Sociology

The society in Canada is composed of different types of families. They include divorced, blended, single parent, teen parent, multiracial, same sex, foster, adoptive, immigrant and refugee families. This paper looks at Current National statistics about immigrant and refugee  families. It further analyses the challenges that face this type of family. It then discusses practical strategies that will enhance the partnership between the family and the centre. There is finally a list of community based organizations that support immigrant and refugee families.

Current national statistics about immigrant and refugee families in Canada reveal that there is a significant living therein. Canada divides immigrants into three major groups. These are family class, refugees and independent immigrants. Family class immigrants are those that have close relatives residing in Canada.

Independent immigrants refer to those allowed to stay in Canada because of their skills, health or age. Current statistics show that in the year 2008 there were approximately 21, 900 refugees. In this case, the refuge families were approximated to be thirteen thousands one hundred. This is considering the fact that the previous figures included young unmarried men and ladies who are not single parents.

During the same period, the family class had approximately 65, 600 people and this consisted of approximately forty five thousand families. Independent immigrants totaled to 150, 072 and they had a total of seventy two five hundred families. The census statistics show that most of the immigrant families are from United Kingdom, china and India and the least from Taiwan and Greece.

There are various challenges or issues that refugee and immigrant families in Canada go through. They still face some form of discrimination from natives. Refugees and immigrants find it quite hard to adjust to new culture. This is very evident among immigrant and refugee families from other nations apart from western nations. They find it quite difficult to adjust to new social life. This is more so to the families that immigrated to Canada after staying in their native countries for quite along time.

They go through so much economic pressure where they have to work extra hard to manage decent living. This is very common among refugee families. It was also noted that some of the immigrant and refugee families go through break ups as some men and women find new Canadian partners. This is quite perennial for partners who find richer Canadian spouses. Other issues that were noted among refugee and immigrant families were radical changes among the roles spouses.  This leads to complex social changes within the families of immigrants and refugees.

Research also shows that immigrant and refugee families go through so much marital conflicts that emanate from issues of employment and wages. Most immigrants have feelings of failure as far as this issue is concerned. Another common aspect that is challenging to immigrant and refugee families is when family members become westernized. This is by embracing egalitarian gender relationships.

For instance, immigrant and refugee children tend to embrace aspects of lesbianism, homosexuality and gay marriages which may be detested in their culture. New immigrant and refugee fathers face challenges of unemployment and underemployment. Some of these families cannot speak English fluently and this hinders them to interact with other Canadian families hence some form of loneliness. They do not identify so much with natives culture and these results in a form of isolation.

Most of the refugee and immigrant families in Canada go through periods of separation from their family members. Immigrant and refugee families go through so many worries about their next of kin and property that they left behind. The degree highly relates to the reasons for moving to Canada. In cases of war and natural disasters, immigrant and refugee families go through so much stress as they ponder about the whereabouts of their friends and relatives. Refugee families also face issues of education. This is where they may not even know at what level the children should continue with their education. This is quite common in case where the education system from their country of origin is different from that in Canada. Other issues concern the weather and even adjustment to different diet.

Based on the issues above, a teacher in a child care environment can offer diverse support to this family. First of all, a teacher can simply try to befriend immigrant and refugee families. This can be initiated by meeting some of their needs where possible. A teacher can offer to teach immigrant and refugee families new language, give them books, so that the family members can quickly start interacting with the natives. He or she can also guide the family on what stage children can pick up their education and even direct them to relevant schools and institutions.

In case of family members that are changing or emulating new culture, a teacher can offer intensive guiding and counseling. This is to both the person in question and the rest of the family members. A teacher can educate refugee and immigrant families on how they need to dress etc to cope with the new weather.

In case of possibility o breakups as spouses look out for greener pastures, a teacher should guide and counsel them. This is such that the spouses stick to one another even in the toughest times. A teacher can help refugee and immigrant families to seek for information concerning their loved ones left in their nations. This is through calling them in case they have phones etc. In case this is not possible, a teacher should re-assure the families that all will be well.

A teacher can help unemployed immigrant and refugee family members to secure some employment that can help sustain them. In case this is not possible, he or she should link the families to organizations that help such families. The other best way to help such families is to help them link up with other refugee and immigrant families from their country or continent. This helps them feel at home and to learn quickly the coping mechanisms. These strategies will help enhance partnership between the family and the centre. There are various organizations that offer support to refugee and immigrant families. They include the following (Arnett, 1995)
Women For Women Refugees (WFWR)
Refugee Women and Children (RWC)
Calvary Immigrant Womens Association (CIWA)
Ottawa Community Immigrant Services Organization (OCISO)

In conclusion, immigrant and refugee families in Canada go through myriad issues. These range from weather issues and trying to adjust to new eating diets. Some refugees usually dont know how to speak neither English nor French. This makes them isolated and lonely. Many refugee and immigrant families also go through issues of unemployment and underemployment. A new environment puts so much economic pressure on these family units. Some family members try to imitate the western culture leading to conflicts. Other families separate as loved ones seek for greener pastures.

A teacher in a child care environment can support these families by helping them learn new language. He or she can also offer advice on which levels of education the children can join. One can also help them get employment in different organizations. Linking up these families with other immigrant and refugee families from their country of origin can help them adjust quickly. A teacher can also link the families to community based agencies that specifically deal with immigrant and refugee families. This can help to enhance partnership between the families and the center.

Internal control by
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act 2002 is a federal law in United States and was enacted as away of responding to certain accounting scandals. The accounting scandals mostly affected investors who lost billions of dollars due to collapse of security markets. The Act provides tough requirements that must be adhered to by any registered accounting firm. The requirements include internal control process that is provided for in sections 302 and 404. Section 404 basically provides for effective procedures and controls that must be evaluated by external auditors during evaluation of financial reports. The provisions of the Act require that each company should provide an annual report that must contain internal control report. The report must state the responsibility of management to maintain and establish strong internal control measures. In addition, it must contain assessments that show the effectiveness of the companys internal control procedures.

Implementation of sections that provide information about internal controls is very expensive. However, the implementations provide requirements that are used to put in place measures that ensure that financial statements are prepared and presented as per generally accepted accounting principles. A company must allow its financial reports to be audited by qualified auditors so as to prevent frauds and manipulation of records by accountants for selfish benefit. The benefits of internal controls to any business entity therefore offset the expense of implementing certain sections in Sarbanes-Oxley Act. This is because, when a company has good working internal controls put in place, it becomes very easy for an auditor to execute his or her duties thus reducing the cost of auditing to an organization. It is therefore, very important for any company to incorporate internal controls that are in operation through out a fiscal year.

Andre, C.  Velasquez, M. (1988) Capital Punishment Our Duty or Our Doom httpwww.scu.eduethicspublicationsiiev1n3capital.html

Summary of the article
The article discussed about the view for and against death penalty. The writers provided basic information on the situation of death penalty in the United States. They cited that about two thousand convicts are awaiting their turns at the death chambers. According to the writers, those who favored death penalty argued that capital punishment bring about the greatest balance between good and evil. This group claimed that capital punishment benefits society as it is crime deterrents and it insured that a convicted criminal cannot anymore commit again a crime of murder. On the other hand, Andre and Vasquez (1988) stated that those against it claimed that it is a of wastes lives (par. 10). This group according to the authors, contend that death penalty harms the society by cheapening the value of life (par. 12). In the end, the writers leave the open for anyones judgment.

Evaluation of the quality of the information of the source
The quality of information is weak because it was obviously not a product of thorough research and analysis of the arguments for and against death penalty. The writers did not cite any appropriate sources allowing the paper to be merely a collection of the views for and against death penalty. It seemed that the authors simply intended to summarize both views for and against and let the readers form their own opinion on the issue of death penalty.

Bonner, R. Fessenden, F. (2000) With No Death Penalty Share Lower Homicide Rates HYPERLINK httpwww.nytimes.com20000922usabsence-executions-special-report-states-with-no-death-penalty-share-lower.html httpwww.nytimes.com20000922usabsence-executions-special-report-states-with-no-death-penalty-share-lower.html

Summary of the article
This article written by Bonner and Fessenden (2000) was against the death penalty with the authors asserting that ten of twelve states that have no death penalty have homicide rates below the national average (par. 2) reflected in the Federal Bureau of Investigation data.  The authors proved that death penalty is not a solution to heinous crimes stating legal opinions and crimes statistics. The writers demonstrated their anti-capital punishment opinion by citing scores of statements from qualified individuals such as district attorneys, state prosecutors, and state governors who were all anti death penalty. The main points cited by Bonner and Fessenden were that, death penalty was in effective in solving heinous crimes and it is costly it is not crime deterrent but is a violent retribution on the crimes committed. Finally, the writers demonstrated that life imprisonment without parole is equally punitive as the death penalty.

Evaluation of the information of the source
The information contained in the article was obviously a product of careful research as the authors cited various competent sources to support their argument. However, closer analysis of the information reveals that all the information used by the writers were from the states that have no death penalty. In other words, the choices of the sources of information were biased because they are expected to say what they have stated in view of their anti death penalty stand.

Volpe, T. Capital Punishment Does Death Equal Justice
HYPERLINK httpwww.jmu.eduevisionarchivevolume2essaysvolpe.html httpwww.jmu.eduevisionarchivevolume2essaysvolpe.html

This article provides a very strong argument against death penalty. The author clearly and straightforwardly laid out his arguments citing the capital punishment had not done any better with those states that implement death penalty. He cited that death penalty is done in private and therefore it failed to convey its message to would be criminals. Volpe built his arguments around the possibility of executing innocent individuals and huge cost state killing of convicted criminals.

Evaluation of the information of the source
The quality of information provided by Volpe is a good one because they were obviously based on qualified sources. Though she was anti-death penalty, yet her sources of information are fair and credible and were based on actual cases. Indeed, she was more objective in her opinion though straightforward in her arguments as she is obviously aware of the pros and cons on the issue of capital punishment.

Does the Death Penalty Cost less than Life in Prison without Parole Death Penalty ProCon.org
HYPERLINK httpdeathpenalty.procon.orgviewanswers.aspquestionID001000 httpdeathpenalty.procon.orgviewanswers.aspquestionID001000

Article Summary
This article was a debate whether death penalty cost less than life in prison without parole. The article was neither for nor against, but it categorically admits that the trial in the hearing for death penalty is three to five times longer than life with out parole (LWOP). The article nullified the argument that death penalty hearing is 3 to 5 times more expensive than LWOP hearing citing GAO report that there were no clear studies attesting such claim.

Evaluation of the information of the source
Some of the information contained in the article was somehow reliable as they were based on independent government agency such as the Office of Legislative Research for the Connecticut General Assembly and the US Government Accountability Office (GAO). But on the individuals who shared their opinion, they were of course based on subjective information in support of their stand against death penalty.

Death Penalty Overview Ten Reasons Why Capital Punishment is Flawed Public Policy National coalition to abolish the death penalty
HYPERLINK httpwww.ncadp.orgindex.cfmcontent5 httpwww.ncadp.orgindex.cfmcontent5

Article summary
This article was an argument against death penalty. It cited ten points that established the basis for the abolition of capital punishment stating reasons such as costs amounting to hundred millions dollars, failed crime deterrent, wrongful execution of innocent individuals, and so on. The site presented the number of convicts in the death row of various states with Carolina topping the list with 667 followed by Florida with 397 convicts, and New Jersey having zero inmates in death row.

Evaluation of the information of the source
The Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. and the death penalty year end report. The information sources of information of this article were reports mostly published by government agencies dealing with the issue on death penalty such as the Bureau of Justice Statistics, the NAACP Legal stated is therefore factual and reliable. However, it was subjectively used to support anti- death penalty claim
Reasons Against Capital Punishment (Death Penalty) Buzzle.com
HYPERLINK httpwww.buzzle.comarticlesreasons-against-capital-punishment-death-penalty.html httpwww.buzzle.comarticlesreasons-against-capital-punishment-death-penalty.html

Summary of the article
The article contained information against the death penalty though the article recognized the debate going on. The writer cited the history of death penalty tracing its early use in the Hebrew Scriptures which were intended for those who indulged in practice of a different religion, in extra marital affairs, blasphemy and so forth. The article then discussed eight reasons against death penalty which include rights, possibility of error, unfair judgment and so forth.

Evaluation of the information of the source
The source of information for this paper is not clear although it cited some facts about the issue of death penalty, such as the different types of types of death penalty. The paper was obviously intended to shed light on the issue of death penalty on the types of audience whose level of understanding is low. The paper is therefore weak in terms of information source.

Nishan, K. Death Penalty An Issue for Debate
HYPERLINK httpwww.associatedcontent.comarticle1513906death_penalty_an_issue_for_debate.htmlcat17 httpwww.associatedcontent.comarticle1513906death_penalty_an_issue_for_debate.htmlcat17

Article summary
The article was about the issue of death penalty in India in which the writer stated the Indian penal code provides death penalty for criminal conspiracy. The author however cited that capital punishment is discretionary rather than mandatory (Nishan 2009, par. 1). Nishan stated that government adopted a position that death penalty is a crime deterrent but adds that statistic disproves this claim. Nevertheless, Nishan says death penalty does not violate the Indian Constitution. (p. 2, par. 4).

Evaluation of the information of the source
The information cited by the author was mostly from government actions as well as inputs from the development on the issue of death penalty since the Indian independence in 1946. The information however was factual and it provides a sound idea what to do with the issue rather than merely arguing for or against it, stating the need to target the root of a crime (par. 6).

Gill, K. Pros and Cons of the Death Penalty (Capital Punishment)
HYPERLINK httpuspolitics.about.comoddeathpenaltyideath_penalty.htm httpuspolitics.about.comoddeathpenaltyideath_penalty.htm

Article summary
This article traced the developments of the implementations of death penalty in the United States since 1976 decision of the Supreme Court to reinstate death penalty, the government has already executed 1, 136 convicts as of 2008. However, the author noted the changing public attitude to death penalty, especially in the context of whether death penalty is crime deterrent or not. According to the author, the answer is no

Evaluation of the information of the source
The information presented in this article was based on notes on the developments on the implementations of death penalty. Mostly of these notes were from survey results, court decisions, and constitutional provisions and from actual cases of executions of convicts. In other words, the information presented in this article are valid and with quality because they were derived from qualified sources. The article may not be scholarly, but it is good quality.

LiptaK, A. (2007) Does Death Penalty Save Lives A new Debate
HYPERLINK httpwww.nytimes.com20071118us18deter.htmlpagewanted1_r1 httpwww.nytimes.com20071118us18deter.htmlpagewanted1_r1

Summary of the Article
The article was obviously pro death penalty as the author was convinced that capital punishment save lives. Liptak build his argument on the findings of some studies that per inmate put to death, 3 to 18 murders are prevented (par. 2). Liptak cited various distinguished individuals who advocated death penalty as deterrent to heinous crime. However, Liptak cited that limited number of convicted criminal executed limits the impacts of death penalty on criminals.

Evaluation of the information of the source
Most of the sources used by the author are studies and opinions of various scholars who are authorities in the field of economics and law. These intellectuals found the death penalty helps deter crimes and therefore in favor of the death penalty. Given the quality of the sources of information, there is no doubt the paper offers quality information. The article though, is fair and informative.

The Death Penalty Morally Defensible Coseys Critical Thinking
HYPERLINK httpwww.hoshuha.comarticlesdeathpenalty.html httpwww.hoshuha.comarticlesdeathpenalty.html

Summary of the article
This article is an argument in favor of death penalty. The writer argued that death penalty is a lawful, non-malicious killing (par. 8). The writer of the article argued answering point by point all the arguments of anti-death penalty advocates, claiming that death sentence is an easy go away of murder requiring only few seconds in contrast to the minutes, or hours and even days of excruciating pain of their victims.

Evaluation of the information of the source
The article was intended to answer the arguments posed by the anti-death penalty advocate against the execution of convicted criminals. Thus, it can be expected that most of the sources were the arguments posed against death penalty. Since the paper was a response to the challenge of the anti-death penalty, it could hardly be judge as quality or excellent paper. However, it is indeed a quality response paper.

Because of the diversity of work being performed by almost all companies today, many of them have recognized that a  one size fits all  strategy to quality requirements is not functional anymore. In view of this, these companies implemented a Quality Assurance System that is anchored in a graded approach. But what is a graded approach to quality In order to have a general idea of the nature and objectives of graded approach, this paper will comprehensively examine this modern quality assurance practice that is being implemented by many companies today.

Graded Approach to Quality
A graded approach to quality is basically a system used to allocate appropriate resources and to place more weight on those processes or items that have the maximum impact upon schedule, performance, equipment, data, cost, health, safety, environment, and personnel. Graded approach directs the choice of procedures to be utilized on certain activities that generate the most threat for negative outcome on quality. It identifies activities that can be executed at different levels of strictness based upon the prospective effect on quality and type of items. Because of graded approach, management consideration becomes more focused on procedures or items that mainly need oversight and control as well as on cutting down the expenditures of operation in low risk procedures or items.

The Department of National Defense, for instance, has established a policy that includes responsibilities and procedures concerning the discharge of quality system performance guidelines to its environmental testing and sampling programs. This policy was issued by the Assistant Deputy Under-Secretary of Defense last December 2007. As expected, the policy integrates the theory of a graded approach to quality.

Argonne National Laboratory, on the other hand, has likewise implemented its own graded approach. The approach is basically derived from the expected impact of the agency mission, the environment, the personnel, and the proprietary and security programs of the agency. Argonne National Laboratory ensures that activities that are vital to the establishment of its project, as well as those that have the possibility to cause injury, are provided with more quality assurance control as compared to those activities that are not so very important.

Graded approach indicates that the quality system requisites for each program will be at variance in relation to the particular needs and objectives of each program (New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services, 2008). To illustrate, the quality controls of a regulatory compliance programs are and should be far removed from that of research programs in view of the fact that the planned uses and purposes of the respective programs are unrelated. In some companies, graded approach is also being applied to the establishment of a quality system and the ensuing documentation. Once the graded approach has been implemented to the aspects of quality system, it is then employed to the documentation needed by that system. Accordingly, the applications of graded approach will vary the level of the quality assurance plan in accordance to the intended use and the nature of the work being carried out, and to the endeavors carried out to document and develop a Quality System.

Finally, the graded approach to quality of some companies entails that the sufficient level of documentation, management controls, analysis, and indispensable actions are proportionate to the activity or item that may lead to the following (1) adversely affect the perception of the public to the company mission (2) unfavorably influence the program objective of the company (3) reduce the availability of an equipment or facility (4) incur a monetary loss due to scrap costs, rework, repair or damage and (5) create a health, safety, or environmental hazard.

Scope of the Approach
Graded approach to quality is part of the Integrated Quality Assurance program of many companies. This quality assurance is generally anchored in the assumption that the most fitting people to recognize quality risks are the ones who execute and plan the activities involved in the company. In view of this, the integrated graded approach to quality implemented by these companies involves evaluation activities, and suggests an incremental process that guides the people who execute the approach in determining the quality controls suitable for managing the activity. Specifically, it includes an instruction of the standard process for accomplishing the grading, a general understanding of grading, and consistent designations and examples of successful executions carried across the company.

Conclusion
Graded approach to quality is part of the Integrated Quality Assurance program of many companies. The policy of graded approach basically means that quality systems will differ in accordance with the requirements and objectives of particular programs, processes, items, and organizations. Likewise, the standards of evaluation in quality systems documents will likewise differ depending on the designed uses of the information and the character of endeavor being carried out. Accordingly, some activities will be given additional quality assurance control than other activities. This graded approach to quality is without a doubt very crucial to diversely operating companies in cutting down expenditures as it will allow them to focus more on activities that need more control and less on low risk ones.

All knowledge claims should be open to rational criticism. On what grounds and to what extent would you agree with this assertion

To prove that all knowledge claims are true, one should have justification that makes others believe it. Human beings normally expect that all knowledge claims should be open to rational criticism, and if not proven, they may be canceled as being justified and reliable. The reality is that not all knowledge claims are open to rational criticism because to be open to rational criticism a knowledge claim should have reasons and prove to justify that its true  there are 3 ways to use reasoning to explain about knowledge claim which are inductive and deductive reasoning and to prove there should be physical evidence of it. However there are still some knowledge claims that have no proves to justify that its the truth. So using rational criticism to justify a knowledge claim requires both methods of reasoning (inductive  deductive), truths and also proves. The example that can be taken from one of knowledge claim is Religion. We cannot prove and justify that God really exists and its only based on faith which makes that not all knowledge claims could be open to rational criticism. At the same time, it is based on the evidence that proved others that God exists.

Here is a question that brings believers and non believers into endless arguments can one prove that God exists by saying that he or she had a vision, or even hundreds of people who reported to have seen the same vision of Jesus, Mary, Angels or God Here we face with culture and generally accepted terms of conduct and knowledge sharing practices. If the society is perceptive towards accepting visions, dreams or signs as evidence, then critical reasoning applies to this as a valid source of reasoning. If a layer of society is pragmatic and considers claims like this fraudulent and misleading, tricks of the church, etc, then this method loses its credibility.

We can discuss about concepts of love, devotion, belief, care and many other realities of our daily life and find arguing sides that will not agree on a single concept.

The mediated transfer of information and knowledge is considered to have enough bases for serving as a solid base for reasoning. At this stage the responsibility of accepting the truth or denying falls on the recipient of the knowledge. The ancient and contemporary court has relied on the evidence for thousands of years, and has tried to accommodate itself into true or false knowledge claims by creating auxiliary rules of solving the gap of immediate reasoning opportunity (calling at least two witnesses, using moral andor religious codes, threatening in case the evidence is fraudulent, etc.)

Its true that every judgment that people make should have reason and prove that may lead us to truth, but what is truth Truth is the quality of being true and its based on the reality. Truth also relates to the agreement of many people about a thing. There are 3 theories that explain truth which are coherence, correspondence and pragmatic theory.  Three of them have different directions that direct us to areas about how to fulfill the aspects of being true. Coherence leads to a belief, correspondence leads us to a fact and pragmatic leads to the usefulness of making the thing become truth. Truth also relates to our perception of judging which is reasoning. Reasoning is also known as analytic truths which if it combines with the word logic it could judge a knowledge claim. The example of combining both reasoning and logic is used in mathematical truth where 11 is always be 2. There are no arguments that could deny this statement. But here again we face with another phenomenon perception.

Different people are in the position to formulate different modes of knowledge on a certain phenomenon due to their personality, life stories, expectations, personal interests and their worldview in general. Here the truth relies upon coincidence of perceptions.

The first issue is Can rational criticism support the existence of God Like Martin Luther said, You must abandon your reason, know nothing of it, annihilate it completely, or you will never enter heaven. This explains that religion and reasoning does not match in any case. People think that religion cannot be true either proven that its fake through out reasoning. People could think that its true and its real if they have beliefs in it which lead to faith. To prove about a knowledge claim, there should be proves physically and reasons which is not provided in religion. Its impossible to prove that God does really exist. People only have faith, that faith is build by whom they believe without doubt and no true proofs. Which here it may be concluded that rational criticism does not support the existence of God.

The second issue is  Is reasoning able to clearly justify truth There are 2 kinds of reasoning deductive and inductive. What differentiates both is that deductive reasoning is more to the general view and inductive is more to particular idea rather than to general view. To explain in more details here is the example. Freddy is a human, human are all clever, therefore Freddy is clever. This example shows deductive reasoning, which again relates more to the general view. By this example, also shows that deductive reasoning does preserve the truth by showing the validity of the argument but it has nothing to do with the truth and the falsity of its premises. Inductive reasoning also cant clearly justify about truth. Example that can be used is Freddy is clever when he studies Tommy is clever when he studies, therefore human is clever when they study. Inductive reasoning goes beyond our senses and its more to the logic, which make us hard to rely on it. Inductive reasoning is too informative but it is less certain than deductive reasoning. Both of the reasoning lead us to fallacies, which fallacies come from the haste of generalization and it could be misguidance. All of these factors may cause bad reasoning and it could limit the reliability of the truth by using inductive and deductive reasoning for showing rational criticism.

The third issue is Does the role of language manipulate truth The uniqueness of language also makes difference in the people interpretation towards something. There is no knowledge that could be studied without the existence of language. It may be concluded that language is the best way to give information and it also misplaces the interpretation of people towards the meaning. For example, the difference between the words murder and manslaughter. Both has the same meaning which is a person who kill another person but the interpretation of people when listen to the word means different thing which manslaughter will be more negative compared to murder which lead to the misunderstanding of the meaning. Also, language has the power to manipulate about truth, which mostly is during the translation from one language to another language and its used during the wartime to manipulate about whos the good and whos the bad. Language could result misunderstanding because language cannot constantly have the same meaning.

A lot depends also on intonation, gesture and mimic. The same word pronounced in different intonations, combinations of gesture and mimic may result in altering the original dictionary meaning of the word. If we look into language deeper, even pose and level of voice may completely change the whole meaning of words, that could be interpreted in another context when pronounced in another way.

Every claim in knowledge should be shown to justify truth and rational criticism cannot be used completely to work out knowledge claim. As it is shown above, logic and rationalism does play most of the role in deciding the truth. It has both the advantage and disadvantage. The advantage is that it could be proven without anyone could deny and against so its always true but the disadvantage is that it cant be proven using reasons. A thing that cannot be proven using reasons may lead to bad reasoning and its non-sense.

To conclude my discussion I would like to note that every knowledge claim must be clarified, by using reasons and show proves, to justify about truth and clarify its judgment and eventually, not all knowledge claims are open to rational criticism because not all of the knowledge claims could be proven physically. From the other hand knowledge and transfer of knowledge are existent based on the human factors of knowledge bearer and the recipient. After all, the decision whether any proof is physical and acceptable, or it is abstract and untouchable, is in the hands of the knowledge recipient.

I am not from the planet Venus and I have never yet met a man from Mars. As popular as John Grays multimillion dollar industry built around the Men are From Mars and Women are From Venus theory has been since the early 1990s, communication differences based solely on gender are not significant. However, the assertion that men and women communicate in vastly different ways, about different things, and for different reasons seems to go un-challenged and is accepted as fact by many.
Current research has increasingly acknowledged that factors such as race, class, ethnicity, and sexual orientation strongly impact how persons of both genders communicate effectively debunking the assumption that there are essential differences between men and women. Recent studies show that men and women communicate in ways that are much more similar than different. The supposed disparity is a myth based on stereotypes and is driven by culture rather than based on truth. This belief is damaging to both sexes and should be rejected.
 
Gender and culture are connected. The definition of gender relies heavily upon cultural values and practices a cultures ideas about masculinity and femininity form expectations about how an individual should communicate and the socialization of girls and boys during childhood moves us into different ways of using language.

In the early part of the nineteenth century, many challenged the view that women were not entitled to pursue an education or vote in elections. In protesting the stereotypical notions of the day, these nonconformists led the way into establishing rights we enjoy today.  The cultural acceptance of this norm was shattered and no one today should accept the outdated theory that women were neither worth educating nor their voices worthy of being heard in matters of politics. The shift in cultural views on gender can be seen even in our own generation. It is highly unlikely that many modern women subscribe to their grandparents ideals of masculine and feminine roles in society today. Both sexes are expected to play a nurturing role in the upbringing of children as well as provide financial support in todays family. Many military combat positions are now open to women and men are no longer barred from pursuing a career as a flight attendant. These are but a few examples of the cultural changes regarding gender in Western society, however, the harmful but widespread belief that women communicate in vastly different ways than men solely based on gender or sex still lingers.

Gender is socially constructed, thus differences must be approached as cross-cultural communication rather than differences based upon female or male orientation.

According to Baron-Cohen (2003), mens brains are wired differently  the biological argument. Although many people use the terms gender and sex interchangeably, they have distinctly different meanings. In most cases, sex and gender are common most men are perceived as masculine and most women are seen as feminine. In some cases, however, a male may express himself in a more feminine way than the majority of males or a woman may communicate in a seemingly more masculine way than other women. Sex is a designation based on biology, whereas gender is socially constructed. Sex is a rather simplistic concept a person is designated male or female based on external genitalia or internal sex organs. A persons sex is determined on a biological level by chromosomes. The presence or absence of a Y chromosome determines if a fetus will develop into a male or female. Some children are born with biological characteristics of both sexes. Intersex is defined as a group of conditions where there is a discrepancy between the external genitals and the internal genitals (Google Health, n.d), a condition called hermaphroditism. The recommended treatment of this condition has changed dramatically over the years. Previously the preferred approach was to assign a sex and perform surgery to remove any ambiguity as soon as possible with no regard to chromosomal, psychological or behavioral factors.

But even biological differences can be overcome through the intervention of modern technology. Gender reassignment is now routinely performed and may include genital reconstructive surgery- a surgical procedure that transforms the body to the gender opposite of that in which the person was born. Conventional beliefs about both sex and gender are challenged by those who define themselves as transgendered. Transgender is defined by the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language as a person appearing or attempting to be a member of the opposite sex.

Even on a genetic level, where so many communication differences allegedly reside, are no longer beyond our power to alter. Clearly these instances pose a complex set of circumstances and are not easily explained by either John Greys MarsVenus theory or by the statement boys and girls are just born different as popular sentiment would have us accept.

So just why does the Mars-Venus myth continue to be popular today
The essential differences between men and women are perceived differences and not validated by biological or scientific truths. The ability to communicate effectively is not contingent upon gender but in the individuals ability to utilize an appropriate communication style for a given condition. Not falling victim to generalized gender differences and enlarging ones repertoire of communication skills will be an advantage to men and women alike.


The role played by different communication practices in determining our lives are equally significant in the ground of sex and communication. According to Mulvaney (1994), communication is the process through which a person learns to either be male or female. He also depicts it as a product of every persons effort to behave appropriately according to hisher sex.

Mulvaney (1994) claims that the focus of feminist criticism is based on gender. This indicates that gender is an influence on as well as a result of communication. It is from a very early age that males and females are taught absolutely different linguistic habits. Some of these habits of communication for example may be acceptable for practice by one gender while they are totally unacceptable for the other. Researchers have shown that women mainly undergo two ways of linguistic discrimination. This manifests in the way they are taught to make use of language and also the way use of common language treats them. Women usually portray the role they play in social array by making use of linguistic habits that include, the use of tag questions, fillers and quantifiers to make their message appear soft. In the traditional setup, women were usually identified through the association they had with men. Work place titles clearly indicated which positions were to be held by men and which were to be held by women. However, this has considerably been eradicated in the modern world (Napier, n.d).

Habits concerned with communication reflect our views on gender as wells as create cultural concepts of gender. The types of language we use in communication mainly reflect what we are taught about gender. Various sources of message including spiritual, mythical, technical and philosophical sources teach us the values and rules of the society towards gender. Some very good examples of mythical messages about gender are the American myth that portrays the role of an active man in the provision of family needs, the portrayal of women as a lesser man by Plato, Aristotles description of women as  a misbegotten male, the craniologists myth in the 19th century that the small heads of women indicated the subordinate position they were supposed to hold in society, and Freuds which indicated that all females had little sense of justice and many others.

There are no natural myths or innocent un-ideological myths. All of them are created objects out of faith that tends to make them appear real. The advertising community is termed as one of the best myth maker. This is due to their control of all cultural perceptions of gender, which is what it means and takes to be either male or female. The countless means of mass communication in the modern world offer a great benefit to both the female and the male fraternity as well as pose a great risk for gender abuse. This makes communication a major issue of concern while tackling gender related issues.

According to Mulvaney (1994), it is mythical to view the day to day communication between men and women as fundamentally different. The stories people tell to explain their history have got a great impact on our lives. They significantly shape our beliefs as well as influence our actions as the myth of men are from Mars and women form Venus may show.

Gender Communication as Intercultural Communication
According to Mulvaney (1994), the components of intercultural communication are made up of points at which communication patterns, habits, and traditions across cultures may indicate significant differences. Differences in world view and the ways in which language is used between men and women are two of the points of difference signifying gender communication as an intercultural communication.

Mulvaney (1994), states that the identity of female revolves around relationship and connections whereas the male identity gauges more on autonomy. When the role of women in religion is looked at, the goddess metaphysics unlike the goddess mythology creates a worldview in which the natural world is respected and not dominated. This may bring about differences between males and females in the way they view the world and as a result affect communication significantly.

Women consider talk as the real meaning of relationships while men use the same to exert power, enhance separation, create and maintain status. According to Cameron (2007), women are more verbally skilled and tend to talk more than men. Women use language to express their views on fairness and accord. Miscommunication may occur between them as a result of misinterpretation of others intentions. The ways through which aspects of social association and their associated patterns of communication vary between genders are parallel to the way these genders view the world. Variations in social status may also be reflected by the use of language. It has been shown by researchers that communication strategies utilized by females imitate subsidiary and non-violent role they play in the western communities. The type of language used in expressing world views between men and women may also portray differences in communication between them. Non-spoken communication as another form of language use may reveal the variations between male and female.

Our earlier example of spatial distance between persons in diverse ethnic background and circumstances give significant proof that gender communication is a form of intercultural communication. Culture dictates the gender which has more privilege by according them different amount of space. Gender roles played by women and men in the traditional society were dictated by variation in the amount of space given to and taken by them. It was very rare for women to own anything in their families. According to Napier (n.d), in the workplace, some positions were strictly held by women and were accorded a smaller space as compared to those that were traditionally held by male. This is however not the case in the contemporary world as no position is strictly reserved for a particular gender. In the cases where the space of an individual is faced by intrusion, differences in communication strategies once again emerge in the way both genders handle the situation. Women tend to give way rather than confront the impostor whereas men act more violently.

Differences in social and nonverbal sensitivity between men and women
According to Canary and Dindia (1998), contemporary communication research depicts women as skilled communicators than men. This may be due to the differences in socialization. Women also pose a great deal of emotional cues than do men. Women are able to express themselves through emotional and nonverbal communication than men. Women have been shown by research as better decoders and encoders of emotional and nonverbal communication. They pose superior nonverbal skills and are more skillful and attentive listeners. Writers have proposed some clichs concerning men saying that they never listen. It has also been said according to Cameron (2007), that women find pleasure in expressing their feelings as referenced from articles retrieved from womens magazines and social cards.

Difference in spatial skills
It is believed that the right brain hemisphere of men is retarded. However, the function of the right hemisphere in men greatly modifies their spatial ability. Men have got an excellent visuospatial ability. The spatial tasks performed by men are said to be more reliable. The female brain is on the other hand believed to excel more on verbal tasks as compared to that of men.
 Problems in gender communications

Differences in communication between men and women can pose some major problems in communications as well as relationships. Mulvaney (1994), notes that these problems may crop up as a result of lack of female role models, misrepresentation of men as a standard rendering women imperceptible in curricular content, and a mode of communication that is biased in classrooms. Non-verbal misinterpretation is another problem associated with gender communication. The worlds tendency of assessing the performance of both genders based on the other is also a problem as it portrays men and female as the same without respecting their differences.

Guidelines for Improving Communication between the Genders
Identification of gender communication problems can help in learning to avoid them. Awareness of these problems can greatly aid in making better our gender communication. Assumption that women and men are the same should be avoided in order to increase our realization of the difference between their goals and principles. This also helps in understanding that verbal and nonverbal communications between men and women may differ as well. Knowledge about community bias and labeling which depict the other sex as opposite or different helps in shunning biasness.

Conclusion
When the question of do men and women really communicate in ways different from each other is revisited, we can conclude that in one way or the other, men and women conduct themselves differently as regards to their modes of communication. Women have been shown to express more non-violent forms of communication than men who use language to express authority. Based on scientific point of view, it can be concluded that women whose right hemisphere in the brain is more developed than that of men are more verbally competent than their male counterparts.

Organizational trustworthiness can be defined as a tool for the evaluation of the management behavior in the modern-day work environment. Trust worthy behavior has been identified as key to increased employee effort and initiatives in the organization. Trustworthiness can be said to be that behavior which is in support of the expectation that an actor will respond in reciprocity in regard to the interest of the party. The concept of regarding people as the most important asset of an organization has widely been accepted but very few people live towards the same.  In most cases, managers would call for greater effort and enthusiasm from their employees by heightening the involvement of the employees but doing very little in changing the organizational practices in order to reflect same commitment. According to Hodson, organizations just like social communities can either be anomic, alienating and disorganized or normative, organized, integrated, and produce meaning and satisfaction. Organizational trustworthiness is generally based on employment practices and the managerial competency models. Any efforts to test such efforts has been faced with many challenges in the past due to the difficulty of gathering data related to managerial and employee behaviors in a given organization. Randy Hodson set out to conduct a comprehensive analysis of data collected from 204 organizational ethnographies in order to address the challenges in testing the two models. The analysis did verify the existence of management competence and employee practices as two distinct factors.

Critical Summary of Hodsons Analysis
It has been argued that both the human relations practices that are supportive and competencies in the management are essential for the realization of productivity in the organization. Both the respect for employees and managerial competence are the two functions that are much needed in the contemporary high performance organizations. Appropriate managerial behavior in the place of work therefore represents two realms that are different but somehow related. The management responsibilities are specified in the workplace norms in order to maintain an orderly and efficient production system which allows the workforce to meet its job demands. On the other hand, the same workplace norms incorporate treating the employees with some dignity and the recognition of their social and material interests. When these norms are not observed in an organization, this may result in purposelessness and aloofness from work.

The organization has the duty to establish supportive employment practices which involves having respect for the rights and interests of the employees. This may include but not limited to the provision of a stable and secure employment which offers job security to employees, payment that is adequate and with the ensuing benefits, and offering the opportunities in training and advancement of the employees careers. Such practices are relevant towards the achievement of trustworthy in an organization. Another duty of the organization is to provide management competence in order to attain effectiveness and coherence in production organization. This aspect involves maintaining of the facilities and technology, together with the coordination and the integration of the activities that are related to productivity. Ineffective arrangements of production can be manifested in the purchase of faulty components, failing to properly schedule activities in an orderly manner, communication failure, and the inability to exercise sound leadership. Competence has been identified as a key component of trustworthiness which is an important aspect for a positive organizational culture.

The impacts of the organizational trustworthiness are far reaching ranging from enhanced citizenship of the employees, and increasing cooperation with minimized conflicts at the workplace. Employee citizenship behavior has been identified as positive activities by the employees geared towards improving productivity and cohesion at then workplace which are usually beyond the organizational requirement. Hodson claims that, the organizational trustworthiness also limits conflict and infighting among co-workers through the identification and promotion of super-ordinate goals. To him one can not expect to find cooperative and supportive co-worker relationship in an organization characterized by unethical management behavior coupled by untrustworthy. Conflicts may also arise between the management and the employees thereby eroding the sense of the shared purpose between the workforce and the managers. Reciprocity that is provided by the organizational trustworthiness can reduce the employeemanager conflicts with great significance.

Strength and Weaknesses
The approach used by Hodson to check on how management competence and employment practices draws its strength from the fact that adequate numbers of samples were used which included different organization ethnographies. The sampling and methodology used in data collection and analysis were also commendable. This led to development of new insights that coherence in the organization and managerial competences are the main determinants of key aspects of employee behavior. The major weakness of this approach is that despite consuming too much time and resources, the outcome of the analysis mainly confirmed the already existing tenets about organizational trustworthiness. Very little was discovered to add to what had been discovered in the previous undertakings and this can be seen as both time and resource wastage.

Conclusion
Despite the critique laid against Hodson, he has helped clear any doubts that existed about the employment practices as a chief foundation for employee citizenship. His comprehensive analysis has reiterated that management competence and employee practices are responsible for the growth of the organizational trustworthiness. The implications of Hodsons paper to organizational theory would therefore be to stress the importance of effectiveness in the organizations. This will mean that high performance in the organization will be a reflection of how the employee practices that enhance employee citizenship, limiting conflicts are implemented in the organization. It will also be a reflection of effective managerial competence being administered in the organization.