Sociology

This paper discusses the role of the community in regards to black children education. The paper looks at the role the community has played to promote and manage the problem. It details the potential of the community in promoting black children education. The paper utilizes secondary sources by carrying an extensive research on a number of research articles on the problem to present a coherent discussion. The paper indicates that some factors in the society passively promote poor performance in school by black children while some programs also aggravate the problem. The family is presented as the savior of the situation. The paper proposes an audit of existing programs to phase out inefficient ones.

Education is an important element that makes man different from other primates and is an avenue through which mans intelligence is sharpened by analyzing nature and occurring phenomena. Education however, is not a stand-alone concept as many other rudiments come in to play in determining how education and knowledge is imparted on the learner. The components of education and other sociological, demographic, geographic, gender, financial and psychological factors also come into play. Therefore, discussing education without including the significance of these factors is incomplete. In the American context, ethnicity and economic factors tend to play the biggest role in education. The American history of racism and slavery, to the disadvantage of the black community, occupies a fundamental place in all discussions pertaining to education. Conventionally, black people in America have been perceived as victims of discrimination who are not positioned to enjoy the same opportunities in life same as the whites owing to their history.

Prior to the American Civil War, most southern states prohibited any form of advanced education for slaves majority of them blacks (Bell 2001 Isom 2007). Nonetheless, this history alone is not to blame for dismal performance by blacks in school academically. An article by Arthur Ashe in the New York Times as cited in Bell (2001) absolves slavery from absolute blame for causing poor academic performance of black children in school and career wise and directs some blame to less commitment to the virtues and value of education by African Americans. Attaching value and importance to education is a task that solely lies with parents and the community in general (Bell 2001). Black parents have in the recent past recognized the value of education and are doing away with some social and cultural beliefs that limit education of their children. The author adds that the education system and the government should not strive to establish schools such as catholic based and protestant based as parents are not giving much attention to that but to the core function of a school formal education. In this respect therefore, the community plays the largest part in making education valuable in the eyes of young children.

Education is perceived as one of the best ways of achieving equality among races and communities. Governments, non-governmental organizations, churches and community groups have been involved in efforts that advance provision of education among poor black children. But the manner through which education is being delivered is oftentimes dependent on factors such as familial routines or backgrounds, family income, and most especially, ethnicity. The community is the best placed in facilitating some of these problematic elements that limit education of the black children.

Nevertheless, the community cannot achieve much alone as it needs the help of other stakeholders. Anyon and Fernandez (2007) state that educational institutions are best placed in supporting the community to promote education. Unfortunately, not many educational institutions are located in poor black neighborhoods where the problem is most prevalent (Rowe n.d).

 La Veist and McDonald (2002) take a different stand and allege that ethnicity is not the core issue in explaining poor education standards among black communities. The authors cite Wilson (1987) who perceives poor education standards as a symptom of a myriad of problems that affect the black people, more so, those living in the inner city neighborhoods. He argues that it is the compounding of multiple disadvantages in these urban communities, not race per se, that produces a unique form of dislocation from mainstream social institutions (La Veist and McDonald, p 832) education being chief among them. In this respect therefore, to improve education of black children, it would be more effective to adapt a broad based program that addresses problems that afflict black people. La Veist and McDonald (2002) note that analysts have in the last thirty years attributed the dismal education standards among the black people to poverty. However, a comparison study that they conducted on African American and white individuals born in the late 1950s and early 1960s in the same hospital, hence an assumed similar economic class confirms that have a central role in determining education standards among the black Americas. The authors reported that We find that black men and women are substantially more likely than their white counterparts to graduate from high school, and that black women are more likely than white men, black men, and white women to graduate from high school and college La Veist and McDonald (2002 p. 833).

The educational accomplishment of African Americans grew substantially during the 1960s and 1970s something attributable civil rights movement. Several civilian rights laws and Supreme Court decisions replaced earlier ones that limited education of the black people (Farley, 1977, 1997 Katz, 1995 Lewin-Epstein, 1986 NCES, 1995).  Carswell et al (2009) seconded the earlier propositions of other scholars that although alternative apprenticeship programs abide to abound in scope and admeasurements throughout the United States, with approximately 20,000 such programs currently in place (Barr  Parrett, 2001), limited empirical analysis is accessible apropos the achievability of these programs or the types of acceptance to the people they are directed at (Aron, 2006 Barr  Parrett, 2001 Foley  Pang, 2006 Hosley, 2003 Powell, 2003 Zweig, 2003).

Barr and Parrett (2001), view that the perception of favors and pity by black children in schools extended to them by a number of programs have a negative impact, contrary to what they are intended to achieve. They say that children feel disadvantaged and inadequate to compete on the same level as mainstream students. This they assume contributes immensely to a low self esteem and confidence in life that leads to poor career choices thereby making the problem of poverty cyclical in such communities. Milner (n.d) confirms these findings and says that male black students are over represented in special education classes and under represented in the gifted programs. This however, does not imply that black males cannot perform equally well like their white counterparts. In an empirical study on a number of Midwestern public schools during the 19941995 academic year by Skiba et al as cited in Milner (n.d.), they noted a differential pattern of treatment, originating at the classroom level, wherein African American students are referred to the office for infractions that are more subjective in interpretation (p. 317). This suggests that black children are victims of social stereotyping to which they are not adequately equipped to challenge.

Repeated stereotyping has created a black male image that is not real and does little to promote education among young black males. Isom (2007) investigated this issue and discovered that adolescents experiences in poverty, crime and violence among other vices positioned them to expect nothing out of themselves beyond what was ordinary and expected. He borrows heavily from psychologists to bring out gender and race as a social constructs that have dealt young black men and societies a big blow. Takaki (2004) as cited in Isom (p. 409) says those initial impressions of Africans as savage, over-sexed heathens have yet to be shaken in the centuries that have followed and such notions have subconsciously spread to the later generations to their disadvantage. They have to define themselves in the terms of others rather than their own terms.

Farrel et al (2007) explain the issue of indiscipline among adolescent blacks by saying that as they grow up, they experience a number of stressors that dispose them to the risk of poor adjustment to different situations. They say that exposure to crime, violence, drugs, family disruptions, neglect and poverty affect youth and child development negatively. In communities where adult violence and crime artes are high, so are the youth and adolescent crime rates. A survey by Kids Count (2004) in Richmond as cited in Farrel (2007) on youths and adolescents in that city showed that the youth under 18 years committed crime four times higher than the citys average at 39 per 10000 persons. Therefore, with such high crime rates, higher than even for adults, it implies that the community in that city has failed in bringing up well mannered and disciplined children.

In an essay constructed by Richard Milner (n.d.), he relayed observation on the American black child and said that

As a faculty member in a teaching and learning department, and as an educational researcher, I often find myself amazed and a bit disappointed by the enormous list of excuses available for why Black male students are not succeeding in school. Black male students can and are succeeding in all types of schoolsurban includedand the time has come for those of us in education to stop making excuses and to teach and empower Black males to reach their full capacity in urban schools across the nation (p. 240).

And by his vision to contribute largely in the growth of education for marginalized black children, he created a promising five principles that educational institutions can adapt and that is to envision activity above their present situations, appear to apperceive themselves in relation to others, allege achievability and not destruction, affliction and authenticate that care, and change their cerebration to change their actions.

Family and association captivation in apprenticeship is affiliated acerb to improvements in the bookish accomplishment of students, better academy attendance, and bigger academy programs and quality. Family and association captivation additionally is associated with bigger apprentice behavior and academy discipline (Michael et al, 2007 p. 568).  Families, irrespective of cultural background, education, and income level, can positively influence their childrens learning and behavior.  There is an addiction for lower socio-economic status families to be blind of their rights and roles in the academy for a cardinal of reasons.  Oftentimes, lower assets parents are reluctant to get complex in their childs education because they may not see themselves as allotment of their childrens educational process.

Rowe (n.d) generalizes that the black community has a weak family bond that gives rise to a loosely constructed community. However, he also notes that where the family bond exists, it is very strong and extends to the extended family. Statistics from Census Bureau on the other hand shows that black children are facing a problem in disrespecting the family bond in that many are born out of the marriage institution. Sixty nine percent of African American births are to unmarried women while 55 percent of African American children live with single parents (US Census Bureau, 2003 cited in Rowe n.d.). Such families are often afflicted by problems such as stigmatization and financial problems which breed instability. The frequency of marriage has been decreasing among the black community and so has academic performance. As aforementioned by La Veist and McDonald (2002) that blacks were performing better in school in the 60s and 70s, the family institutions were stronger back then. It can therefore be deduced that the family institution had a role to play in imparting the value and virtues of black children in school. Furthermore, it is important to note that this period of good academic performance by blacks, in fact better than whites, was immediate after abolition of the Jim Crow rules. The family unit might have been critical in extending the excitement of the end of segregation by encouraging children to take advantage of more quality schools available to them.

The community therefore has a role to play in ensuring that there are stronger family units that will be there to support black childrens quest for education. Rowe (n.d.) argues that stability in the family extends to a childs perception of life and self esteem. He writes that children with low self esteem have shown poor participation in class discussions which predisposes them to poor performance. The author cites a popular African proverb that when you follow in the footsteps of your father, you learn to walk like him (Rowe n.d. p.19). This proverb directly links the failure of parents in guiding their children through life which also entails school. By ensuring that there are stable family units in the community, then there is subconscious promotion of education and life values for young black children. Hanson et al (2009) also notes the role of the family in ensuring discipline and attaching value and virtues to education by encouraging black adolescent learners to attend two hour bi-monthly family gatherings at their respective schools.

Family and community violence also affect academic performance by children and the youth. Viosin (2007) summarizes a number of authors findings and says that exposure to family and community violence is often associated with negative psychological outcomes (e.g., higher levels of depression and anxiety or low self-efficacy) increased school and academic problems, juvenile justice troubles, heightened drug use and greater HIV related risk behaviors (e.g., engaging in sex without condoms, sex with multiple partners, and using drugs during sex) (p 52),

Therefore, the family institution as the founding block for a community plays an integral role not only in promoting education but also averting other bad habits among the youth. Habits such as drug taking have to a large extent been associated with poor academic performance by blacks in schools. Viosin (2007) notes that many adults psychological problems commence in childhood and extend into adulthood if not detected and handled appropriately early. As such, childrens exposure to violence compounds other community problems that all combine to hinder black education
Partnerships between schools, families, and communities can encourage sharing and help maximize use of resources and expertise that will encourage the healthy development of students, their families, and their community.  Family and association captivation contributes to the success of academy bloom programs beyond the country. Although ancestors and association captivation is an important basic of a academy bloom program, it should be chip with and answer by the added componentshealth education, concrete apprenticeship and activity, bloom services, brainy bloom and amusing services, diet services, advantageous and safe academy environment, and adroitness and agents bloom promotion (Anyon  Fernandez, 2007).

Maternal education according to a number of psychologists determine a childs perception of education and life in general (Suizzo  Stapleton 2007). The same authors add that parental captivation is conceptualized as the agency by which parents abutment their childrens apprenticeship and development, and it has been apparent to affect absolutely childrens bookish accomplishment and academy acclimation (Fehrmann, Keith,  Reimers, 1987 Hill et al., 2004).  Parents abutment and facilitate their childrens apprenticeship at home through several means agreeable them in learning-stimulating activities, discussing academy and ancestors issues, and carrying educational expectations.  Thus, family accomplishments is a afterlife of co-mutual factors including ancestors size, ancestors structure, indigenous origin, and socioeconomic status, anniversary of which may abnormally access home-based affectionate captivation processes (Carlson  Corcoran, 2001 Ladd, Birch,  Buhs, 1999 Marjoribanks, 1999).

As a result of poor family background, lack of proper life skills, many black children do not graduate from college and perform poorly even in elementary school. Stereotyping and low self esteem and low confidence levels resulting form a number of issues discourage black students from continuing with education making them drop out of school. Stereotyping, as reported by Skiba et al (2002) single handedly makes black students to be perceived a trouble makers in school.  Minor discipline issues are taken more heavily if they involve black students. This in the long run may contribute to higher chances of black students, especially male to be expelled from school.

In realization of this, the government has enacted alternative education programs (EAP) to cater for students expelled fro school and those who have discipline problems (Hanlon et al 2009). If left unchecked, such students expelled from schools lose hope in life ad are likely to engage in violence, crime and drugs (Grunbaum et al 2002 cited in Hanlon et al 2009). Western  Pettit, (2000) as cited in Hanlon et al 2009) say that black students expelled from school are incarcerated in their lifetime. The community is therefore charged with the responsibility to put this incarceration to an end. School drop out should not be criminalized but should be encouraged to seek alternative ways through which they can achieve their dreams and live responsibly. The EAP is a viable means of providing education and a socialization platform for the youth who have incapacitating characteristics, are impecunious, andor are viewed as a threat to the social, emotional, andor behavioral stability in the traditional school system.

Haberman (2007) takes a controversial stand and argues that poor learning in school by blacks will remain for a long time to come as politicians gain from the phenomenon. He argues that the problem creates an opportunity for political forces to claim their actions by promising to improve education colored children of which most are in public district schools which perform dismally in general. The size alone of these schools implies that there are inadequate teacher student ratios unlike in private schools where small ratios ensure that students receive enough attention and assistance from their teachers. Apart from politicians, Haberman (2007) identifies the following as possible beneficiaries of a failing public school system

Employees of central offices, Students outside of the urban school districts competing for college admission and preparing for work, Parents outside of urban school districts, Those serving special needs students, Parents of special needs students, Parents and community co-opted with jobs, Lawyers suing urban districts, lawyers defending districts, and outside consultants, Vendors of supplies, equipment, and food contractors and builders, Transportation systems and employees, Higher education certifying institutions, Organizations that contract to operate charter and voucher schools, Federal, state, and locally elected officials and school board members, Superintendents, media, professional organizations, Unions of teachers and other school employees, The helping professions and those who train them, The test manufacturers, Employees of the U.S. Office of Education, Universities and other agencies receiving grant funds and the criminal justice systems (Haberman, p. 180-183).

To Haberman (2007) therefore, the section of the community as listed above actively promotes poor academic infrastructure poor learning environments for black children for their own selfish gains. For instance he says that lawyers enjoy opportunities of suing urban school districts which they perceive to be monies and potential cash cows.

Haberman (2007) defends his pessimism towards the system and say that campaigns and programs to promote the education of the black child have been in pace for over 25 years and little has been achieved. The community has also failed in stemming family violence and ensuring that the marriage and family institution are respected and maintained to facilitate stability in developing children (Suizzo  Stapleton 2007 Viosin (2007). Suizzo  Stapleton (2007) notes that family members and community heads should receive training on role modeling so as to impart the same values to black youths. It is assumed that the issue of black violence and crime remains high because the adult population does not take part actively in shaping the developing kids due to high cases of family interruptions and negligence.

While a section of the larger community celebrates and promotes poor academic by black children, the family unit should fill the void and demand and campaign for better educational facilities in public school districts which where majority of black kids attend school. Unfortunately after 25 years of such efforts, there arises a question on the efficiency of the policies being used to address the problem (Carswell et al 2009). The government is central in addressing the issue. There is need for more research to evaluate the efficiency of programs such as the AEP. Majority of research has given weight to finding out the causal factors on poor performance of black students in schools rather than evaluating the existing programs to promote black children education (La Veist and McDonald 2002). Further research need to be extended in this direction to mitigate the efforts of those who actively promoted poor education fro black children.

The role of the community in ensuring adequate black children education has been extensively researched and discussed. The family unit as a basic unit of a community has the greatest role to play in improving the education of black kids. In one way, the community needs to encourage family values and the marriage institution to create stability in children life and afford them assurance and hope in life at an early age. Although educational institutions have played a great role in promoting education through interaction with their surrounding communities, they have not exhausted their potential. Universities and colleges can promote black children education by one promoting education itself through various programs and also serving as an inspiration to young kids.

Sociology is the science that deals with the interacting individuals. Out of this interaction, evolves the feeling of co-operation and conflict, eventually giving birth to the institutions of the society. The institution is basic component, integrated with other institutions constitutes the social structure and fabric of any society. Newspaper is one of the major institutions that hold importance out of its influence on the every genre of the society. Newspaper is the representation of the cultural, political, religious, and economic and so on and so forth activities and festivities. It is the directory of the events occurring round the clock in surroundings out of interacting individuals.

The article here under reviews portrays the situation of conflict among union and the employees of an ambulance service. The nerve taking conflict was resolved, when another institution, i.e. judiciary gave its verdict. Thus the decision ends the escalating tension enrolling the quarters of the government into it as well. Among the major stakeholders, one were the patients, as the delay in the medical treatment can be turn into catastrophe or it may put a full stop to the chord of their life.
Speaking strictly sociologically, this conflict is among the different institutions of the society, the union and the drivers. Judiciary, played its role effectively, putting an end to the conflict, it ensured the smooth functioning of the institutions in specific and society in general. As the suspension in the ambulance service, an institution had effects on the government, which means the political scene of the entire country, eventually, triggering criticism from the opposition quarters and tensions among other employees of the health department.  Above all the trickle down effects of this situation on the stocks markets of the country and the common citizen. The nitty-gritty of this article elaborates that single event can have impacts on the mass level. The social fabric of the society is inter-related, inter connected and interdependent.

Sociology caters this idea under the school of structure-functionalism. The proponents of this school, Bronsilaw Malinowski and Radcliff Brown, argue that the fabric of the society is composed of institutions that are the outcome of the needs of the individuals such as psychological. As every institution has a function to perform. For example the function of the news paper is to disseminate information and provide entertainment to the reader. The function of the ambulance is to take patients to hospital in emergency or broadly speaking saving the lives. These institutions combine to form the social structure of the society. Dysfunctioning in any institution can disrupt the whole system. As all these institutions are interrelated into a complex whole like different organs interconnected to make a single human body. Headache can lead the entire body into useless position. The article under review illustrates this situation of structural functional paradigm, elaborating the inter-relationship and functioning of different institutions.

The article elucidates the situation of conflict as well. Sociologically analyzing the conflict is the outcome of competition and class struggle. Here the competition among two different classes, as the union and the drivers. The competition for authority over the duty hours led them to the situation of the conflict. Ultimately dismantling the social scene of peace and turning the society in the state of havoc. This idea of conflict out of competition and class struggle is furnished among conflict school. Thus it can be concluded that the different schools sociology elaborate the social situation differently and the social life has complex inter dependent different dimensions.

Sharia law is an Islamic law that legalizes women inheritance, divorce and marriage procedures.  In some European countries, the law is termed as controversial law due to human rights law of the supreme courts. The main criticism is that since the sharia law courts operate under closed doors, the laws are likely to intimidate women.   Some of the rulings include clauses like Muslim women are not allowed to marry non-Muslim men not unless that man decides to convert to Islam and if any woman marries a non Muslim, their children should be separated from the woman until she is married to a Muslim (Peirce, 23). It is also legal that polygamy should be practiced and that the woman should always be ready for the husband. That is, it is mandatory for the woman to offer sex whenever the husband demands it regardless of whether she is willing or not.  It is also legally accepted that a male child is a fathers child from the age of seven years no matter whatever the circumstance the mother faces.

These laws are rather a restriction to freedom of expression movement and in human because they restrict the woman to become a subject to the man instead of the equality of human rights.  It is disputable that one should have sex unwillingly, just because the other person demands it.  It is also imperatively wrong and unethical for a mother who is living in a divorced family to leave her sons to the husbands custody when the sons are either not willing to stay with the father or when the mother is not willing to leave them to their father (Dwyer, 15). More so, if the Muslim law allows a man to marry many women and not the vice versa, and that the man may marry non Muslims, then the women should be allowed to marry whoever they want.  Marriage is an institution between the two and the agreement is bound to be long-lasting no matter the religion from which one marries (Bowen, 45).

The Great Britain high court ruling is worth of confrontation when it allows the Sharia law to be followed in Muslim dominated countries because the law subjects the woman to unfair treatment and judgments.  The law does not allow equality of sexes and this makes a woman to be a subject to man so they cannot make crucial decisions of their married lives (Vogel, 31).

However, the law is relevant to the Muslim communities because they apply to the Muslim religion and not other religions. If the women are allowed to choose the religion and they select the Muslim religion, then it may imply that they are comfortable with the law and are willing to have it used on to them.  The problem could be if they would like to defect from the religion and are not allowed to (Chun, 26).  But as the law is now, when you convert to Christianity, you may be prosecuted for attacking the Islam and a death penalty is passed on you.

In conclusion, the sharia law should not be allowed because it denies democracy to the believers.   The international law on human right is compromised in the case where this law takes root and prosecutes a person who converts from Islam to other religion yet the conversion to the Islam is justified according to the sharia law.  There should be freedom of worship where there is free entry and exit in the Muslim religion like in Christianity.

Obesity in children and adults has become a major healthy concern among the Americans today. The problem is as a result of the high cases of obesity in the society and the healthy complications associated with it. Obesity especially in children has reached epidemic levels. How to deal with the epidemic is a big story in the American society today. There are various causes of obesity and risk factors that make some American children more vulnerable to the problem than others. Moreover, the politicians and other leaders have had heated debates on how the problem can be solved as the healthcare workers all over the country try to come up with ways of dealing with the increased cases of obesity and the health complications that are associated with it. There are many campaigns that are aimed at educating the public on adopting health lifestyles but the number of obese children has increased significantly. This leaves a lot of questions unanswered. There are many unanswered questions such as why the campaigns are not working, why the number of obese adults and children has continued to increase and what the true causes of obesity are (Boyle  Colleen, 2005).
Because the current mitigation measures have not changed the situation, it is important to change the focus in dealing with the problem. It is very possible that the wrong causes of obesity in children are being addressed and the campaigns may have targeted at the wrong audience. It is possible that the high increase in the number of obese children in the United States is as a result of the problem of poverty facing a big population in the country. By addressing the problem of poverty, the root causes of obesity in children may be addressed.

This paper addressed the relationship between poverty and obesity in children. There is a very high link between poverty and obesity in children where children who grow in poverty are more likely to be obese (Dietz, 1995).

Childhood Obesity and Poverty
According to a research carried out in 2007, about five percent of children in America were obese in the late 1980s. The same survey indicated that the number of overweight children had increased up to about fifteen percent within a period of less than two decades with about the same number of children likely to be obese. This trend was also observed in young children below the school age where about eight percent of them were obese. The survey indicated that children between six and eleven years were the most affected by the epidemic (Moore, 2007). It is indisputable that the number of obese children (and as a result young adults) has increased at an alarming rate in the last three decades. The increased number of children who are being obese despite the attempts by the healthcare systems to sensitize the public on the health implications of being overweight and the need to adopt healthy lifestyles requires more intervention. Desperate measures are required to reduce if not stop the increase in the number of obese children.

Different reasons have been proposed as to why children become obese. One of these causes of childhood obesity has been poverty. Although obesity in children affects all Americans across the board, the problem is more prevalent in poor families. It is observed that majority of families that are most affected by overweight children have similar characteristics that indicates that the families live in poverty. Most of the families have single parents (mostly the mother) who are in their early twenties. The head of the family and from whom the family members depend on will always have low level of education with no high school degree. These families have more than one dependant and are rated among the low income earners with majority of them being twice as low as the average poverty level in America. Most of these families meet the federal welfare qualification and either life in the low income suburbs or in low income government housing units (Kopelman, 2009).

In these families, all the members are faced with the problem of overweight where the prevalence is higher in women and children. The problem becomes worse as the number of children in the family increases. High number of children in the family indicates that the family budget will be stretched further which increases the poverty levels. Although there are many reasons why the level of education of the parents is linked to obesity in children, the most important is the link of educational level to the individuals income. Low education level is the basic factor that led to poverty as a direct consequence of low income. Therefore the income level is the most important factor that is contributing to the high increase in overweight children and adult in the United States and other similar societies all over the world (Roush, 2005).

The possibility of any individual in the United States is partly determined by the social economic status of the individual. In young children, the case is not very different. There is a misconception that has existed in the world society that a person becomes overweight because he or she has enough food to eat. The mistaken belief that an overweight individual is well fed is not true. Today, poverty has been rated the most significant cause of obesity in the United States population (Meyers, 2006).
The basic reason why there are more cases of obesity among the children and adult from poor families is due to the food insecurity associated with poverty. Food security implies that food which is nutritionally is available in unlimited supply. About 12 percent of the Americans today are faced with food insecurity most of whom are children from low income families. These families depend on adults who have low level of education most of whom are single parents. In most cases when families are faced with food insecurity, they try to reduce the cost of foodstuffs without necessarily reducing the quantity of food consumed. Foods that have high energy density have low water contents (Drewnowski  Specter, 2004). For this reason, high density foods which are rich in sugars and fats are cheaper, which is the option of these poor families faced with food insecurity. Those foods are cheaper due to their low water content making processing and storage easy. As poor families try to reduce the cost of foodstuffs, they settle for the cheap foods which have high energy density to maintain the quantity of their diets. Cutting food cost due to financial constrains results into a high energy density diet for the children in the family and leads to an overall increased energy intake (Rose  Bodor, 2006).

The diet in a low income family is their different from the diet from an average income family which increases the risk of children in these families being obese. An average income family will have a better choice of food such that over fifty percent of all calories in their diet are as a result of added sugars and fats. It is reported that foods that are reach in calories are linked to reduction of satiety. On the other hand, foods that have higher water content and are more expensive have lower energy density. These foods include fruits and vegetables which make an individual feel full faster leading to overall reduction of energy intake. This is as opposed to foods that have low water contents where a person consumes more calories to feel full. The high energy foods such as sugars and fats are more palatable especially among young children which in many cases are over consumed. These high calories foods taste better and therefore children like them and consume more. To the contrary, their parents cannot afford healthier foods which do not taste as good. Moreover, healthier foods are not easier and convenient to consume as the highly processed high calories foods which facilitate easier consumption. It is therefore easier and cheap to access and consume high energy density foods as compared to healthy foods (Roush, 2005).

There are many other ways in which low income among the poor Americans contribute to obesity in children and adult. However, it is clear that food is not as expensive in America as it is in other countries especially the less developed countries. It is possible for a low income earner to provide a healthy diet to his or her family and avoid the implications of obesity in young children. However, other necessities are relatively expensive in America which stretches the poor mans budget. The poor families therefore spend about half of their income on food. To meet the expenses of the families, the low income earners have to work for long hours. The case is even worse considering that most of these low income earners are single mothers who may not have humble time to prepare a healthy meal for their children. They end up giving their children junk foods or highly processed foods which take less time to prepare. This contributes to the high number of children who are obese among the poor society as compared to the average income earners who have time to prepare health meals for their children (Davies, 2007).

The relationship of the parent and the child which is as a result of poverty can contribute to the child being overweight. Most of unhealthy eating habits in children which lead to obesity are promoted by parents. These poor families have little money to spend in entertainment and therefore junk food is the only indulgence available for them. Poor parents feel guilty that they cannot afford to buy their children expensive presents which leaves them with the option of buying them junk foods from McDonald. This habit becomes addictive and the children may be unable to discard it as they grow leading to obesity. Because junk food is more palatable and popular as a result of advertisement in the media, it has turned to be the tobacco of the 21st century among the children and young adults. These junk foods have more calories compared to meals prepared at home. Moreover, the foods taste better and leave the child less full creating the tendency to consume more. There portions are high which makes it difficult for the parent to control the amount the child can consume. The likelihood of the a parent to cut his or her food quantity in case of food shortage to ensure that his or her children get their quantity is higher thus putting the children to a higher risk of being obese (Hofferth  Curtin, 2005).

The environment in which the child is brought up determines the likelihood of the child being overweight. The environment is however dictated by the income of the childs parents. The environment can be the home where the family lives or the neighborhood of the family. The child can grow up in a family where cheap and high energy density foods are very familiar. The family may have bad eating habits and are used to choosing unhealthy foods which is more likely to model the child. The child develop these unhealthy eating habits when young which leads to obesity. These habits are more common in low income environment where the unhealthy eating habits are associated with comfort. The neighborhood can also have a big contribution to obesity in children. Many fast food chains in the country target the low income neighborhood which makes them more appealing choices. This is because the outlets are located in the neighborhood and accessibility is easy. The result is children in low income neighborhoods consume more fast foods which have high calories as compared to those in the average income earners leading to obesity as compared to middle income neighborhood (DHHS, 2004).

Lack of exercise especially in children has been rated as one of the major contributors of the increased obesity in the world populations. The neighborhood in which the child is brought up determines whether the child will have time and space to play. In the poor neighborhood, the children are brought up in clouded and crime ridden environment which makes it very dangerous for children to go out to play. The children are getting bored due to lack of play and always lead to overweight due to lack of exercise and the likelihood of eating more to avert boredom (Montague, 2003). Children in these poor families have television as the only form of entertainment which is a very sedentary activity. By watching television, the child is also exposed to junk foods in the advertisements which have an impact on the choices of food the child is likely to make (Roush, 2005).

Conclusion
By carefully analyzing the trend of increased number of overweight children in America, it is clear that poverty is the root cause of the epidemic. The increased food insecurity as a result of poverty in low income families results into consumption of high energy density foods in the families. These poor parents do not have time to prepare healthy foods for their children and in many ways promotes bad eating habits among their children. The environment in which the children are brought up in the poor neighborhood either promotes unhealthy eating habits or do not provide room for the children to exercise. These factors have resulted into high number of overweight children from poor families.  

It is truly a sad reality that despite of being one of the richest cities of the most powerful nation in the world, Los Angeles is still beset with the most disturbing problem of homelessness.  Here, the irony is emphatically evident, as the well-to-do sector that lives in posh high rise citadels co-exist side-by-side with those who find themselves in the inescapable grip of poverty deprived of the necessities that ought to be available for living a decent life, such as the security of a stable job, education, and a place one can proudly call his home.  Hence, during my experience of giving assistance to this particular community in whatever small amount that I am capable of, particularly in preparing healthy food for their nourishment, I have been blessed with knowing firsthand the harsh realities surrounding their everyday existence.

San Pedro Street in downtown LA is considered to be the ground zero of the debacle that is homelessness.  It is included in the infamous Skid Row area, where thousands of individuals, all homeless, are scattered throughout the 50-block vicinity.  The tragedy is such in a dire state that it is quite normal to see a person sleeping on concrete pavements with only plastered cardboards for beddings.  Looking at these people, it would certainly seem that they had their own reasons for being in this unfortunate situation.  It is indeed factual, based on my own interactions with them, that their reasons are of varying nature some of them opted to make the streets as their home to escape domestic violence, or divorce, or they have been forced out of their employments and are financially broke, some of the children here were born of this circumstance, and some are societal outcasts for being ex convicts or drug dependents.  Although all of the aforementioned cases are evident in this community, it is the staggering number of mentally-ill due to prolonged dependence on banned substances that most caught my attention and concern.

During my service to this community, where I participated in food distribution for the people of this neighborhood, my dealings with them were sources of immense inspiration and of social awakening.  In them and through them, I became aware of the real world that has long been existing outside of the comfort and security of my home.  By sharing their life experiences with me, I have learned of the fragility that economic security promises.  As such, it was for me very baffling to know that some of these people have once had a decent life of being a teacher, a constructions foremen, and even as collegiate athletic prospects.  Perhaps more important than my realization of being blessed with a good economic, filial, and academic background, it was in learning the value of striving against all odds that I will forever cherish as a treasured gift.

Sharing
With the opportunity given to me in being of assistance to one of the most wanting sectors of our society, I can confidently declare that it has transformed me into being socially aware on the realities of the world.  For one, it has opened my eyes on the true consequences of being addicted to illegal substances, as I have personally witnessed on some of the people, a frightening state of being semi-present or semi-alive on their very persona.  Another is the realization that this sector, irrelevant of their importance on the structural make-up of the American society, must be awarded of their intrinsic rights for some of the most basic of human needs, such as in food and in shelter.    

It is truly very fortunate that I have been given the chance to offer my assistance and be given the chance to brighten up, even for a short time, people who for so long have been living an existence that is below par.  All the fatigue in preparing for this event had certainly been rewarded by the smiles and words of gratitude expressed by the people of the said community.  More so, I can say that I have been successful in not being judgmental to their dilemma, and not arrive at a conclusion as to who should be at fault for this troubling scenario.  Perhaps it was wisest that I intentionally negated the natural inclination to put blame on anybody, as this allowed me to truly enjoy the service I had rendered to the people who are in great need not of judgment but of understanding.  As a result, I now possess a lifes goal of giving back to the society whatever academic attainment I may incur to be able to reach my optimal professional competence not only for personal betterment but for the society as well.

Psychopharmacological Factor
Based on the community service that I had participated in, I find Pharmacology Principle number 2 suited for the cause.  The said principle states simply, Successful treatment is based on emphatic, hopeful, integrated and continuing relationships (Minkoff, 2005, p. 2).  The correlation is evident, particularly in attempting to find a lasting and permanent solution to this dilemma.

Firstly, the community service has successfully explained that certain human psychologicalsocietal problems will never be solved in a single, deliberate step.  For the treatment to succeed, it has to consist of several planned procedures each contributing to the final realization of a solution.  Similar to the societal problem of homelessness, the answer will not be resembling an exact science, where a single pill holds the promise of eternal homeostasis.  Rather, continuous beneficial, positive, and pro-active relationships between the homeless sector and several concerned groups will eventually be capable of eradicating the problem.

Thus, practitioners of Pharmacology should never underestimate the importance of building long and lasting relationships, especially if the subject is suffering from mental illness, be it psychiatric or substance abuse-caused.  Only by developing continuing relationships can caregivers of this type achieve the desired outcome on the treatment of their patients.                          

Behind the possession and consumption of food lies the morals, attitudes, pleasures, and anxieties which have been shaped and developed by different cultural settings. John Coveney  says that the  science of food and eating serves as the basis for many of the judgments we make about ourselves and others as eaters (p.1). It is implied that the moral decisions we make for ourselves, whether they are good or bad, are directly related to the technical and rational wisdom  of science that has taken on a role that was once the province of religion.

Also, science articulates the basis of peoples moral concerns. From food choices to the art of food consumption, it is implied that there are various schools of thoughts which govern and explain the variation of cultures and attitudes toward food. In this paper, four distinct standpoints on the meanings and symbolism of  food are explored. The prisms discussed in this paper aim to shed wisdom on the representations of food and to render knowledge on the perpetual  views of scholars concerning food meanings and symbols.

1. The Culture Behind Hunger
Jane Fitchen says,  hunger is embedded in the larger context of eating, and so to understand hunger, we need to understand eating  (p.389). As eating can be a culturally shaped act and can be influenced by various attitudes, hunger can also be defined by cultural concepts and surrounded with social meanings.

The cultural aspect of hunger is best explained using the crisis in the United States. It is noted that the hunger situation in the country is not the outcome of the insufficient food supply for the total population (Fitchen 385). Fitchen argues that the complexity of the hunger situation in the country is a  matter of some people regularly having inadequate access to sufficient food  (p. 385). Based from several studies, it can be said that the hunger situation in the United States is all about the variation in culture and upbringing of its people. The differences in cultures and beliefs have led to the various attitudes on eating.
 
According to Fitchen, the people who seem poor enough to qualify for government-issued food stamps may be seen in food stores buying not only the basic cheap staples but also the expensive and popular items such as pizza, potato chips, soda pop,steak meals, and prepared desserts (p.387). Fitchen explicates that the  low-income people maybe seeking to satisfy subjective as well as metabolic aspects of eating, perhaps attempting to convert their perceived hunger into a sense of well-being or to affirm that they can live like other Americans  (p.387).

The sociological and cultural ideologies behind hunger suggest that food is an influential indicator of social status and gives people the right to maintain the wealthy stigma that has long been imposed to the to Americans.  Although domestic hunger in the United States has been overlooked by people who believes in the stigma that Americans can have whatever they want in life, hunger and malnutrition are lurking in nation as seen through the eyes of the Americans who do not have the access to the countrys supply of food.

Fitchen explains that even with the food crisis, there are people who may  inadvertently be transforming their hunger into malnutrition and also hiding their hunger  from public awareness  (p.387). In this realization, it can be said that food and eating are grounded in feelings about self, interpersonal relationships, dreams and goals, and these factors are shaped by the dominant culture (Fitchen 394). The dominant culture in the American setting are all about luxury and abundance and poor people are wanting to have them through the purchase of  food meant for rich people in accordance with the established cultural order. The cultural aspect of hunger depicts the hidden desires of the poor to level with the wealthy people and to disturb the widely accepted social concepts such as steak is for rich people while cheese is for the poor.

2. Food as an Ideological State Apparatus
In 1971, Louis Althusser defined that the Ideological State Apparatus is the  conceptualization of power as a force which operates in ways that are subtle, disguised, and accepted as everyday social practice  (Allison 297). According to Anne Allison, the scholarship of Althusser reveals that the obento lunch box can be a dominant ideological apparatus because it is a representation of the domestic role of women and their service to their families.  The obentos or boxed lunches are Japanese meals made by Japanese mothers who were governed by the obento-making principles which include freshness, beauty, nutrition and artistry.

The obentos were made by mothers for their children who would have to consume the obento at school. According to Allison,  the obento as a routine, task, and art form of nursery school culture is endowed with ideological and gendered meanings that the state indirectly manipulates  (p. 297). Allisons thesis means that the Japanese lunch boxes are a part of  how the Japanese government  conditions, molds, and shapes both the mother and the child to obey and follow state power.

The obentos are not just meals, they are elaborate meals crafted systematically by mothers and are carried by their children to school and by adults to work. In this sense, it can be said that the obentos are a visible proof of how the Japanese government manipulates the society according to gender and societal order. The ideological appropriation behind the obento is that there should be an order to the food  a right way of doing things, with everything in its place and each food coordinated with every other and, the one who prepares the food takes on the responsibility of producing food to the standards of perfection and exactness that Japanese cuisine demands (Allison 300). The obento creates a picture of mothers as producers of meals for the family and also establishes the fact that the food is an apparatus utilized by the country to manipulate the society to be able to maintain social order, gender roles, and the nations culture.

3. Food as Part of a Mass Culture
It is an accepted fact that the doughnut is perceived to be the unofficial national food of Canada (Penfold 165). It is believed that doughnuts represent the history, struggle and desire of the nation as it tries to establish itself in the map through the utilization of mass culture. In this information, it can be argued that food can become one of the catalysts in forming a nations distinctive identity because it unifies its people towards a common goal, common taste, common preferences and common ideologies.

Nutritionists claim that the insatiable craving of Canadians for the doughnut is connected to their need for fatty foods to fight off the Canadian cold (Penfold 167). The cold winter is one of the factors that shape Canadas identity because it is in this season that the nation is able to flourish its capabilities. With this information, doughnuts can represent the identity of a certain individual or nation because it symbolizes trends and cultures. The passion of the Canadian society over doughnuts can be attributed to that  sensible, hard-working bunch who are not easily taken in by the latest food fashions  (Penfold 171).

As doughnuts are meant to signify a common belief, it creates an impact and an effect to the society who has been wanting a visible presentation of that belief amid the rising trends in mass culture. Doughnut populism means that food is a part of the mass culture in which all of its devotees are the ones who shape the nation. Food unifies the nation creating a sole image that consumes the totality of its people, geography, society and culture.

4. Food and its Relationship to Gender
According to Jessamyn Neuhaus, meatloaf has long been characterized by cookbook authors and editors as  a meal a woman could easily prepare for her loved ones a simple main dish best suited for the family dinner table  (p. 87). In this notion, food can signify gender roles and responsibilities.

In the given quote, it can be said that cooking is one of the roles of women as they are the ones serving their loved ones such as their husbands. Another idea instigated by the concept of meatloaf is that women  bore the total responsibility for the familys daily meals and meatloaf, believed to be simple family fare, seemed to belong in womens recipe books and magazines  (Neuhaus 88). Meatloaf can represent the stigma to women as the ones who should maintain the budget of the family and its daily survival.

In the context of mens cooking, it can be said that meatloaf can serve as mens tools in which they can exercise their creativity in cooking. It has been encouraged that men cook because it is their hobby and not because they need to stretch the budget and feed their family. The gendering of cookery, as symbolized by the concept of meatfloaf, dulls the conception of feminism and upholds mens status in terms of art and skills. The gendering of cookery indicates how the society has limited the capabilities of women to domestic roles. It also suggests that men are meant for leisure and fun and not for serious roles.

Internet regulation
The internet has existed as an open network in the US working under the net neutrality principle for quite some time. Whether or not the internet needs regulation as it is the case with the other types of media is an issue that is subject to debate since there are both merits and demerits involved.

Currently, there are several laws operating in the country for curbing issues related to child pornography over the internet as well as several other activities that are illegal. However, there are various organizations and individuals who feel that there is need for a complete regulation for the internet. But despite the fact that an absolutely transparent internet has a few demerits, there is much more value in ensuring that the internet is unregulated as much as possible since it is only through such a move that the internet will be more valuable (Hammer, 2005).

A complete internet takeover by either the government or the giants of telecommunication can most likely lead to mass net neutrality violation and will also have the effect of dampening the internets effectiveness. Stringent internet regulation will act against the principle of net neutrality and will permit various websites to restrict their contents to the paid clients. In essence, internet regulation will have the propensity of curbing the expression freedom, which probably is one of the factors that are most conspicuous and instrumental in this mediums popularity and success. For several years, the internet has operated as an information source that is open. Any severe regulation on the internet will imply that there will be restricted access to this source of information that is very extensive (Smith  Boardman, 2007).

A strictly regulated internet in the United States has less value as compared to a free and transparent one. Regulating the internet would have the impact of killing innovation and competition that is crucial in the achievement of more and more, advancements in the internet technology. Most of the great innovations that we celebrate in todays internet started as small and minor tests and experiments but over time, their developers realized that they could be used in achieving certain goals. Should there have been stringent regulation at the initial stages of such innovations, perhaps their developers could have given up and now the country could not be enjoying the numerous benefits that arise from these developments in the internet. At the same time, the well established and wealthy internet providers can take advantage of the regulation rules and procedures to eliminate the much smaller players from the industry. If such practices take place as a result of regulations, eventually competition would also be killed and the internet users in the country would access internet services of a lower quality. It would be more worse if the other nations competing with the United States in terms of internet fail to regulate internet in their countries and thus they will have much more superior internet than that of the United States in the long run since the internet providers will constantly be facing a lot of competition which will make them more innovative and competitive (Hammer, 2005).

Role of time in the cyber world
Civilizing the cyber world is a very important process as it will eventually cover all aspects that are non-technical such as free speech and democracy, universal service, online ethics, encryption and privacy, creating communities, citizen action and intellectual property. However, the cyber world cannot be civilized and expected to achieve all these within one day, some time is required especially due to the fact that cyber world is very dynamic and it changes rather fast. While civilizing the cyber world, a lot of time is needed in achieving a service that is largely universal, which avoids as much as possible creating information differences for the haves and the have nots. It should not be seen to perpetrate discrimination or any other vice among the worlds societies. It is necessary for the cyber world development be given time in order to ensure that it does not develop in a manner that does not protect privacy of individuals and organizations, or avert erosion of civil liberties and free speech (Fischer  Mullins, 2006).

As it is currently evident, the cyber world has in the recent history been very instrumental in creating a telecommunication which has played a great role in strengthening communities and democracy. However, the cyber world has consumed substantial amount of time in order for it to attain these great achievements instead of it just acting as a simple instrument of media manipulation in a new way. It is therefore evident that more time is required for this particular world to be civilized especially because this process is largely continuous and it is greatly affected by the developments taking place in it. Furthermore, civilization of the cyber world will require more time in order for it to be able to protect adequately the standards of living of people particularly in todays multinational economy (Kokswijk, 2007).

Laws have always been enacted by various societies around the world to govern people according to the prevailing circumstances. In the past, there were basically no laws at all which to regulate the cyber world since it did not exist. But over time, it was apparent that laws were required to regulate this world since it became evident that individuals and organizations were deviating from the norm through the use of the internet. As the cyber world continued to change due to its high dynamism, the initial laws had to be amended to cater for the new and emerging dimensions of this world. Time is therefore a very crucial resource in the development of laws to govern this particular world since it is not possible to enact fixed laws for governing and regulating certain dimensions that are currently not known (Fischer  Mullins, 2006).

Copyright infringement
It is not only possible but it also easy for one to infringe the intellectual property rights while performing some analysis on a program that belongs to a competitor. In fact, it is highly risky for a program to be analyzed by ones competitor. The party with the responsibility of analyzing such a program may illegally copy certain aspects of the program with the intention of using them to develop another program. This would amount to infringing the copyrights of the original owner since, there is no consent between the parties allowing the analyzer to copy either all or part of the programs content with the objective of using them later as their own. Despite the fact that it is unethical for the individual or corporation analyzing the program to infringe the copyrights of the owner, there are several factors that would lure such an individual or organization to infringe the rights of the owner (Ross, 2000).

One of the major factors that can lure the party analyzing the program is to use it to harm the original owner since they are both competitors in the same industry. The victim in this case would eventually suffer great losses and loss in terms of competitiveness to other competitors since some of its confidential information is in the wrong hands. It is possible for the party analyzing the program to use the same program or make some slight changes on it to damage the reputation of the copyright owner. The most common factor that would lure a party into infringing the copyrights of the competitor is financial gain. The party is likely to develop another program using the stolen details of the original program to develop another program, which closely resembles the original program. Since the latter program will not have employed a lot of resources in developing the program, it is most likely that the program will be sold at a much lower price than the original one. Because both programs would be capable of performing similar functions, the cheaper one would be sold more than the original one making the copyright owner to lose substantially (Quinto, 2001).

Future and ethics
As more technological advancements are achieved, more complications are experienced in the world ethics. Technology has offered individuals and organizations an extensive platform on which to compromise on ethics. Technology has made unethical behaviors to be carried out with a lot of ease. Since the technology is developing very fast, there will be even more unethical practices that will be conducted in future. Internet ethics is further complicated by the fact that it is possible to perpetrate an unethical act on someone without actually meeting them physically. The internet technology makes it possible for millions of internet users around the world to access intellectual properties of other people which are copyrighted. It is also easy to download some of these properties and use them as your own thus making their owners to lose substantially despite having employed a lot of resources and time in order to come up with such works (Cavalier, 2005 Zittrain, 2009).

Internet filter
Internet filter is the control measure on the internet that is mostly used in controlling the contents that are found in the internet. The internet filter ensures that any software that needs to be installed is actually installed by the use of a web browser. In so doing, the internet filter makes sure that only the software that meets all the required standards are installed and available on the internet. The software has to authenticated and verified by the internet filter thereby implying that it is the only the original owners of such pieces of work with the right of installing them. Furthermore, the internet filter denies unauthorized individuals a chance of downloading the entire software and using them as their own (Deibert, 2008).

Moreover, the internet filter has facilities that deny unqualified individuals the right to access various websites through the internet which contains offensive of unsuitable materials. This particular measure ensures that the right people are able to access the right information over the internet at the right time. The facility is therefore a very important tool in promoting internet ethics as it reduces chances of people accessing and using certain pieces of information to infringe the rights of others (Eyerdam, 2003).

Rupert Murdoch is an Australian-born media mogul who has continuously topped the 100 most influential people list for over three years beating an assortment of politicians, entrepreneurs, sports stars and media personalities from all over Australia (Butler). Murdoch made a fortune developing media ventures into leaders in the sector. He is a leading shareholder and the Managing Director of News Corporation which is one of the most influential and largest media corporations in the entire world (Butler). His interests also include some of the most influential media houses and publications in his country of birth Australia, his adopted country the United States of America and the United Kingdom.

Murdoch inherited his love for the media from his father Sir Keith Murdoch who rose through the ranks to become the most influential print media executive in his time. He was the director of the Herald newspaper and the Weekly Times, both based in Melbourne, Australia (Butler). Rupert, born in the year 1931 in Melbourne was mainly brought up in the United Kingdom even acquiring university education there at Oxford University. He only returned to Melbourne after his fathers death in 1952 to take over his interests. He aggressively established himself and quickly became a force to reckon with in the Australian media, leading the newspapers his father had left to greater heights and acquiring new ventures along the way.

Rupert Murdoch managed to become even more famous after he moved to Britain in the 1960s where he acquired the most affluent media houses there. As one of the most prominent investors in mainstream media, Murdoch was always in the news and he was an inspiration because of his successes in the media sector, as well quite influential in politics (Center for American progress). Being a hard worker, he became the role model of so many people and aspiring entrepreneurs and his affluence grew the more. By the mid 1970s, Rupert Murdoch had acquired most of the leading newspapers in Australia including the famous Sydney Daily Telegraph, effectively establishing himself firmly among the leading three newspaper investors in the whole of Australia.

The single achievement that has pushed Murdoch up the heights of influence is his determination and resoluteness that has seen him transform the News Corporation into a giant media company one of the most influential newsgroups in the entire globe from humble beginnings in the form of a newspaper in Melbourne, Australia (Tuccille, 121). Always jovial and a lover of good things and power, Rupert Murdoch is a friend to most influential sports stars and entertainment celebrities, endearing him even more to people. When Nicole Kidman wedded Keith Urban in one of the most star-studded wedding ceremonies to ever occur in Australia, Rupert Murdoch was seated in the highest table, clearly an indication of his influence and social affluence.

To further enhance his media portfolio and exert his influence in the entertainment industry, Murdoch is successfully replicating the success rates he has had so far in the television and newspaper business in digital multimedia. He transforms media houses into powerhouses when he acquired MySpace for a mere 580 million US Dollars in 2005, very few people could have imagined that 5 years down the line, the site would have over 117 million users throughout the entire world raking in up to almost 1 billion US dollars annually as revenue (Center for American Progress). MySpace has now signed deals with content copyright owners enabling it to become a web portal for all types of digital multimedia entertainment content airing the favorite television shows and other programming.

Rupert Murdoch is renown the world over as being among the people who have done much to significantly mould the media as we know it today- in fact, Murdochs effect and contribution on the media and entertainment industries is hard to measure. Since 1952, Murdoch has managed to create a mammoth of a media organization that seems to advance from strength to strength, acquiring significant shares in the market at home and in many other nations throughout the entire world (Butler). Through innovation, he has managed to do what other media investors have failed to do tap into the lucrative Middle and Far East markets. An example is his News Corporations acquisition of large market shares in the Chinese market where the other big players owned from the west had failed to make an impact (Center for American Progress).

With his personal worth estimated to be to the tune of an impressive 7 billion US dollars, Rupert Murdoch is definitely one of the most outstanding success stories of the new age (Butler). His sheer determination has won him a lot of accolades and public sympathy even when his personal life was in shambles. His first two marriages failed, and in 1998 after divorcing Anna Murdoch who previously worked for him, he met and fell in love with Wendi Deng, also working for him and 40 years younger than he. They married soon afterwards. Critics from Australia have condemned that Rupert Murdoch should be given the title of the most influential Australian ever even after taking up American citizenship, but he pointed out that he took up American citizenship so that he could be better placed to pursue his media interests in the American market. Nevertheless, Murdoch has had much influence in politics showing open support as well as funding the republicans.

Introduction
Smoking is injurious to health  even though this prohibition or warning flares from sleek cigarette packs all over the world, the tobacco abuse rates are consistent, if not on the rise. Today, smoking implies burning and inhalation of more substances than just tobacco. The recreational drug abuse or the intake of drugs, such as cocaine and opium, is included in the meaning of the term smoking. It started to be associated with adolescence and stress. However, the world society is now widely facing the problem of passive smoking and lung cancer. As stated by Warner (1986) in order to work towards the society free of seductive enticements the awareness and the prohibition methods must be applied. Considering the problem of addiction from the perspective of discrimination highlights the pros and cons associated with the vice.

The Pros
According to Scott D. Balun, the vice president and legislative counsel of the American Heart Association, to use the industrys (tobacco) own rhetoric, Enough is enough, is in fact, balancing on the flip side of the coin. The need to address the named problem within the industry also resounds in the society as a whole. Though the fact remains that smoking kills millions of lives each year, another supportive aspect is the free promotion of the vice  on the celluloid, idiot box and even the backstage coverage of the international ramps. The deliberation in support of the vice completely spotlights the statistics that reveal 390,000 deaths annually due to the vice, in the US alone. The easy access and stress related needs of the adolescents the world over makes the advertising themes of the tobacco industry pretty alluring. The widespread coverage via jingles and advertisements in magazines, newspapers and billboards has given the vice such epithets  seductive, successful and even sophisticated. Considering the kind of stress that challenges the youth, the advertising code encourages them to take up the vice in a way. Smoking is also considered a good psychological escape for self-expression and most of the time a conditioned reflex (Dichter 1947). The need to feel rewarded, be accepted by peers and to handle stress are among the many reasons, enumerated by enthusiasts during clinical research.

Cons
Even though tobacco companies are often suited, it is broadly accepted that the governments should take steps to reduce the demand for the product the addiction to which is harmful to the human health through ad restrictions (Arthur B. Spitzer). This comes mainly from the fact that drug, tobacco and other powdered substances abuse results in the development of several life threatening diseases and premature death.  These are life threatening consequences that the society at large does not accept, and rightly so. If you take the cigarette smoking as such, it is evident how addictive smoking is.

Understanding this development it is mandatory for the society to question the availability of the product. It is imperative to regulate the product manufacturing and sales rates to uproot and curb the vice. The prohibition on advertising and promotion of cigarettes is a start with momentum that totally depends on increased public awareness. Today, the youth all around the world is succumbing to the feud between the political and economic paradigms around the cigarette smoking. It is high time that the more aware take a stand and address the related health and welfare issues. The education on statistics and rehab scenarios from within the walls of the medical fraternity screams out facts and figures everyday. According to the WHO, 1.8 million men and 0.3 million women in developing countries and 1.6 and 0.5 million respectively from industrialized nations succumb to the vice each year (httpwww.who.inttobaccoenatlas11.pdf, 17.35-25.2.2010). With researched statistics, such as this there is no doubt that the vice has become a global concern today.

The increased profit at the risk of threatening the public health is an arena the educated people need to question. Gone are the post World War II and Cold War societies where we could blame it all on trances andor spirituality. Irrespective of the pressure or stress that are identified as trigger factors in adopting the vice, health care is a human right and the passivesmokers certainly deserve better.

I think that some gender roles are inborn and some are learned.
 Women tend to be soft, emotional and weak compared to their male counterparts. They also seem to be attracted to men with lower voices. Men  on the other hand are strongly built, less emotional and seem to be attracted to women with higher voices. When a child is still young,  it could be both inborn and learned because a female child seems to or she tends to believe that a girl should play with a doll and a boy should play with a ball. They prefer a doll compared to a male child but on the other hand the environment could be the cause of these preferences. Our parents buy us the toys and we grow up believing that certain things are meant for girls whereas some are meant for boys. Examples of gender roles that are learned are our walking style, dressing style and our general behavior. When growing up, girls learn how to dress in a certain way depending on what they see their elders doing. They also learn to sit in a certain way, walk appropriately and how to behave around men whereas men learn how to behave like a man.

Gender identity refers ones identification with regards to being male or female. There are people who undergo gender role conflicts. For example in the African community, men are the breadwinners hence they should provide for the entire family. Failure to do so leads to resentment by members of the society which may lead to psychological problems on the part of the man or low self-esteem. Women on the hand are expected to reproduce and if they are not able to do so members of the society look down upon them which also leads to problems. There are some jobs which are male oriented while some are female oriented. Men who are found working in female oriented jobs are treated unfairly by members of the society and vice-versa.

Puberty is a stage in life and each one of us has to go through it. When I reached puberty I realized some changes in my body. My hips widened, my bust grew bigger, I experienced my first period and many other signs. Because some people reach puberty earlier than others, it always has a negative impact on the ones who go through this early. Most girls tend to hide their growing breasts from others or they hide the fact that they are having their periods. One seems to be isolating from others because she is embarrassed. Teenagers at this time also seem to be having mood swings which may lead to problems with the people around them and mostly it is the parents who have problems with them because the teenagers do things opposite from what is expected of them. During this period the boys and girls start to develop romantic feelings for each other. They do not play together like they used to when they were younger. They fear each other in a way because of the changes happening in their bodies.

Gender stereo typing is a situation whereby all the top positions are assumed to belong to the men. Even though women are working extra hard to succeed, men are still occupying the best positions be it in a company or the Government. There are women who are ministers, professors or even prime ministers but the number is still low. In a classroom situation, you will find that boys pick the science subjects because it is believed that only boys excel in these subjects. There are some women who excel in Mathematics and sciences but nobody seems to be recognizing them due to the fact that boys do better than girls. I have never experienced this directly but I have heard about it and so I would not say I am a victim of gender stereo typing.

I would say I am a feminist because I always want the women to be seen as important members of the society. In many circumstances women are treated as the weaker sex and so we are only seen as mothers and our office should be in the kitchen. Our opinions are not taken seriously so that no matter what we say it does not matter. I work hard as a woman so that I become an important member of the society but it seems that no matter what I do the men will still look down upon me. I think going through the pain of giving birth and taking care of the children should earn the women respect. It is high time men realized that without women there would be no men.

I think the mens movement is a very good idea because it brings the men together to see how they can improve their livelihood and how to defend themselves in case of anything. They come up with projects to improve their finances. There are situations in the Judicial system which tends to favor the women because people seem to believe that men are the ones who always commit crimes. With this movement, men are able to come up with ways to defend themselves. Men can also teach themselves on how to be good husbands and fathers. For me this movement is more positive than negative.

Abstract
In this paper I am going to discuss the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education and its impact during the 1960s from two different social science perspectives.  First I will look at this social event through the eyes of a political scientist.  Secondly, I will put myself in the shoes of an anthropologist and try to explain the events that occurred as a result of this judgment.  I will then discuss the implications that this case has for life in the 21st century.

The 1960s was a time of major change in American culture.  Old traditions were being broken and new standards for Civil Rights were being established.  People of every color and race were given equal opportunity in regards to schooling with the judgment in the case Brown vs. the Board of Education.  Schools were now to be integrated instead of segregated based on color.  For some, this inspired hope and belief that one day, race would not be barrier for equal opportunity.  For some, this sparked anger and resentment toward those that were thought to be inferior because of the color of their skin.  The 60s represented a clash between culture and belief systems and the decision of Brown vs. Board was right in the middle of it all.

In this paper I will describe this event and its impact on society from the perspective of a political scientist as well as from an anthropologist.  I will also attempt to answer what impact Brown currently has on modern 21st century life.

Political Science
Political science is defined as a social science concerned with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. (Wikipedia)
The plaintiffs contend that segregated public schools are not equal and that hence they are deprived of the equal protection of the laws. (nationalcenter.org)  This was the basis of the argument toward desegregation of public schools.

Many people were fed up with the dilapidated and understaffed schools designated for colored students and felt that they should have an equal opportunity to public education.

The judgment, which dismantled the legal basis for racial segregation in schools and other public facilities was finalized in 1954, however, even though its impact was
felt afterward, it wasnt until the 1960s that real unrest began to happen.  The southern states had a more difficult time in enforcing the new laws than the northern states did.  Racial segregation was so ingrained in the psyche of the southern half of America that it was difficult to change.

By 1961, South Carolina, Alabama and Mississippi still maintained completely segregated school systems. (loc.gov)  This tells me that it was definitely a difficult transition for the South to fully integrate.  

Riots broke out as a result and there was much political unrest.  A lot of people werent willing to change their belief that people of color would be allowed to go to school with their white children.

When James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi in October of 1962, there were riots resulting in the death of two men as well as over 300 people injured. (loc.gov)  People were obviously upset with the enrollment of a black person to an institute of higher learning.

August 28th, 1963 saw a march on Washington led by the Council for United Civil Rights leadership and issued by Folkway Records.  In this protest, leaders were looking to include public accommodation, decent housing, integrated education and the right to vote (loc.gov) in their fight for equal civil rights.  This was featured in Life Magazine in September 6, 1963.

There were signs of social progress in the 60s as well.  College enrollments began to increase rapidly, especially for African Americans. (Harvey)  And this was a good sign.  It meant that racial minorities were taking advantage of the equal opportunity and choosing to try to make a better life for themselves.  The movement also sparked popularity in folk music and folk singers like Bob Dylan.  They sang for a cause and wrote songs about political unrest and social differences.  The Newport Folk Festival showcased the folk revival and was a place that folk singers and bands from around the country could sing and have their voices heard.  The Freedom Singers sang their song Fighting For My Rights at this event.

Brown, however, was not the first challenge to school segregation.  In 1849 African Americans filed suit against an educational system that mandated racial segregation, in the case of Roberts v. City of Boston.  (brownvboard.org).  However, it was the Brown decision that inspired and galvanized human rights struggles across the country and around the world. (brownvboard.org).

The decision by the courts to allow integration in public schools was definitely a major stepping-stone in the fight for equal civil rights for all.  African Americans were now given an opportunity to attend the same schools as their white counterparts, which, in turn, gave them opportunities for achievement in American society.  In theory, this would allow everyone regardless of skin color the opportunity to the same resources and thus equal opportunity to jobs and social acceptance.  This wasnt a change that came easily.

There was much resistance by those with traditional beliefs, especially in the southern states where segregation was so prominent.  However, thanks to Brown most Americans believe that a racially integrated, ethnically diverse society and educational system is a worthy goal. (americanhistory.si.edu).

Moving forth into todays society, Browns impact is still felt.  It can be easy to take for granted all the hard work that went into making desegregation a reality and it is something that should be celebrated for it marks a pivotal moment in American history in regards to civil rights.  Today, many African Americans take advantage of the opportunities theyve been given them and as well they should.  Brown v. Board laid the groundwork for equal opportunity in America and it should never be forgotten.

Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity (Wikipedia).  What significance did the case of Brown v. Board of Education have in human development  Why was it necessary for this event to take place and what role did it have in shaping Americans perception of civil rights and African Americans  And what do we as Americans do today to keep desegregation alive in our culture

To think of the impact this event must have had on humanity in the 60s, one must put themselves in the shoes of both a white person as well an African American person.  When looking at it from the perspective of a white person who would have a child in the public school system, it must have been a scary concept to allow black children to attend the same school that your own child goes to.  On one hand, you couldve felt good about the positive impact that this would have on those African American kids who didnt have all of the resources that your kid has.  Giving them the same opportunities should only help to enrich their lives right  However, what happens if an African American child graduates and gets a better job than your son or daughter  Realistically, Im not so sure that this happened immediately, however, this must have been something that went through the minds of those who only wanted what was best for their own children.

When thinking from this perspective, I can understand why some people felt very threatened by the effects of Brown.  Life was going to be different.  Those that were dubbed inferior for many centuries were now given equal opportunity in regards to education.  A good education is the cornerstone of a productive citizen.  It is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. (nationalcenter.org).

If I put myself in the shoes of an African American at this time, I think that I would be excited and inspired by the changes being made and the opportunities that I will be given.  However, I think that I would also be a bit afraid for repercussions as a result.  Would I really be given equal opportunities and, by the way, how is my reception to a new white school going to be taken  Maybe I didnt mind the school I was already attending.  Sure the building was small, dilapidated and understaffed and the materials were outdated but, hey, Ive made friends here.  Where would everyone go  Would we all go to the same school together or would we be separated because everyone had to travel many miles from different towns to get to this black school.  What were the stares going to be like when I went to the white school  But none of that really mattered because, in the end, I will be getting a better education and an opportunity for a higher paying job when I graduated, right

There is much political unrest because Im going to a white school now.  There are a lot of people who dont want me and my friends here.  They want us to go back from where we came from and forget about trying to be equal with them.  How was I supposed to concentrate on my studies when this whirlwind of conflicting political views was taking place

If there was one common denominator between whites and blacks it was uncertainty.  Uncertainty about what the future would hold as far as opportunities given or taken away.  Uncertainty about the safety of the children.  Uncertainty of your own beliefs.  The 60s were definitely a time of upheaval and Brown v. Board of Education was first and foremost at the center of it all.

In looking at the human impact of that event in todays society I am grateful for Brown.  I think it opened peoples eyes to the fact that everyone, regardless of color or nationality, truly deserves equal opportunity if we are to have a civil and fully functional society.  The contributions made by African Americans since the judgment are infinite and without Brown, I dont believe that Barrack Obama would be our president.  Im sure that he is truly grateful for the efforts put forth by those that made desegregation possible.

I think that political science and anthropology are closely linked in that both are social sciences that look at human interaction.  It is not possible to talk about political science and not talk about humanity.  Conversely, its not possible to discuss anthropology without discussing political interactions that occur.  Because of this, one could benefit from looking at a particular event in our history from both a political and anthropological stand point to be able to fully understand the what and why.  The case of Brown v. Board of Education is no different in that regard.

Great strides were definitely made because of this event and it would be difficult to imagine life without this case.  The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown began a critical chapter in the maturation of our democracy.  It reaffirmed the sovereign power of the people of the United States in the protection of their natural rights from arbitrary limits and restrictions imposed by state and local governments.  In short, it has helped shape the way that American culture is regarded to this day.

Introduction
White privilege is a complex social phenomenon in which racial inequalities are conceptualized. These inequalities are however focused on the advantages associated with the whites as opposed to the other races including the blacks and the coloreds. The theories associated with white privilege assert that the whites usually do not see anything sinister and sees everything as normal as opposed to being advantaged. Such assumptions have elicited discussions focusing on the disadvantages faced by other racial groupings and what needs to be done in order to bring them at par with the whites. This however orchestrates racial inequality as an issue that does not include the whites. In addressing racial inequality, it is important to bring the whites on board as a group that enjoys the related social advantages as opposed to a normal situation. This paper will look at the concept of white privilege from both perspectives in an effort to come out with a winning formula that will see racial parity be restored.

History
Racial preferences have a long history in the US starting from the colonial era. Racism was somehow institutionalized by the state which came up with repugnant laws to perpetuate the practice. In the 17th century America indentured slaves was a common practice as the European indentured servants were brought to the US which was then a British colony to work in the plantations. This was the pioneer source of forced labor as was practiced by the whites. Most of the indentured servants were however fellow whites who were serving their prison terms working for the Lords who owned huge plantations in the US. Towards the end of the 17th century, the indentured servants in Virginia and Maryland protested only to be replaced by the African slaves. The lower class Europeans begun to enjoy new rights, entitlements, and opportunities from the owners of the plantations and in exchange, they were supposed to give support to the plantation owners and also police the increasing number of slave population (California Newsreel, 2003).

The Naturalization Act of 1790 only recognized what was called as free white persons as eligible to be naturalized as US citizens. This only benefited the white Europeans and not the other racial groupings. There are certain privileges that are associated with citizenship which includes voting rights, holding office, and holding property among others. This is the century that saw the passage of Alien Land Laws in California and other states which allowed for the reservation of farm land for white citizens. The Asian immigrants were locked out since they were not eligible citizens due to their status and thus could not own or lease the land. The immigration limitations also hampered any opportunity for the non-whites. The racial limitations on naturalization remained in place until the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952, but the white racial preferences on immigration issues remained intact until 1965 (California Newsreel, 2003).

The white Americas have continued to enjoy privileges in many matters with great assistance from the US army. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 for instance resulted in the forceful relocation of the Cherokee, Creeks, and other Indian groups in the East to the West of Mississippi River in an effort to create space for the white settlers. In 1862, the Homestead Act was enacted and this caused much relocation than the previous one with the acquisition of the Indian territories west of the Mississippi. In a nutshell, 270 million acreage of land was acquired and converted to individual ownership most of who were white (California Newsreel, 2003).

In the South which witnessed racism at its peak, the government never adopted General Shermans plan that would have divided the plantations amongst freed slaves as a matter of reparations. Only monetary compensations were made but again to the slave masters in compensating for the lost property. The end of the slavery marked the beginning of a legacy that seem to last a life-time. The legacy was to be reflected in both the impoverished conditions of the black Americans and the prosperity associated with the white slave masters. For the more than two centuries of free labor, the slave masters are said to have accrued well over 1trillion at the expense of the slaves. In the South, the Jim Crow laws that were rife in the 19th and early 20th century affected the black people much as discrimination in jobs, neighborhoods, school, and hospitals prevailed (California Newsreel, 2003).
Recent trends in Perpetuating white Privilege

Certain legislations have continued to be passed directing wealth to the white race and continuously bringing life opportunities at their doorsteps. The 1935 Social Security Act granted millions of employees some safety net that could guarantee them some income upon retirement. The Act however, did not include domestic and agricultural workers. This category of workers was predominantly African Americans, Mexicans, and Asians. Their income was so low that they could hardly save for retirement. They had no wealth to pass to their children and instead, the children had the responsibility of looking after their folks in old age. In the same year, the Wagner Act granted the Unions the power to collectively bargain that worked to enable millions of white workers to advance to the middle class in a period of 30 years. The same Act allowed the unions to disregard the non-whites denying them accessibility to well paying jobs. They were also denied protection from the unions and associated privileges such as healthcare, job security, and pensions (California Newsreel, 2003).

The New Deal program commonly referred to as the Federal Housing Administration is responsible for the generation of the wealth that most whites enjoy presently. This program made it possible for the average white Americans to own homes. A national neighborhood appraisal was set by the government that tied eligibility to mortgage on racial connotations. Those communities that had been integrated in the US were seen as a financial risk and thus did not qualify for the home loans. This happened in the 1934 to 62 when the federal government supported the 120 billion for home loans. The program benefited the whites in their majority as it is estimated that 98 of the money went to the whites. Such programs resulted in the new racially segregated white suburbs coming up around the country in the years after the WWII. Subsidies from the government to support the municipalities helped in the development and enhancement of these suburbs that in turn fuelled commercially oriented investments. Suburbs were tied to the Central Business Districts of the cities by freeways that often passed over destroying the vigor of the non white neighborhoods. Nowadays, mortgage applications for the blacks and Latinos is still low with studies showing that these people are 60 more likely to be turned down when they apply for the mortgages (California Newsreel, 2003).

White Privilege
White privilege is a very complex aspect of social phenomenon. All the people that belong to the white race have white privilege of some sort. White privilege is usually takes certain general patterns depending on the context and other aspects regarding an individuals identity (Jensen, 1998). Most whites however are not conscious of the existence of the white privilege and it looks normal in regard to the preferential treatment they get. According to Jensen

Perhaps most importantly, when I seek admission to a university, apply for a job, or hunt for an apartment, I dont look threatening. Almost all of the people evaluating me for those things look like me--they are white. They see in me a reflection of themselves, and in a racist world that is an advantage (Jensen, 1998, Para 10).

Jensen is not alone in this as most white people thinks that they are living in a colorblind era where there are no racial connotations. The white privilege can be attributed to the unconscious mind knowing that the whites are brought up to think of their lives as morally neutral, normative, and average, and also ideal, so that we work to benefit others, this is seen as work that will allow them to be more like us (McIntosh, 2010, Para 8). McIntosh goes further to liken the white privilege thing to an invisible package of yet to be earned assets that the whites are presented with. A situation presented in a sociological class with mixed race under the guidance of their tutor had a white student claiming that the black Americans do not maximize on the opportunities that they are presented with as she claimed to know a black American who was doing pretty well (Pjazzypar, 2009).

To understand the existence of the white privilege we need to reflect on the little this that happen unnoticed that in reality shows reflects on the existence of racial privileges. What the current white population is doing is but just reaping the rewards of racial preferences that were accorded to their parents who are long gone. Christine Sleeter gives her expelling example drawing from her grandfather who was a painter and a wallpaper hanger but was able to buy property, renovate, and then sell at a profit. Despite the grandfather having only second grade education, he was able to acquire property and do well in life, thanks to the New Deal programs. She recognizes the presence of white privilege and roots for multicultural education as the only best way of solving the problem. To her multiculturalism should go further than knowing and appreciating of the other races culture but should address the issue of accessibility to the opportunities presented by the society in which case quality education should be made available to everyone in spite of the racial differences (Rethinking Schools, 2010).

White privilege can be traced in trivial things that we usually let pass without a second thought. Tim Wise gives a good insight of what can be referred to as white privilege. He elaborates that white privilege is to be found in such matters as careless use of vulgar language that is common to the whites and generally defending actions that are an eyesore to the public. He uses the Palins example to put across his facts by drawing from the events that hit the family during the 2008 Elections. He points out to actions like Bristol Palin getting pregnant at a tender age of 17 can be viewed as a private issue that should not bother anyone outside the family. Wise continues to point out to several incidences that the Palins were engaged in without raising controversy (Wise, 2008).

Conclusion
Living in denial that white privilege does not exist is a fallacy. Preferential racial treatment for the whites has resulted in typical white families basking in wealth believed to be more than eight folds in comparison to the any typical African American family. The familys net-worth provides a base for the succeeding generation and therefore those privileged will have access to good opportunities in life as the cycle is perpetuated. The privileges that were enjoyed by the whites have been able to be passed out to their generations resulting in the existence of the well gap between the races that seem never to be ending. Many whites have always denied that racial preferences have never affected the American society. They even accuse the non-whites of using the race card in advancing themselves. There should be color-blind policies aimed at uplifting the minority groups that were disadvantaged by the racial preferences accorded to the whites of yester-years. It is unfortunate that color-blinded ness is used to bolster the unjust advantages that color-coded practices enable the whites to long for accrual.