activities in one particular private golf club in England. In addition, it aimed to discuss how these issues became a part of ones personal experiences as a club member.

More often than not, women are denied of full membership, full access to club facilities and the power to vote in most private golf clubs. Furthermore, they are often barred from weekend play, local tournaments and are often denied of equal playing time relative to mens. The ethnographic approach provided a more descriptive, interpretive and evaluative eye view as to how golf clubs serve as good research settings where imposition of male dominance and discrimination against women become a part of everyday practice.

Sport is considered a male-dominated world and some scholars came up with various generalizations which attested it. Most sports were created by men for men  HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs (Boutilier  SanGiovanni, 1983 Cited in Peter A. Shotton, Dr. Kathleen M. Armour  Paul Potrac) and primarily, men formed the professional team sports which served as models for the youth in school sport programs  HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs (Coakley, 1990 Cited in Peter A. Shotton, Dr. Kathleen M. Armour  Paul Potrac). In fact, only one third of the athletes both in high schools and colleges are female, not to mention that in most cases, leadership and coaching roles are being assigned to men  HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs (Acosta  Carpenter, 1988).
There had been a considerable fifty percent increase in the number of female golfers in UK-affiliated golf clubs since 1979 ( HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs Kennedy (1997)). In spite the improvement in numbers, the society had continuously see women inappropriate for the sport. According to many, the only reason why number of female golfers increased was due to the awareness of golf club managers on happy to pay career women whose income are relatively the same of mens ( HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs Kennedy (1997).
Golfing women were treated sub-species ( HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs Mott (1996)) relative to men and this was justified by how men golfers like European Seve Ballesteros treated women with respect to the game. You women want equality, but youll never get it because women are inferior to men in all sorts of ways - physically, intellectually and morally. There are exceptions, but on the whole women are inferior to men, he openly stated. Many believed that the reason why women often suffered in golf is because of the unsuitability of their physiological attributes to the equipments used ( HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs Hopkins (1997)).

Furthermore, golf tours formed and participated in by women like the Women Professional Golfers European Tour (WPGET), were often denied of sponsors due to the social stigma that womens tour is less attractive and successful than mens. Other reasons include the lack of female professionals and inadequate prize funds  HYPERLINK httpphysed.otago.ac.nzsosolv1i2v1i2s1.htm l refs (Henderson, 1997 Cited in Peter A. Shotton, Dr. Kathleen M. Armour  Paul Potrac). In short, womens treatment with respect to golf had become a cultural barrier on womens identity.

A survey had been conducted by Fore Magazine (August 1997) which manifested changing attitude of men towards womens participation in the sport. The study asked 1000 men ages 25-45 about their perception on women and golf. Only nine percent said that both were indeed incompatible. The study showed that more and more male golfers consider golf as a social activity which can be participated in by anyone regardless of sex. Moreover, a study had been conducted on Wirral Ladies Golf Club where in 190 men at the club was denied participation of the clubs affairs despite equal fees being paid. The study reflected that most female golf clubs exercised the same policies with respect to gender and that more women were in favor of gender division in relation to the sport. 

Ethnographic Methods Applied
Generally, this ethnographic study derived answers from interviews and observations at a private golf club within a period of five days. The club is composed of 500 members 400 males and 150 females of which, 30 are staff members. Actions, behaviors and topics discussed in relation to gender were noted by the ethnographer and the affirmation of such observations was usually done through interviews and was often recorded soon after the observation has been made.

The researchers findings were summarized into five categories (1) attitude towards participation (2) social interaction and communication (3) organization and compliance with rules and regulations (4) age and (5) inferiority. All of which have been recorded within the premises of the golf club established in 1935.

As per observation, men were far more competitive than women and that men focused on the development of his personal skills as a player towards winning the game and that women played for the sake of fun and companionship. The club secretary was interviewed about the type of atmosphere the golf club was trying to create. The golf club, according to the interviewee, wished to promote a non-biased playing atmosphere and that women should be treated with respect just like any man. A male player reiterated that social interactions within the club had enhanced rapport within players regardless of gender. With respect to rule compliance, men in contrast to women were often reminded by the management not to wear spiked shoes and hats in the course area and inside the clubhouse respectively. In addition, women followed organized committee meeting procedures than men. This manifested that although women are often considered inferior to men in the playing field, men were less organized and disciplined relative to women. The youngest female player was 38 while the rest fell between ages 45-55. Men population, on the other hand, ranged from school boys to professionals and retired pensioners. The study claimed that there was no female junior section in the club unlike the mens section which had junior, senior and veterans divisions. When a female player was asked why number of female players was far less than mens, she answered that playing golf had never been a part of the young girls sport. Men, in contrast, were taught by their fathers at an early age and that females have come to know the sport only upon maturity when their husbands and boy friends play.  As far as physiological aspect is concerned, womens lack of power in the field vastly contributed to their complex of inferiority. A female was interviewed after having defeated by a male competitor during a joint competition. She felt embarrassed by the way she performed during the game and had come to admit that she was tensed even before the game had started. According to a club professional, women are often tensed during mixed events because of their feelings of inferiority towards male players. Worse, women are aware of how they are classified as Slow, Short and Shabby.

Conclusion
To sum it all up, the influence of gender based-issue on golf as a sport, is problematic especially to women that although there are differences with respect to how both sexes treat the sport in general, put a lot of pressure on women than men.

Sample Ethnographic Design The Internet as Entertainment
Introduction
Media is a major social institution which has a huge impact to the society in general. What people see on televisions and hear on radios often affects and influences how lives are lived and should be lived. Media is a powerful apparatus which encourages social collective actions of people and thus, a major contributor and ground on how social norms should be defined.

Nowadays, people vastly rely on televisions, radios and internet for almost any latest information on the globe. The use of these tools has become collective in general that these became a part of peoples everyday activities. I chose to focus on the internet and how it is collectively utilized as a form of entertainment.

It became quite obvious how the internet had been reduced as mere entertainment package which have become a part of peoples daily life routine. For instance, apart from the internets role to educate people about the latest happenings in the society and politics, it also encouraged both young and old to be involved with countless social networks for entertainments sake. What defines leisure can now be found on Friendster and Facebook. One cannot just go off to bed at night without checking the latest updates on his or her account or if not, having to play Zynga Poker and Mafia Wars perhaps.

Objective and Scope
In order to narrow up the scale, a certain company was chosen to represent the research some time in April 2008. The objective of the study was to know who frequently used the internet for entertainment purposes Is it the male or the female The study also attempts to understand the factors which influenced frequency of internet usage with respect to gender.

The scope of the study, however, excludes those who are not affiliated with the company and late stage adults for more often than not, it is the younger ones who utilized the internet both at work and at home. Themes used include (1) the function of the internet, (2) respondent status, (3) usage frequency.

Methodology
The ethnographic study was participated in by 30 respondents who were selected randomly according to age and gender. Fifteen of which were males whose age varied from 21-45 and females 22-42. Most information was derived from interviews and personal observations within a period of three days.

Summary of Findings
The study showed that out of 15 male participants, 11 of which used the internet merely to play online games available on Facebook without having to frequently check messages on their respective accounts. When one male respondent was asked why he chose not to regularly scan up his messages, he said that he mainly used the social network for online games and that he could just sneak at his account details anytime when he gets home. The other four male participants often checked websites which have something to do with tour and vacation packages. Six out of fifteen male participants are married. A large part of the total male respondents used the internet for entertainment.

On the other hand, seven out of fifteen female respondents played online games on a regular basis. Although the other eight did not, thirteen out of fifteen have their Facebook accounts opened. The study showed that majority of the females often checked and replied to messages in their accounts in contrast to men. Ten out of fifteen female respondents were married.

Furthermore, majority of the men closed their accounts after serving its purpose, whereas, most women prefer to have their accounts opened until the shift ends. A female respondent argued how important it is for her to be updated with anything that is going on and so chose to have her account opened in order to receive and reply to messages.

Implication and Conclusion
The study implies that both working men and women used the internet on a regular basis. The distinction lies with respect to how they used it and what factors motivated them primarily.
Majority of the men utilized the internet to unwind, perhaps to give them a break at the back of stressful work routine. Women also used the internet in similar ways however, they prefer to maximize the benefits they can obtain from it both as a form of entertainment and as a constant tracking device.
In short, men used the internet to address his immediate need to be entertained, whereas, women looked at it as a form of benefit. Social status, so to speak if the respondent is married or single, showed a little but vague influence on internet usage as a form of entertainment.

In terms of usage frequency, men tend to be more practical than women and that once it served its (internet) purpose prefer to get rid of it immediately in short, his need defines his usage frequency. Women are practically constant and that regardless of need, usage appears to be on a regular basis for as long as she gets something out of it.

It is therefore suffice to conclude that both men and women used the internet for entertainment and that the only difference is defined by their distinct motivation towards the use of it.

According to W. E. B. DuBois, double consciousness is defined as an individual who views himself or herself through the standards or perspectives of others (Black 2007393). In this particular case DuBois studied, it is the black people seeing themselves through the prism of whites. In the case of African-Americans, their history differs from that of the whites as they were brought to the shores of America as slaves, deprived of their freedom and treated as less than human. As a result, this feeling of inferiority has caused them to develop this double consciousness as they allow themselves to be made inferior by whites and under these conditions, double consciousness would be considered unhealthy in interpersonal relationships among people in a society (Black 2007393 McWhorter 1992299).

This can be related to the concept of stigma. According to Erving Goffman (198624), a noted sociologist, a stigma is as  a special kind of gap between virtual social identity and actual social identity.  In a society, its members establish a series of standards or criteria of categorizing or labeling individuals based on certain characteristics or attributes. This is called the virtual social identity.  The attributes one actually sees would be called the actual social identity. Stigma comes in when an individuals actual social identity fails to meet the virtual social identity that is preconditioned in the minds of the other members of society, thus making this proverbial  ugly duckling  excluded, if not ostracized. Blacks had been treated this way throughout history because they failed to meet the exiting standards set by society who automatically had looked down upon them until the civil rights movement freed them from this stigma.

It can be said that double consciousness and stigma are intertwined if the people allow others to determine their life and use it as an excuse to feel inferior, whether is is based on the color of their skin, intelligence, or traits. By doing so, they  are imposing the stigma upon themselves through this double consciousness. Nevertheless, it would help to reveal how race has social significance and how double consciousness, intertwined with stigma has an effect on interracial or interpersonal relations. On an individual level, one is encouraged to do away with this double consciousness and set their own standards if one is to become a better individual.  If this can be repeated a thousand fold or more, the stigma will go away.  Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt had put it so well,  nobody can make you feel inferior without your consent (Esar1995424).

There are various menus which are found in the McDonald restaurant in United States. This includes Chicken McNuggets. This kind of food tastes the same despite of where it is prepared. This menu uniformity is accomplished by implementation of various factors. The chemical flavoring industry plays a role in ensuring this uniformity. It has been common for conflicts arising from franchisors and franchisees. The market of fast food has widened. In order to ensure uniformity in the menus, restaurants within the same chain are made to operate under the same conditions. This kind of putting things closer to one another is referred by many as encroachment and it is opposed by franchisees. This brings about competition of customers. Restaurants maximize on profits through much sales (Schlosser, 2001, p.99). Franchising was covered under the federal law in 1978.

The federal law is not involved in regulating the manner franchisees are run. Franchisees operate on their own after signing a contract. These franchisees are required to obey corporate directives. Chain restaurants are mandated to buy products from suppliers who have been approved. This ensures uniformity of the menus and taste since the same products are used through out the chain. Restaurant can only be sold to a buyer who has been approved by the chain. Food flavoring is another concept which has ensured uniformity in the menus. Flavors ensure that food has a certain taste and smell. The flavors used may either be natural or artificial. Natural flavor is highly considered than artificial flavor because it is healthier. The source of the flavor defines its application. Chemical plants have taken the lead in producing both natural and artificial flavors. Flavorists is the term used to refer to those who are involved in preparing the flavors widely used in United States. These scientists involve various disciplines in devising the flavors organic chemistry, psychology, biology and physiology (Schlosser, 2001, p.100). The uniformity is also ensured by use of analyzer which determines the lumpiness, creep, juiciness amongst other properties of food.

There is still remarkable uniformity between McDonalds fast food and Chinese fast food despite of the different organization practiced in ether of them. There is the possibility of having the same dish appearing on many menus. This might happen even when the organization is different. There was encroachment to McDonalds territories by Chinese fast food. The rise of an outlet which is the same chain of production may draw customers of another outlet. In order to meet the needs of customers who have used to a certain taste and preference, a replica has to be produced. This can be achieved through food flavoring. This has created uniformity between Chinese fast food and McDonald fast food.

Franchisees use chains of fast food due to suppliers inflated prices, encroachment, terminations and bankruptcies. This regulation enables the production of the same food in a wide range. The legal disputes apply to various franchisors. These include McDonalds fast food and Chinese fast food. This makes these franchisors been tied up as an institution (Schlosser, 2001, 126). Despite of having no organized authority, they produce the same menus. There was a legislation which was passed in 1999 covering on franchisors. The business principles applied on American companies was to apply to franchisors.  A commercial code was to apply to various businesses in the same line. This defines why different franchisors may end up making same dish.

Q.
2 a)  There are several organizations which are involved in the production of a Big Mac. These include cattle ranchers. Cattle ranchers include farmers of cattle and chicken growers. The beef and poultry industries are amongst the organization involved in the production of Big Mac. The wave mergers saved the collapsing poultry industry. These led to rise of several chicken processors who control the market in America. These chicken processors are situated near chicken growers who are the farmers (Schlosser, 2001, 128). Cattle ranchers participate are directly involved in production of Big Mac. This includes farmers and meatpackers.

2. b) The cost of Big Mac is low in United States. Taking the major component of Big Mac to be beef, it is clear that cattle prices had gone down over a decade.  The price of cattle defines the price of the end products. Beef industry has been well structured in United States. This has helped prevent extra which might be introduced by factors such as merging. Merging of business is cost since it introduces new policies. Beef industry has been very sound in United States. The condition of bringing up cattle in United State is cheap.

The conditions are favorable for farmers in this industry. Cattle ranchers deal with mass production of cattle. This minimizes the cost of Big Mac since the products are readily available from cattle ranchers.  Meat packers also play a role in determining the cost of Big Mac (Schlosser, 2001). Meat packers use improved technology in their work and also maximizes on cheap labor. Improved technology and cheap labor keeps the cost of beef low. Meat packing is achieved easily without much cost. The advanced technology in United States has made the cost of Big Mac to be low. Big Mac is easily produced through minimal operations. This is possible with the involvement of improved technology.

2.C The organization of the labor process inside the meatpacking has really helped keep costs low. The manner in which labor is organized in a company determines the operating cost. In the meat packing plants most of the activities are carried out with aid of machines. Most of the work which was usually carried out by humans has been replaced by machines. Machines are faster in production as opposed to humans who may take a lot of time to achieve a certain task. With automation in place, most of the activities are performed with minimal human supervision. This has enabled reduce the cost of production since machines are involved reducing human error. Mass production is possible with the aid of machines. The meatpacking plants are also filled with expertise that ensure that everything is running as expected. Employees in the meatpacking plants are skilled (Schlosser, 2001, 10). Skilled labor eliminates unnecessary mistakes which may contribute to increased costs.

3). In American, many of the existing Chinese restaurants serve a similar food called the General Tsos Chicken.. Just like the MacDonalds, these restaurants basically make food of the same flavor without the essence of hierarchical or organized authorities that command the restaurants. This is by contrast to the MacDonalds where there should be a uniform state of menu across the board as dictated by the franchisors powers. The large presence of Chinese restaurants within American cannot solely be explained by the view of the MacDonald which regulated the state of similarity of the menus provided by its franchisees. However, understanding this argumentation can only be through the conception of the institutional theory. According, the survival of corporations within the very competitive market environment can only be via following the strong rules, regulations and systems within the environment. Thus, corporations are usually influenced by the existing social institutions which consequently give them the path to explore. Subject to this the Chinese restaurants provided the same menu in regard to the existing market trend and thud having Chicken McNuggets and General Tsos Chicken.

In conclusion, the cost of Big Mac is relatively low in United Sates as opposed to other nations. There are several factors contributing to the low cost. The low cost of beef is one of the major factors to low Big Mac cost. This is determined by certain factors which include cattle ranchers and meatpackers. Meatpackers employed advanced technology in their work. This includes use of machines in production. This keeps the cost of production of beef to be low. This is reflected to the price of Big Mac.

In an effort to resolve the inconsistent findings of previous research, Yu and Williford (1994) examined and found support for a model which specifies the relationships among criminality and the use of alcohol and other drugs in terms of a developmental sequence. According to Yu and Williford, who studied individuals in jails, drinking-driver programs, and alcoholism treatment centers, the early onset of legal drug use (e.g., alcohol and cigarettes) induces the onset of illicit drug use (e.g., marijuana and cocaine) and eventually leads to involvement in criminal activity, including offenses against persons and property  (Yu and Williford ,1994).

Data were collected from adolescent offenders at a juvenile training school in a northeastern state. The school included 416 incarcerated juvenile delinquents, and is the only facility in the state for adjudicated juvenile offenders. Questionnaires were administered to 342 (82) of the offenders. The nonparticipation rate of 18 was due to refusals (6), transfers (3), and such administrative matters as court appearances, leaves, and work releases (9). The present analysis includes only the male offenders (N  312).

The variables included in the analysis were operationally defined as follows Type of criminal offense variables were based on responses to the question, One year before coming to the training school, how many times had you done the following Respondents were then given a list of twenty-one delinquency-related offenses. For each offense, the possible response categories were 5  five or more, 4  three or four times, 3  twice, 2  once, and 1  never (Yu and Williford ,1994).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Statistical Treatment in a Quantitative Research
Quantitative data is usually in the form of statistics. Questionnaires and structured interviews are typical methods used when gaining quantitative data, as the results are easily transferable to a numerical form and further subjected to statistical treatment.  One of the advantages of statistical treatment is to describe what is non-realistic to describe, that is describing a whole population when it is very large.  This treatment also lessens bias or subjective explanations.

On the other hand, one of the drawbacks of statistical treatment is unable to describe deeper characteristics of one being studied, the deeper details are not presented and analyzed.

When we talk of an indigenous people we mean any tribal group of people who reside in a geographic region and they are known to have had a long historical connection. A tribal or racial group may be referred to as indigenous in relation to some particular location. There is an outlined criterion of determining what an indigenous group is, their continuity with a given region, or parts of a region and who formally reside in that given region (Richard, 2000)

Other distinct characteristics of the indigenous people include the fact that they have maintained at least in part their distinct linguistic, cultural and social uniqueness and in doing so remain differentiated in some degree from the neighboring populations of the fatherland (James, 1999). An indigenous group of people is largely secluded from the control of the claimed authority by the fatherland.

Indigenous people have certain distinctive characteristics, they have relatively common concerns. This is in reference to not only their status and interaction with other cultural groups, but also their changes in their inhabited environment. Some problems faced among indigenous people are common (Brock, 2005). Another characteristic of the indigenous people is that they have a historical indigenous culture.
Culture here means the way of life and how they carry themselves in their daily lives, their language, type of food they eat, the language they speak, the type of houses they live in, among others (Gillions, 20000. Indigenous people are known to occupy the most regions of the world and their population may be difficult to compile given the fact that they are often affected by chances of migrations, relocations, loss of lands, forced resettlements and maybe because of their economic activities for instance the nomads.

Finally, the indigenous people are known to exhibit common characteristics. For instance, they are broadly known to rely on substance production, and their main economic activity can either be hunting, gathering, nomads or pastoralists. They are also known to occupy the rural areas of every nation.
When we talk of culture, we mean the way of life in consideration to social, political and economic activities of a particular indigenous people. And precisely, cultural change is how this indigenous people advance in their way of life from the grass roots to what can be termed as advancement in culture, which is better than that in the past (James, 1999).

Lets consider one indigenous group of people called the Waswahili. The Swahili are a group of people found on the coastal regions of East Africa, mainly Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique. The name Swahili is a consequent from the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiArabic_language o Arabic language Arabic word Swahili, meaning, The people that dwell in the coastal region they evolved gradually from the 6th century to the coastal regions mainly for purposes of trade (Richard, 2000). They did increase population and that led to urbanization, developing the region to what is currently called the Swahili city states.

When we consider their culture, the waswahili people speak in Swahili language and in fact the main national language of the country Tanzania is Swahili. Its estimated that around 90 million people speak the Swahili language. And everyone who speaks this language Swahili can be grouped as the waswahili group as the language identifies the waswahili people (Gillions, 2000). The main religion of the waswahili is Islam.

This was as a result of the influence of the presence of the Persian and Arabian traders in the east African coast around 1012 AD, who are said to have come from the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Peninsula respectively. With the exchange of ideas that led to intermarriages between the people of the east Africa coast and the traders, it led to the emergence of the waswahili people. The unifying force of the Islam brought the waswahili people together giving them a common identity among the people of the coastal region. They follow a very stern and traditional form of Islam.

The main economic activity of the waswahili people is trade. They did play a role as middle men between East central and South Africa, and the outside world. There are trade contacts that have been noted as early as 100AD (Julie  Christine, 2000). There were also established trade routes extended across Tanzania into modern day republic of Congo.

The materials they traded on include ivories and slaves which they exchanged for gold and other cowry shells which were predominantly used as a medium of exchange. Many slaves sold from the east African coasts ended up in Brazil, which was then a Portuguese protectorate (James, 1999). Swahili fishermen of today still rely on the ocean to supply their primary source of income. They do sell fish to their inland neighbors to get products from the interior.

The waswahili are neighbors with the Mijikenda, Zigua, Kwere, Zaramo, Makonde, among other tribes in the east African coast. Swahili art forms are limited to architecture, furniture and personal adornment (Gillions, 2000). The main type of food of the waswahili is rise, cooked the Russian way, their houses are well decorated with Persian wall mats and their floors are well covered with Arabian carpets.
 Their house types are semi permanent, covered with makuti (dry long grass) on the roof tops. Men are known to dress in long veils (kanzus), while women are known to dress in long dresses that cover nearly the total body including the head (Julie  Christine, 2000). The Swahili women are known to exhibit much respect to their men and they have grown to know that is the Islamic culture.

Academically, the waswahili people have schools called the madrassa, derived from a Swahili name madarasa, meaning class.

The political organization of the waswahili people is not clearly defined this is because they are often incorporated in the political practices of their neighbors (Brock, 2005). The main point here is that they have well established Kadhi courts that help in solving differences among themselves, Kadhi court is based on the Islamic constitution.
 
Therefore, the above brings us to a conclusion of the waswahili culture, and we can see their culture too, they are neither hunters nor pastoralists but traders.

A timeline is a provision of the social and political events and their contents. In my essay, I will consider the industrial age and its resultant human rights achievements. There were numerous events and a succession of political jolts that led to the rising of workers demanding both political and economic power. This was in struggle to free themselves from demeaning bonds and also demand for the rights of women. The debate resulted into an intensified human rights campaign and advanced capitalism and industrial revolution in social conflict.

1802 Napoleon restores slavery in French colonies. Slaves were used as a source of labor without any pay.

1802 Factory Health and Morals Act. The laws were meant to regulate the poor working conditions in the work paces.

Abolishment of slave trade. This was the declaration of slave trade as illegal in the country. This helped the slaves to achieve their human rights
1807 Britain abolishes slave trade.
1810 Venezuela abolishes slavery.
1812 Argentina abolishes slavery.
1823  The republic of Chile abolished slavery.
1829 Mexico abolishes slavery.
1834 The Great Britain frees Caribbean slaves.
1840 World anti slavery conference.
1854 Peru abolishes slavery.
1880-1886 Cuba abolishes slavery.

1820 Missouri compromise. The agreement demanded the admission of both a slave owning state as well as a non slaving state concurrently. This worked well in fighting anti slavery.

Civil Wars. 1810-1824 civil wars and revolutions in Spanish possessions.
1861-1865 American Civil Wars.  It was Civil War with the North fighting against the South for nationalism. The North won the war. 

Revolutions. 1830 Revolution. The fight was against the big gap between the rich and the poor.
1848 Revolutions bloody June days in Paris Seneca Falls convention. These included numerous revolutions in February that led to the removal of Napoleon. They were fighting for the political reforms, harsh working conditions and job insecurity. In Paris, more than eleven thousand people were killed by the government.

Social and Voting Rights
1832 England first reform bill. It was passed in the House of Lords. The bill implemented a flat property qualification tax for eligible male voters and widened the electoral base. It provided the business class that had already been strengthened by industrialization with a political position, thus rivaling the elite.

1837 Chartist Petition.

1838 Peoples Charter.

1838-1848 Chartism. The chartist movement was a strong labor peoples movement. The movement emerged from the Peoples Charter. The movement intensively campaigned for voting and social rights.
1860 Abraham Lincoln was voted in as the President of the United States.  The president was an abolitionist who was fighting for nationalism.

1864 International socialists association was founded. The movement aimed at developing policies and strategies for promoting political, social and economic rights.

1867 Second Reform Act- extension of suffrage.

Workers protection
1846 Repeal of Corn Law. The law took into consideration the interests of the industrialists. Earlier, the industrialists were outweighed by the land owners.

1847 Ten Hours Act. The act reduced the number of working hours per day to ten hours. This was to control the workers overworking by their employers.

1871 Paris commune. This was a socialists and anarchists revolutionary municipal council. The council advocated against the harsh Germany peace settlement and led to demonstrations.

Capitalism was one of the major causes of the socialism heated debate on human rights. There was conflicting information in demand to know why only those who had property were allowed to vote. This was doubtful if capitalism would represent the interests of everyone in the society.  The working class organization was formed in 1864 and helped to raise hopes to the emerging of socialism as well as help in uniting against imperialism. In my essay, I will show that the struggle for social justice, women rights, anti slavery and workers rights was as a result of socialism.

Industrialization led to the growth of economic hardships where intensive migration due to urbanization took place which increased the social groups gap. The Congress of Vienna created a conservative climate that led to the predominant liberal and nationalistic reaction that prevailed in the 1830s. The 1848 revolution led to the breaking of the alliances against legitimate regimes by the industrialized countries and speeded up the formation of the human right perspectives.  This led to a shift in the socialistic movement and resulted in the intense of struggling for the civil, political and economic rights. (Micheline 2004, 121)

In the east of Europe, the movement was calling for self determination and national unity through the strong opposition. The fruits of this were portrayed in the American civil war and its hybrid. This conflict between the north and the south led to the galvanizing of the anti slavery campaign. The prevalence of nationalism in the end of the nineteenth century contributed to the First World War.
The liberals were against the congress of Vienna on its formation. Religion was reintroduced by the European aristocrats with an aim to counter the French revolution.  This led to the strengthening of the church and emergence of new ways of expression. In 1830s revolutionaries that were against the monarchial and the religious orders invoking a secular and republican discourse of human rights prevailed. This led to the uniting of liberals and republicans during the decade.  (Micheline R 123)

The liberals human right agenda was advanced by the initial social change in Great Britain. The unequal political representation and the land owning aristocracy had led to the growth of fear of emerging violence. The house of the lords passed the Reform Bill in 1832.

The Corn Law was repealed in 1846 where the industrialists interests were privileged over those of the land owners. The materials and political aspirations of the working class were recognized in Britain and this was a great development on human rights. This also led to the reduction of the working hours for both women and children in the following year to ten hours. 

The chartist movement was a social movement for the parliamentary reform that was named after the Peoples Charter. However, not all the demands of the movement were met where the male suffrage remained limited. Also qualification to the House of Commons by common man limited public participation. (Micheline 2004, 124)

There were intensive advocates on the political scene by the working class for the reforming of the elections but this had unshakable opposition, leading to the eruption of riots and formation of barricades which resulted into a revolution in February.

The formation of the international social movement that worked to improve on the human rights was a great positive achievement. The Paris commune heavily challenged the wealthy industrialists as they demanded for government controlled prices on goods in addition to the improved working conditions.  The experience of the Paris commune led to reigniting of labor activism in Europe. The social democratic movements rapidly grew despite attempts by the leaders to suppress it. The Labor Party in England later emerged as a strong independent force and was able to gain welfare from the liberal and conservative governments.

In America, industrialization also caused a wave in human rights mainly through the strong anti slavery campaign. There were conflicting opinions between the north and the south since the south mainly depended on slaves as the source of labor. The 1820 Missouri compromise helped to enforce strict laws against slavery. (Micheline 2004 125)

With the emergence of Abraham Lincoln as the President of the United States, this empowered the north and resulted in the Civil War the following year.  The north was appealing to nationalism to save the Union and the south was calling for the states of self determination. As the north emerged, victorious unity prevailed in the states and liberal political principles were committed. Of major importance, the United States called off slavery in the country and this was a major score towards the human rights.

In conclusion, in the nineteenth century, Vienna Congress, the 1830 together with the 1840 revolutions, the Paris commune and the American civil war were the major events towards achievement of the human rights intensive campaigns. But this war is far from over.