Sociology

National security is a sensitive area which is of concern to every nation. Security threat jeopardizes the daily running of activities in a nation. National security encompasses various key areas such as economic, military stability, health and even social issues such as political instability. It is the mandate of a countrys government to protect nations property from external threats. The property of a country may include essential facility such as land. The government should be in a position to respond to external attacks intended to invade a countrys land. National security is an important issue which is achieved by ensuring that the state of a nation is maintained (Tritten, 2003, p.19). The state of a nation can be maintained by the use of political power, economic and the military of a nation. Diplomacy can be employed id dealing with security threats.

National security can be implemented by applying various mechanisms. National security depends on the state of the armed forces. To ensure national security, the government of a nation should ensure that they have effective armed forces. The mandates of the arm forces of a country are normally covered in the constitution of a country. This ensures there are no weaknesses spotted in case of outside threats. External threats might occur when another country has interest in another countrys resources. There have been various cases of invasion due to important resources such as oil, land. The First and the Second World War were based on land and balance of power. This signifies the issues under which the armed forces may be forced to attack another country or region.

National security can be handled by employing diplomacy. Like the saying if diplomacy fails be prepared for war War should be used as the last result to any threat. Talks should be embraced in solving any threat from outside. Diplomacy entails ironing burning issues between involved parties through negotiations, for instance there has been firm stand towards the use of nuclear weapons.  Nuclear test has brought about differing views in the world (Toddd, 2006, p.11). Dialogue should be embraced before indulging to war. War should be avoided at all cost since it has many set backs.

National security can be maintained by having an effective intelligence team. Espionage and external threats can be avoided by the use of intelligence services. This enables in detecting any threats. External threats can be achieved by intruding to classified information. Classified information is information whose access is limited to certain people. The access to classified information is regulated by law. It might be risk when classified information leaks. Enemies take advantage of information which leak. Classified information carries sensitive information which defines the state of a country such military status. Intelligence services help in protecting classified information. Intelligence sets out to ensure that anything done under cover is revealed to the concerned party.

National security can be ensured by involving economic power. Economic power of a country is defined by the countrys state in terms of production. Cooperation can be achieved by use of economic power. The economic power can be declared in terms of a countrys resources, for instance those nations which have oil deposit have economic power based on this vital commodity (Locher, 2008, p.726).

There have been rampant cases of terrorist attacks all over the world. This has raised concern on how to handle the issue of terrorism. National security can be ensured by laying down strategies to tackle any terrorist threats. Terrorist threats can be handled by setting emergency strategies. Civil defense should be implemented as a strategy of fighting terrorist. Many nations have been caught unaware by terrorist attacks. The September 11 attack was accomplished without being detected.

Internal threats may be a threat to national security. There may be gang groups which may jeopardize the security. Internal militia groups may be a threat to a countrys security. These groups get involved in fighting the government of a country. They may also be involved in demanding things which are not covered by law. This raises some conflict which brings threat to a countrys security. Internal threats can be handled by the use of secret police. It can also be addressed by using counterintelligence services. National security has various implications to the international security.

International security encompasses the security in the world. The security in the world depends on the national security of various nations. Nuclear threats have been the major concern as it concerns the international security. There have been nuclear threats from nations which have advanced technology. This has been as a result of the cold war. The cold war triggered many countries to set out to find mechanism of fighting back in case of a threat (Sam, Richard, 2004, p.43). Nuclear threats are a very sensitive issue since its consequences are severe. National security has implications to international security. The counterintelligence within a country may help to identify those behind nuclear technology. This helps detect any nuclear threats.

There have been potential threats by terrorist who are geared towards using nuclear weapons. Some of these threats have gone undetected causing much damage and lose of life. National security detectives have a role to play when it comes to such threats. This can be achieved by identifying all the militia groups all over the world. Most of the militia groups are known in their states. Some of them pose threat to the national security. Identifying these militia groups helps in handling both national and international security. Terrorists groups are found in nations which are reluctant in dealing with security issues. Most of the terrorist groups have nuclear technology. This makes intentional moves towards international security (Aronsen, 1997, p.17) Militia groups are networked all over the world. This may pose threat to the all world.

The American attack on Afghanistan is an example on the threat posed to the international security. America has a negative attitude towards the Islamic world due their involvement in terrorist activities. This has raised much concern in devising policies to curb the terrorist activities all over the world. Policy makers have been fully involved in formulated policies to curb any terrorist attack in the world. The main area of concern in the world is the continuous threats of terrorist in using nuclear explosive. There have been claims of possible attacks involving biological arms and nuclear weapons. This has been evidenced by the large amounts of radioactive substances which been intercepted since the war on terrorists began. Large quantities of uranium have been intercepted while on transit (Trittenm 2003, p.56). This poses threat to the international threat. Most of the nuclear terror is performed by experts. Many have been arrested for having link to terrorist groups.

In conclusion, national security is concerned with maintaining the state of a nation. National security is achieved through various measures. These include effective armed forces, intelligence, counterintelligence, and secret police. The implications of national security to international security are far reaching.

1. Abstract and Operational Hypotheses
This research proposal intends to use applied research as an assessment on this topic. My interest is the relationship between leaders and followers in an organizational environment. In particular, I am interested in examining how organizational politics affect employee morale and the overall productivity of an organization. The operational hypothesis is that organizational politics have an effect on employee morale and output.

Organizational politics has both a positive and negative effect on the morale of employees and the overall production performance levels of an organization (Lencioni, 2006). In this study, the needs assessment strategy is proposed. A needs assessment provides a systematized exploration of things as they stand and also the expected way in which they ought to be. The things being referred to here deal with organizational andor individual performance.

In conducting a needs assessment, the first task is to find out the current performance of the organization and workers as compared to the existing set standards. So a needs assessment is useful in indicating the current scenario of activities and then desired ends of an individual or organization. In a sense, this study brings out the gap that exists between the current needs, wants and objectives, and those that are desired. In a nutshell, it helps to set the difference between the actual needs and wants or perceptions. It is necessary to know the current state of events and the desired level on the same so as to be guided through the pursuit of the intended goals (Reich, 2008). In respect to the above realization, a needs assessment is mandatory before the research is done as it provides the basis upon which the study is to be built.

2. Literature review
Earlier studies into organizational politics have treated the subject of politics as a perceptual construct (Cropanzano and Kacmer, 1995).  That is to imply that politics is an element of subjective evaluation. This kind of evaluation is also a form that is developed from personal experiences. One aspect of work experience that is bound to shape perception is the relationship between leaders and workers (Fairholm, 2009). This relationship will affect the morale and thus the work output level of individual employees. In the end, the organizational output will be affected on this very basis.

Individuals that perceive their relationship with the leadership to be rough are likely to be demoralized (Bolman and Deal, 2003). A demoralized worker, as indicated above, is bound to suffer a negative urge to underperform. Consequently, the organization stands to lose if organizational politics are allowed to permeate the work place. Other individual workers are demoralized by the fact that there exist others that exact favorable treatment from the leadership of an organization (Dobson and Dobson, 2001). This may be in the form of being assigned less work, gaining from job promotions, or securing other favors that are not uniformly made available to the rest of the employees. This is thought to have a negative effect on the employees that feel relegated to oblivion corners at the expense of one or few individuals (Zalenik, 1970). This lowers group morale as individuals do not aspire to be used while unappreciated. The end result is low productivity.

All pieces of literature that have been reviewed in relation to office politics are indicating a negative correlation between office politics and employee morale at the place of work. Morale is in turn viewed as an important ingredient in the execution of work. If the morale of workers is low then their performance is set to decline. A declining performance does not augur well for any organizations goal attainment objective.

Office politics is based on the use of power assigned to an individual within an employing environment. Such power may be used to obtain an advantage at the work place for a certain group of individuals within the working area. It is thought that such power is in most instances abused notably because it rests outside the legitimate provision within an organization. The major benefits to office politics is that it can be used to gain tangible or intangible benefits like pseudo-authority. This authority can be used to influence the behavior of other employees (Provis, 2004). In a sense, the major objective of office politics is to gain undue advantage.

Office politics may also be used in reference to the way in which co-workers act amongst each other. It can attain positive or negative regards. All that causes office politics lie in the manipulative intent by a section of top management employees (Vigoda and Drory, 2006). This is supposedly in pursuit of goals that always differ in terms of approaches though similarities may be found.

The work place is a competitive environment where goal achievement is given much attention regardless of the methods used in a bid to realize those aims. To give an illustration, if six people in an organization apply for the same position, it may be a very competitive spectacle. This may need that the best of the candidate gets to win the spot. However, the best individual may not be the one that wins because of office politics. In such a scenario, the one individual that has well oiled connections may stand a bigger chance in winning the race. It should be noted that if employees believe that promotions and the award of duties and tasks is not on the basis of competency but on political connections, their output levels are likely to be affected. They will not give their all as they understand that this may not yield recognition at the work place. Consequently, office politics would have undermined the performance of a whole organization. Office politics do not serve organizational goals but rather individual goals. It also wastes so much time and resources in a bid to gain the support of a good number of supporters as office politics rely on being able to control a considerable section of an organization. Office politics is also thought to have quite serious consequences especially on the strategy of formation, budget setting, leadership and performance management (Fairholm, 2009). In simple terms, playing office politics forms a basis for distraction from execution of office tasks.

3. Research Problem
It is therefore hypothesized that
Hypothesis 1 Job politics at the work place has a negative relationship with organizational goals in reference to output.
Hypothesis 2 organizational de-politicization has a positive relationship with employee morale.
Hypothesis 3 employee morale has a positive relationship with performance levels.
It is on the basis of these hypotheses that this study is hinged on. On the basis of the first hypothesis, it should be clear at the end of the study whether job politics lead to a hindrance in the pursuit of organizational goals. Secondly, the view that making the work place political can create a positive environment for enhancing employee morale is also put into perspective. Finally, the perception that employee morale has an effect on output as observed by Dubrin (2008) is put into scrutiny. All the above hypotheses create a perception of politics in an organization and how it affects the performance in relation to output levels. The research problem is thus premised on the idea that office politics undermine individual and organizational performance.

In this study the use of a needs assessment procedure is adopted because it is the best suited procedure as it gives a description of the currency of events and further gives the hypothesized nature on the same at the end of the exercise.

2.1 Sampling Procedure
According to Patton, (1990), the identification of the correct or suitable sampling procedure is positively correlated to the accuracy of the research findings. From the onset, it should be noted that this research is qualitative in nature and therefore the use of an appropriate sampling procedure shall be emphasized. Hence, this research study shall use systematic random sampling procedure to determine the sample for this study. This method has the merit of being easy to use while at the same time ensuring for accuracy in determining the sample size.

2.2 Data Collection
In any form of scientific research, there is need to collect data before an analysis is carried out. The methods of collecting the data must be in tandem with the requirements of the scientific methods. That is the reason why in this research the use of both primary and secondary sources of data is taken. The use of secondary sources is very important in providing the basis upon which a research is built. On the converse, primary sources offer new information to back up the research.

This study shall involve the use of both primary and secondary methods of data collection. Administration of questionnaires shall be used as the primary method of collecting data in relation to the research question. This shall be supplemented by the use of probing to allow for the collection of accurate and valid data. Additional information shall also be obtained from secondary sources such as books and related previous studies into this area. The use of secondary source of information has the merit of providing in-depth information on the topic under study which in turn helps the researcher to come up with responsive recommendations.  The collected data shall be analyzed and represented through the use of score tables, pie-Charts and graphs.

3.0 Data Collection Procedure
3.1 Instrument
This study is to use mailed survey. In respect to that, a questionnaire to measure all the variables under study was developed. Political perception was measured using Wayne and Stuarts (2004) 15 items. Job dissatisfaction was measured using Ranjits (2005) instrument. Employee morale was measured using 24 items. These items were personalized from HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.combooksqinauthor22DrCRKothari22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad7 Kotharis (2008) piece of work. Respondents were requested to show an indication on the extent to which they agree with the items. In this regard, a five-point Likert scale with and 5 indicating strongly agree and 1 indicating strongly disagree. The employee morale was measured using one item asking respondents to rate their agreement with the declaration that they will offer their best in their duties.

3.2 Sample
The sample is made up of employees from a UK finance company that was witnessing a turnaround after making substantial losses. The choice of this organization was arrived at because it fulfils all the conditions that are necessary for a high level of organizational politics. The loss the company had experienced is believed to have been behind major big resource constraints. This in effect led to a condition of uncertainty. This atmosphere of conflict pitting the employee and employer that was pervading the organization, to confirm it, about 100 employees, a good number from the management level quit their jobs due to political infighting during the year 2002.

Questionnaires were mailed to all 460 employees. Of the total sent, 190 useful responses were received. This represented a response rate of 42 per cent on approximation. The mean in years of service of the respondents is 12 years. The non-managerial employees bracket make up 59 per cent. Finally, employees at the branch level comprise 51 per cent and the remainder was from the head office.

3.3 Data Analysis
The dependability of the variables used is shown in Table 1. All of the variables are found to be bearing an acceptable Cronbach Alpha. The correlation between the different variables is shown in Table 2. The structured equation modeling was used to test the association between morale, job dissatisfaction, and output, intention to quit and POP (political perception).

Table 1 Reliability Measures of Variables Used
 
Variables                Total items    Cronbach Alpha
 
Perception of Politics        15            0.848
Job dissatisfaction            6            0.748
Morale                         4            0.705
Output                        24            0.944
 
Table 2 Person Correlation between Variables
  Variables           POP        Job dissatisfaction    morale    output
 
Morale          -0.474
                (Pop  0.000)
Job dissatisfaction 0.462       -0.547
                (Pop  0.000)    (p  000)
Output           -0.523         0.641         -0.487
                 (Pop  000)    (p  0.000)   (p  0.000)
Intention to       0.271        -0.224         0.239        -0.325
Quit             (pop 0.000)     (pop 0.002)     (pop 0.001)    (pop  0.000)

3.4 Discussion
The analysis of data is necessary so as to confirm or to refute a stand on an issue. From the data analysis, it is inferred that the hypothesized state is the case in practice. The study confirms that organizational politics have an effect on morale and output at the individual level and organizational level. This hypothesized position is thus confirmed as expected from the postulates of both theory and earlier researches into the system. Though, some holes may exist as in regards to the validity of the findings given the nature of the subjectivity that affects human beings, this study may serve as another dimensional approach that is tentative on the issue area.

One way of doing an analysis on office politics may involve a view on it as a series of games. These games should be analyzed and given a description in reference to the kind of games given the play off. Interpersonal games are normally played between peers, for example, the game of No Bad News. In this game, there is suppression of negative formation and the stake involves the risk of upsetting someone. Leadership games are played between the supervisor and juniors. Office politics can result to a supervisor setting an employees against others in the work place.

4.0 Validity and Reliability
All the variables used hold an acceptable Cronbach Alpha. This is a pointer to the highlight of their reliability. Through correlation measures, the variables can be tested for the same. Through use of the structured equation modeling, the relationship between the different variables can be examined.
Limitations are inherent in several aspects of learning. The major ones centre on time and both financial and material resources. As a result it is worthy that the anticipated and rising limitations be considered. Limitations should serve as a warning so that measures are put in place in advance to counter their effects on the research exercise.

One of the anticipated limitations during this research study is attributed to the fact that some respondents might not provide reliable and truthful information. This limitation carries the potential effect of greatly reducing the validity and reliability of the field study findings. In order to overcome this challenge, the researcher shall request the respondents to be as truthful as possible. Also, the research shall be based on the principle of voluntary provision of information by the respondents and thereby reduce the likelihood of collecting biased information. The second limitation that the researcher anticipates to be encountered with is the issue of insufficient resources in terms of man-power and finances. Time constraint is the other limitation to which this study is exposed since this research shall require at least one year to be completed. The use of questionnaires in data collection requires that enumerators be used in the exercise. This is due to the complexities involved in their administration. In respect to that, the kind of resources required is not easily available, a contributing factor to the high costs. Another tricky aspect concerns drawing up of the questionnaires as it takes expertise to come up with a standardized questionnaire that will be useful in the data collection exercise.

Another serious limitation on the part of the findings is that the basis on which they rest is on subjective attributes. This means that the respondents can give misleading information on certain issues either intentionally or incidentally, however this should be checked for by trying to harmonize the data. But such an attempt to harmonize may fail to achieve the actual results because the final harmonized data may be a reflection of the researchers preferences.

The major strengths of this needs assessment design is that it enables one to understand the current state of affairs, the desired state of affairs, and consequently the gap between the two. Validity is the kind of support that is derived from theory and interpretations. If the study supports the intended conclusion then the design is appropriate in handling the question at hand. The evaluation of the design in relation to conclusion is given precedence.

In theory, political machinations and undue influence at the work place have the net effect of undermining productivity as they negatively affects the performance levels of the workers (Pfeffer, 1993). This study also points to the same position. It basically hints that political networks at the work place inherently harbor ill for the progress of any organizational entity. It is in reference to this that the research design has been taken to be valid and reliable. The construct validity, content validity and criterion validity have been reflected in this study.

Conclusion
On the basis of this study, office politics has been found to be a major form of distraction that embeds the office space. Its consequences do not augur well with the goals of an organization as the individuals that engage in it, do so only for selfish gains. However, further studies are necessary to lend support to this research or identify gaps in the study area.

The 1960s saw the rise of the New Left Movement in America. This movement was a radical step that involved mainly the youth and college students.  The New Left was primarily concerned with the civil rights, antinuclear, and antiwar movements.  Some events during this time are very important parts of American History as they contribute to todays realities.

1960
On February 1, 1960, a group of black college students from North Carolina AT University refused to leave a Woolworths lunch counter in North Carolina where they had been denied service.   This was the first cause of all the other forms of protest against the segregation practices separating the blacks from the whites in America. Activism against oppression and discrimination began, and they were soon supported by other whites from different states. This led to the establishment of the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) on April of the same year. The SNCC was the  most radical and important youth civil rights organization  and  picketing of Woolworths and other nation chain stores in support of black peoples rights was the first political activity for many northern students and young people.  This was followed by other sit-in incidences in other states.

On November 8, 1960 John F. Kennedy won the Presidential Election. One of his biggest advocacies was the promotion of equality and granting of civil rights.

The Students Democratic Society (SDS) was also formally organized in 1960. It was given new life and direction by two students of the University of Michigan, Al Haber and Tom Hayden. During this year,  Haber organized a Conference on Human Rights at the University of Michigan which attracted hundreds of students from mostly mid-western universities  and in this conference, the agenda on how to stop racial discrimination was the main topic.

1961
During this year, the New Left movement became more intense. On May 4, 1961,  An interracial group of protesters board buses and travel to the South to test President Kennedys commitment to civil rights.  This group were known in history as the Freedom Riders, a group of combined whites and blacks intent on fighting for equal treatment in the society. On July of the same year, the New Left movement also took upon their concern the possibility of nuclear war and helped  coordinate worldwide protests against nuclear weapons .

1962
Two years after SDS was established, youth activists still continued with their advocacies. From June 11 to 15  of 1962,  approximately fifty students met in Port Huron, Michigan and adopted a guiding document which was to become known as the Port Huron Statement  which contained the agenda for generation. In this convention,  SDS students reached a consensus that their upbringing and education had poorly prepared them for the real world.  The Port Huron statement contained the beliefs and values that the youth and students fight for and committed the member of SDS to radical activism.

1964
America became more and more concerned with the Vietnam War during Lyndon Johnsons administration. It was also in this year when the Free Speech Movement was launched on the campus of the University of California at Berkeley. It was a  first decisive development that occurred outside the framework of the southern civil rights movement  and  it laid down the terms for many others.

On June 22, SNCC organized the Freedom Summer  to increase voter registration and build grassroots political party in Mississippi  but because the activists had many enemies, it led to the murder of three young members of the organization.

1965
The April of 1965   marked the beginning of the anti-war movement on a national scale and the expansion of the student movement into a mass movement . Because of Americas growing participation in the wars outside the country, more protests were occurring inside.

1966
Stokely Carmichael took over the SNCC and launched a more violent  Black Power  movement.

1968
In Atlanta,  students conducted a three-day sit-in at the American Building to protest the unequal treatment of female students  in April. Student movements were becoming more powerful and widespread, and they tackled a lot of different social issues happening during this time.

1969
Up until the end of the 1960s, campus uprisings continued to become more prevalent in the country.  Opposed to U.S. Political leadership and dissatisfied with American culture, student activists held demonstrations across the state and experimented with lifestyle changes in the hope of effecting fundamental change in American life  and the movements for social change continued to prevail in the coming of the 1970s.

Poverty is something so pervasive that one-third of deaths in the entire world are because of poverty-related causes. Since 1990, a total of 270 million have died from starvation and disease.  The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that malnutrition and hunger are the top two threats to public health globally and are the factors most responsible for child mortality (WHO, 2008). When we watch on the television how so many Africans and peoples in the Third World die from hunger, it is a truly tragic sight. What has caused these people to starve to death Is it their own making or is a social system responsible for their fate Answers to these questions have clashed and the understanding of poverty from various theoretical perspectives have shaped the way governments and other institutions have regarded and responded to this social problem. In Richard Schaefers book Sociology, two different theories on poverty are explained the structural functionalist perspective and conflict theory. These theories contradict each other and can put our views on poverty in order.

The structural functionalist approach to social problems such as poverty argues that it is the result of a sickness in society. Structural functionalists liken society to the human body. Society is composed of interdependent parts and poverty is a functional part for societys equilibrium.  Eventually, because some parts or organs are not performing well, the body gets sick and this is where poverty becomes dysfunctional. Poverty exists because certain institutions within the society break down and decline due to corruption and bad governance. Just as the human body gets strained and falls ill, social problems such as poverty are also a part of the social balance. To structural functionalists, this is the natural course of society. Many people regard the poor as a mere burden to society, but structural functionalists would argue that having poor people around is important. For instance, underpaid and impoverished workers are willing to perform menial jobs that other people would not want. To the structural functionalist, having a poor person around benefits society because he would be willing to do just about anything (including dangerous and dirty jobs) in order to survive. Moreover, poverty creates a market for surplus and substandard products such as old appliances, homes, and vehicles.

Stratification in society serves a stabilizing function in the view of the structural functionalist. If there will be no poor people, then who will feed the upper classes However, poverty becomes dysfunctional when malnutrition and hunger lead to deaths. This is where government must intervene in order to address poverty. Structural functionalists do not aim to eradicate poverty, simply prevent its pervasiveness. Max Weber advocated for good governance and stronger and more efficient bureaucracies as the most efficient solution in addressing poverty.

The conflict theory emanating from the thought of Karl Marx views poverty as a direct result of the clash over scarce resources and the oppression of the lower classes by the upper classes. Conflict theory supposes that the world is essentially always in conflict because there are competing interests over who gets power and resources. The dominant class, the bourgeoisie, own the means of production, and rule over the working class, the proletariat. Poverty then, is caused by the unequal distribution of wealth, that is perpetrated and legitimized by the ruling class. Poverty is not something natural, but a product of class struggle. It is something that has been created by the dominant class in order to keep the working class oppressed and exploited. The only way to eradicate poverty, then, is to eliminate the class, and the creation of a classless society.

I can see how both theories would appeal to different kinds of people. In the United States, where there seem to be plenty of opportunities, poverty would be regarded as something that is self-inflicted or chosen by people because of their laziness. However, in Africa and in the Third World, where hunger and starvation is pervasive, poverty would be regarded as the product of an unfair social system. In my opinion, the extent of global poverty is too massive for the structural functionalists view to make sense. Even in the United States, unemployment and homelessness has spelled the lives of many when the financial crisis broke. Poverty is something that should not exist in society and in my opinion, must be eradicated. However, I also agree that governments have a crucial role in addressing poverty through the implementation of developmental programs, literacy and education, and the eradication of corruption that prevents the poor from acquiring the aid they need.

There have been many controversial opinions from across the public domain on the question of global warming, its causes and ways of mitigating it, and the climate change problem it has brought in the globe. However, scientific evidence has it that global warming is caused by the increasing production of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. It is thus reasonable to be rightly claimed that global warming is a fact. Indeed, with the unprecedented increase in global temperatures as well as changes in weather patterns such as prolonged droughts and floods over the recent past, I say, global warming is real. Statistical information has shown that temperature changes were negligible during the early 20th century. However, the ever increasing rate of industrialization coupled with deforestation, and thus increased emission of greenhouse gases over the past few decades have been witnessed with global temperature increase and other unpredictable climatic changes. It is based on this that many across the globe belief that reducing such causes of global warming can sufficiently reverse the climate concerns in the world.

It is in line with the ensuring of a sustainable globe that each and every individual must save the degradation of the environment. This calls for the ensuring of sufficient trees in our environment by reducing the rate of deforestation, as well as increasing forestation and reforestation activities in our communities. This would largely reduce carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Still to be noted is the fact that each and every individual should strive to practice safe disposing of waste products as a way of reducing environment pollution. Recycling of wastes such as plastics should be encouraged to reduce environmental degradation. There are other ways of reducing environmental pollution at the community level such as engaging in environment friendly agricultural practices such as organic farming and other economic practices that would reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

In conclusion, it is clear that global warming phenomenon is real and individuals, governments and other stakeholders of the global community should address by finding ways of reducing the emission of greenhouse gases. Sill clear is the fact that by engaging in environment friendly practices such as forestation and safe disposal of waste products, local communities can reduce the rates of environmental degradation.

According to Clark (1991),  marriage is an institution which should be respected at all times,  (p.12). The issue of marriage and the increased divorce rate has been on the center stage among sociologists. The review will give an overview of how to avoid being part of the statistic. Studies have shown that first timers in marriage have a 50 chance of breaking up. This rate is known to increase with an increase in the number of divorces that one is involved in. For instance, statistics has shown that for every divorce, there is an increase in 10 of the chances of divorcing again (John, 2005, p.357). Some of us may be in this bracket or you could be having a good time with your partner by now.

The essay will focus on the guiding factors to a successive marriage which may be of help to those in a crisis or intending to be potential husbands and wives. Also, it will focus on the issues which are detrimental to marriages and how to solve them. First, marriage is a journey which is only taken by individuals who have harmonized their maps into the future. Marriage partners may come from different races, religion and social background, but it calls for the harmonization of their maps to be in the institution of marriage. When couples from different back ground engage in marriage, a number of sacrifices have to be made. There is more to marriage than the love and romance that comes in hand.

In their argument, Hawkins and Cooldge (2002) have held that when a richer person marries a poorer one, the difference in not only money but it calls for much understanding in aspects of the manners and the lifestyle of the other half (p.19). The kind of gifts to give and the vacations to be involved in also varies from one social class to another. It calls for one to move from the comfort zone and move to the territories of their partners who are at a different level in terms of education and wealth. Studies has shown that the past trends of  men marrying women with less education are on the decline and currently women are marrying men with unclear education backgrounds like in the case Dan Croteau and Cate Woolner.

Cate Woolner was a daughter of a doctor and a dancer. In her life, she had been comfortable with all the kind of money and education that one would have wished to have. On the other hand, Mr. Croteau was the son of a factory worker whose education work ended at the eighth grade. By the time they were meeting, Mr. Croteau was selling cars while Ms. Woolner pretended to be a customer only to catch the attention of Mr. Croteau. They organized on how to meet which they eventually did. They later discovered that they were from different cultural scripts because Ms. Woolner had a masters degree in counseling and was stable financially which did not go down well with Mr. Croteau since he believed that a man should be the key player in a relationship (Light, 2004, p.10). This made him feel like a gold digger in the relationship. However, despite the difference in the social class, the two partners introduced each other to the family members on either side and they eventually married having the motto  Press on regardless  engraved on the inside of their rings. This brings us to an understanding that, one of the key elements to a successive marriage is the amount of sacrifices that one is willing to make in a relationship. How down one is willing to go for the sake of your partner and the marriage is critical for the success of marriage.

In their book, Wardle and his colleagues (2003) have hypothesized that the other guiding factor to a successive marriage is faithfulness to your partner (p.23). At times, one is tempted to have sexual relations with someone other than the spouse. A number of factors do contribute to the unfaithfulness. For instance, the lack of connection between partners and the realization that someone else can appreciate you more than your partner. Drug abuse and sexual addiction also contribute to unfaithfulness. However, when one is tempted to engage in infidelity, it calls for one to practice control over your body and feelings. To avoid infidelity, one should learn to respect the bond that exists between them. Unity and integrity are of essence in the relationship.

In yet another argument, Smock (2004) has found that  there are times when a spouse is unfaithful and he or she appears to be remorseful for his actions,  (p.107). Such times call for forgiveness which is the first step towards the recovery process which will form a basis for a long lasting marriage. Faithfulness and its complexity vary from one social class to another. For instance, the upper class citizens are often victims of infidelity due to the kind of lifestyle they engage in. Their lifestyle is much comprised of hanging out and a lot of clubbing which pre-disposes them to infidelity. For the lower class citizens, financial constraints often predisposes them to infidelity whereby a wife may be involved in a one night stand with a man just to fed for her children.

In his research activity aimed at establishing the underlying factors that shape the marriage outlay, Mayerson (1996), reached at a radical research finding that  the sex aspect is also important for a successive marriage and thus  spouses should learn how to make their partners happy in bed,  (p.11). Partners should learn about the likes and the dislikes of their partners when in bed. They should also take note of the sensitive areas on the body of their partner which may stimulate your partner. For the women, they should not consider undressing in front of their husband and talk dirty when making love. They should also try different sex styles while having sex and watch porn together which will definitely turn out to be erotic. Sex activity varies from one social class to another. For instance, those who are much into religion tend to have too official sex because some may regard sex as immoral. Financial constraints may also limit ones ability to enjoy sex. In that, the lower class citizens may not be having accessibility to some porn videos which are needed to spice up the love life.

In his research findings also, Cutrona (2004) established that appreciation is also important in any relationship. Partners should learn to appreciate their counterparts. For instance, men should behave as gentlemen (p.90). In that,  they should hold doors for their female counterparts. Partners should also learn to appreciate the kind of things that the partners does. For instance, the kind of music, games or soaps that your counterpart enjoys watching should become a part of you even though uninterested. Political opinion of your counterpart should not be part of your bedroom activity. Whether democrat or republican, partners should learn to respect the stand of their counterparts but this should not be given chance to interfere with the institution of marriage. Never chose move out with your friends at the expense of your partner because this will humiliate either party.

Respect for our partner is also essential in marriages. Though it may look like an old fashioned word, respect is the key to our happiness and success. Through respect, the dignity of either partner in marriage cannot be violated which translates to a tight bond in the institution of marriage.

Children are also known to facilitate success in marriage. In that, some partners may consider filing a divorce due to complexities that may arise while in marriage. However, for the sake of the children, the partners decide to seek out their difference and move on with marriage life. Sharing responsibilities in and around the house also contribute to the success in marriage. Goodwin (2003) led a long journey in trying to establish a universal resting point of the marriage institution in relation to the social context of the society. He formulated that in the traditional set up, it was the duty of the wife to do the household chores but at this modern day and age, the mental set up of a mum moving up and down while the husband is relaxing watching some football and participating in some political forums are long gone. Each partner should spare some quality time to spend with the family and do some chores together. Any woman out there will bear me witness that they are almost winning this battle since a percentage of men are showing their affection through this. According to Sassler (2004),  the task that exists is on how to subdivide the task. No particular member of the family should do more than the other,  (p.49). The chores should be included in a to-do list where one is allocated some duties depending with his or her capabilities. Even the young ones are supposed to help out in some chores. However, the issue of the social class comes in handy when such activities are involved. Though affection shown be uniform regardless of the social class, it is often difficult for the uneducated or those of the lower class citizens to be involved in much with their families since most of the time is spent in casual employments.

Another key pillar to the success in marriage is by having a spiritual foundation. It should be recognized that the gift of love comes from God and it is only through him that we can express love to others freely. According to the bible, any man who calls unto his name, hears his words and fails to according to the will of God is like a house built without a foundation.

Why marriages fail
In his research hypothesis, Tichenor (1999) formulated that the success of any marriage calls for the commitment of the two players in a relationship (p.90). One who is committed in marriage has the interest of the partner in heart. One who lacks commitment in marriages always thinks of himself or herself. He or she does not consider the impact of his actions or words on the partner. It is not by accident that marriages do fail but it originates from some factors which lie between the partners. The odds against a marriage may happen at the very beginning during courtship. For instance, teenage pregnancy may the onset of bad things which may occur in marriage. Once teenage pregnancy occurs the result is that one may end up with the partner, although he or she was not the choice of a life long partner. The point is, the two partners may not be having feelings towards each other but they get married due to circumstances. Eventually, when differences arise in the marriage, you get to know that you cannot strike a balance which results to marriage breakdown.

Accordingly, Davis and Butler (2004) have argued that communication is also important for a successive marriage (p.237). In case there is a communication breakdown, this results to some marriage problems which may remain unresolved until both of the partners decide to open up. Failing to communicate and dialogue with your partner often aggravates a seemingly small problem to one that may result to major complications.

Trust is the foundation to any successful marriage. A healthy marriage will just remain as a dream especially when mistrust exists between partners. Once you lose trust in your partner, it is often the difficult to regain it. Failure to accept the imperfections which may exist with your partner is normally detrimental to marriages. One should learn how to respect the opinions of others. Partners should comprehend that their counterparts are not to change from what they are or from how they were behaving by the time you were in courtship.

Disparities which may exist in the social class may also contribute to breakdown of marriages. For instance, a partner may come from a well to do family who do not like to associate with the middle class citizens. Chances are that, so much influence will originate from the upper class family which will eventually result to marriage breakdown.

According to Jenkins (2004), marriage break ups are as a result of  people who behave badly. According to him, bad behaviors such as excessive spending, compulsive spending and perpetual procrastination are part of the bad behaviors that contribute to marriage break ups. He cites that, bad behaviors are a consequence of one being immature which he recommends that partners should grow up because life is not easy and is not going to be easy any time soon.

The frequent behavior that jeopardizes marriage is infidelity. Statistics indicate that over 50 of the divorce case are a direct consequence of infidelity (Jenkins, 2004, p.513). Jenkins explains this by highlighting a particular incident which happened to him. When seated in a plane next to a woman in her mid 40s, the lady stared at his wedding ring and went ahead to inquire whether Jenkins was very married. Jenkins explained that he was married to Kathy who was the best thing to have happened to him. Soon after landing, the woman gave Jenkins a card just incase he would reconsider his decision. From this, it is evident that opportunities like these will often present themselves and unless we practice control over our body, infidelity will be part of us and we shall be part of the statistics.

Unrealistic expectations which we often promise to each other during courtship is another fact or that contribute to marriage breakdown .Once we get married, we assume that we no longer have to try since we have won the love of our partners. What results is resentments and disappointment in the relationship. What we used to picture through our minds become a fairly tale and at this time, partners will often argue trivial issues because each partner is searching for some mistakes from either party. Competition develops within the relationship and eventually the bond in the marriage will be having cracks which may take long to realize (Padma, Lee, 2004, p.130). At this point, the marriage is said to have failed although couples may still be living in the same room.

Being egocentric is also a major contributor of marriage breakdowns. If partners know how to step over their ego then, 50 of their problems will be solved. If it is your ego that makes you lose your temper and hold grudges then, before getting into a life time commitment, it is necessary that you fix it.

Marriages often fail due to blame which is common in men. Men are in most cases the source of the problem but they always blame it on women. The solution to this is to be a man and treat a woman like a queen, of which she will reciprocate by treating you like a king. Logic is another reason why marriage fails. Let me explain. How a wife behaves is a factor of how she feels and it makes no sense to influence her to behave differently. Partners should learn to respect and appreciate the feelings of their counterparts.

Conclusion
It is worth noting that, several factors come in handy for any successive marriage. Such factors include respect, love, sex, appreciation, commitment, and spiritual foundation is necessary for the success in marriage life.

Addiction is the obsession, extreme psychological dependence or compulsion. In Social Studies, addiction may be in the form of drugs, pornography, use of foul language or even excessive watching of television. It results in undesirable deviant behavior.

THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF ADDICTION
The functioning of humans in the form of obsession, extreme psychosocial dependence or even compulsion is determined by social, psychological and biological factors. Any deviant behavior is well understood through a combination of social, psychological and biological factors but not only in social terms. The model is used in medicine, sociology or health psychology fields. Biopsychosocial paradigm is a technical terminology for the common concept of mind-body bond and deals more with philosophical ideas in either biopsychological or bimodal approaches but not only in empirical terms or clinical application. Obsession and excessive compulsion in social studies, has origin and can only be well explained if a better understanding of peoples biopsychosocial welfare. The mind makes decisions for the physical body to follow guidance and the model explains the connection that lead to addiction.
(McLaren, 2002 Vol.36 (5), p.701-703)

THE DISEASE MODEL OF ADDICTION
Addiction is described as life term disease originating from biological and environmental fields or studies. Addiction is related to the brains mesolimbic pathway. The addiction disease may be due to social, psychological and biological phenomenon. Genetics play a big role in a personal extreme psychological dependence and compulsion. What we tend to be addicted to is partly influenced by what our ancestors would have liked or what they had passion for. Varying environmental conditions also have influence on our urge for particular behavioral patterns. What surrounds us determines our obsession or what could influence our psychological needs. Addiction can therefore be not fully cured but may be brought down to minimal levels, because it might be in our blood or the environment that we are in is influencing our compulsion or obsession levels. The disease model of addiction may be applied in adoption or twin studies.

THE ADDICTION MODEL THAT I THINK WORKS BEST
In Social studies, I believe that the biopsychosocial model best explains the origin of any form of addiction than the disease model.

The Biological part of the model tries to explain the origin of addiction from the persons body functioning. Addiction may be due to unfulfilled body needs that cause a craving for a particular behavior. Drugs being consumed by the person in question can be as a result of some illness or disease that has not been attended to. So the body keeps on asking for more of the particular drug of addiction and this may be how the obsession originates.

The Psychological part of the model explains the real mind reasons for the addiction. Examples of psychological contributors are, emotional turmoil, poor self control and thinking negatively. The mind at times dictates what the body needs to consume, watch, hear or even smell. What we believe is right in our minds may result in the deviant behavior due to the obsession, compulsion and extreme psychological dependence.

The Social component explains how social factors, for example, culture, technology, socioeconomic state and poverty determine addiction. Compulsions may not be substance related. Someone may be addicted to the computer, so that they can communicate and network with their peers on internets social networks. Such addiction may be for learning purposes and may be beneficial or healthy, but time consuming for other constructive activities. Drug addiction may be as a result of socializing in clubs or social joints.