Sociology

Since the advent of artificial intelligence, technology has become increasingly complex. Such complexity has put tremendous pressure on experts to build a dependable system that is able to carry out its intended operation without risks to humans. Regarding dependability, experts suggest that it is an integration of attributes such as reliability, availability, security and maintainability, among others. Therefore, a system, which is capable of performing its job without any negative effects, is considered, dependable.

Sophisticated medical devices like Multileaf Collimator utilize artificial intelligence to replicate surgical procedures that once were only possible under acute human supervision. Developers of Multileaf Collimator should understand the implications of a dependable system that can provide effective radiotherapy without harming patients. A threat to a dependable system is usually present in the form of faults, errors and failures. Developers must invent precautions to safeguards against these threats.

Fault, Errors and Failure  A Potent Combination
A fault mostly lay dormant but whenever it becomes active, it produces error. Users and developers of the system may not know about a fault unless it activates. Consequently, the error generated by such a fault can cause failure. Mostly, errors are generated but without major consequences, which are why, most users are not concerned about most error. It is only when a certain error produces a major failure, only then developers and users become concerned.

Case Study - Therac 25
In fact, such failures can be catastrophic. In 1986, such was the case at East Texas Cancer Center where an unintended fault by Therac 25 linear accelerator produced an error that ultimately became the basis of a catastrophic failure leading to the death of a patient (Leveson, 1995). Perhaps, this case will help developers understand how faults, errors and failures interact and cause a chain reaction to threaten dependability of an otherwise very popular system.

It all started when a cancer patient was being treated by a linear accelerator. The operator at backend was an expert who had previously performed such procedures multiple times. On that unfortunate day, the operator mistakenly put erroneous dosage data in the system. Upon realizing his mistake and before turning on the system, the operator quickly retyped correct parameters.

The entire process to fix that particular typing error took less than 8 seconds. Unknown to the operator, the system did not register correct parameters because Therac 25 was busy processing the original command. Because the operator had become an expert at typing, he had corrected his mistake in less than 8 seconds whereby the system was already processing his initial request. By the time operator had corrected the mistake, he did not realize that his correct command was never registered.

This fault produced a rare error malfunctioning error 54. This error interacted with service interface to deliver a lethal doze to the patient. The lethal dosage was a catastrophic failure resulting in the death of patient. Interestingly, this error was also present in an earlier version, Therac 20. Subsequent investigations reveled that error 54 was also produced in Therac 20 but it contained hardware interlocks, which mitigated the probability of injecting such lethal doze.

It will not be an overstatement to suggest that developers of Therac 25 were overconfident in their design of software. Actually, they were so confident that they overlooked hardware interlocks and checkpoints, which could have stopped the system from activating the injector. It is therefore recommended that developers of sophisticated systems should not merely focus on software but also coordinate with hardware manufacturers to develop a dependable system that can effectively be intelligent enough to prevent such threats. In short, safety should be seen as a property of an entire system and not just of the software.

PART II
Moral Standards
Software developers are entrusted by general public to hold high moral values. Although, software development is a kind of behind the scene job which does not require public interaction but computer scientists are as accountable to society as any other professional. Generally, relevant professional bodies such as Association for Computer Machinery ACM provide guiding principle which dictates appropriate course of action for its members.

While it is almost impossible to enlist every moral conduct, professionals are expected to understand rules and in the absence of exact rules, make logical decision based on prescribed guiding principles. Actually, the importance of reading and understanding these guidelines is signified in an event where professionals have to make ethical decision without the existence of a precise rule. Under those circumstances, only knowledgeable professionals are able to make a decision which is technically similar to adopted guidelines.

High Standards of Software Developers
As stated, devices like Collimator are part of sophisticated medical equipment that depend on artificial intelligence and may inflict terminal injuries, without proper safeguards. Based on its function, any development team designing such instrument is ethically more liable to its user than the makers of software for personal computers. Even though, Sociology does not distinguish between high or low ethics but it does differentiates between software that has the ability to affect mentally than from that which can indirectly or directly inflict mortal injury. This is precisely why development of Collimator is a job that should only be undertaken by professional who not only understands ethics but is able to derive decisions from relevant codes of ethics. In short, developers of Collimator control software are responsible to entire medical community including those who seek treatment and advice.

According to moral imperatives defined by ACM, the aim of computer professionals should be to make positive contribution to society by improving quality of life and creating safe environment. Since 1965, medical software developers have certainly improved quality of care by introducing advance radiation therapy techniques helping patients undergo complex medical procedures (Avizienis, Laprie  Randell). Still, events related to Therac 25 continue to challenge typical notion of morality. It should be understood that definition of harm may not solely involve intentional injury but it also constitutes associated negative consequence. Therac 25 incident at Kennestone Regional Oncology Center exemplifies how negative consequences may alleviate, leading to seriously harmful situations.

Investigations into these case revealed that AECL, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited, who had been instrumental in Therac development, did not have a formal procedure to follow up reports of suspected accidents. It was only after a lawsuit was filed that AECL had any sort of official record. Furthermore, it is also assumed that management of AECL was aware of the incident but no action was taken to solve the problem. It can be argued that AECL management did not act morally because it helped induce negative consequence as a result of their reluctance to do anything without receiving formal report. Therefore, software developers of MLC should not rest on official confirmation but instead be pro-active in managing compliance affairs.

In this regard, software engineer may question feasibility of acting on every other software glitch. In fact, a well placed mechanism to report such incidents may be an answer to deal with such problems. NASA implemented such confidential reporting system after the accident of Challenger, which was caused by a series of minor faults. The new reporting system called all 100,000 NASA employees and contractors to anonymously submit report on incident, major or minor, to a third party which acted as NASA safety consultant on space missions (Miya, 1987). Such a reporting system allowed NASA to overcome problems that are not publicized. One would wonder if a similar procedure were in place for AECL, subsequent incident may not have taken place. These examples highlight the fact that not only software engineers need to look at the ramifications of their programming but they also need to coordinate with other professionals in their industry who are directly or indirectly engaged in the development process.

Such a task may also require software developers to work with the person, in charge of writing operating manual. For example, radiotherapy is conducted by an operator who is neither a medical doctor nor software developer therefore their duties primarily rely on the operating manuals and instructions provided by technicians. Under these circumstances, a good software developer can make sure that errors have simple and detailed explanation which is easy to understand. Similarly, they may even help write operating manual by elaborating on frequently generated errors. As such, good coordination among different departments is also considered good ethics. Case files of Therac 25 accidents expose poor communication because software developers. It indicates that developers may not have justifiably coordinated with hardware equipment supplier which could have provided additional safeguards.

ACM guidelines also provide clear instructions on privacy issues. Privacy issues may not be seen as a huge concern for software developers of MLC but examples from Sears departmental store will help absorb its importance. In January 2008, a software glitch allowed anyone in Public to access Sears customer purchase history by typing in the name and related profiles at  HYPERLINK httpwww.managemyhome.com www.managemyhome.com (Benjamin, 2008). To most of us, purchase history may not reveal much information but consider what would happen if a miscreant acting as a servicemen or marketer use this data to gain access inside the homes of Sears customers. Such intrusion may occur if an appliance is recalled and the imposter acts as repairmen to gain access.

Interestingly, prior to publishing this news, a similar breach at Buy.com store was also noticed. Now consider how vulnerable would a patient, receiving radiotherapy treatment, feel if their personal information is accessed by an authorized individual. A software developer of MLC will need to consider how much information should be provided to an operator or anyone reading a particular medical report. They will also need to analyze when additional information will be beneficial to medical experts. As stated earlier, software development of MLC is not a stand alone process but such a task requires engineers to consult relevant authorities to reveal data that is not only effective and transparent but also safe. This attitude is in line with ACM professional responsibilities of computer professionals who are required to give comprehensive evaluation of a computer system and their impacts, including analysis of possible risks.

This year, New York Times has starting publishing detail analysis of radiation therapy accidents by liner accelerators (Bogdanich, 2010). Investigators found nearly 621 mistakes from 2001 to 2008 in which 133 incidents directly involved a radiotherapy device. Moreover, there is not a single agency overseeing medical radiation. Dr. John J Feldmeier at University of Toledo, a well known radiation injury expert, predicts that 1 in 20 of all therapy patients sustain some kind of injury.  The NY Times further reports that there were 3000 cases of radiation injury in US leading wound care company.
These reports suggest that there is still a long way to go in developing an extremely dependable system. Irrespective of software malfunction, developers of MLC should not only be concerned about programming but make sure that they envision their responsibilities on a much broader scale, incorporating moral values such as communication and privacy. Only then, they will be able to realize their roles within the ethical framework of entire society.

PART III
Fault Analysis Techniques
Scientists have explained various fault analysis tools that can help software designers perform checks before, during and after implementation of a system. By definition, terms such as hazard, faults and errors are conjoined therefore it is viable to discuss safeguarding techniques in context of faults. It will not be an oversimplification to suggest that dependability of a system depends on four techniques. These are fault prevention, fault tolerance, fault removal and fault forecasting. Moreover, it can generally be assumed that all fault analysis methods fall within these four categories.

In his book, Hazard Analysis Techniques for System Safety, Clifton A. Ericson provides multiple fault analysis techniques depending on the type of analysis and development phase. These analysis types include proven models such as Petri net analysis, Fault tree analysis, Markov analysis and Bent Pin Analysis including others. Actually, the author explained more than 20 methods for fault analysis but in general all of these techniques are form of fault prevention, fault tolerance, fault removal or fault forecasting (Figure 1). Among these, fault removal and fault prevention are type of hazard analysis techniques which continue during and after development phase.

Fault Removal
Fault removal is an on going process which includes active analysis during the developmental phase of software. Verification is the first step in fault removal where system designers would verify that their system can perform all functions that it is designed for. If a fault is detected, the system has to undergo re-verification process before it could continue its development phase. This verification process constitutes static verification which is often carried out without any physical operation. Walk through, inspection and theorems proving are kinds of static verification which does not require software engineers to physically interrupt the system. In contrast, dynamic verification requires engineers to supply necessary inputs to the system. These inputs can be symbolic in nature but mostly these include real input, also termed as testing.

Fault Removal  Therac 25
In fault removal analysis, fault injection technique is probably one of the most popular types of verification techniques. Designers intentionally inject a fault within the system to check is the system is able to operate beyond the limits of its prescribed usage.  As a software designer, fault injection analysis would allow professionals to contain the software within a prescribed boundary of human endurance, by limiting the amount of doze that can be injected. Reconsider cases of Therac 25 where software fault led to beam injecting lethal doze, hundred times more than a person is able to withstand.

In fault prevention, preventive maintenance is routinely carried out before operations. Its aim is to uncover faults before they are induced whereas corrective maintenance is deployed after one or more errors have already been reported. Again, it is useful to recall Therac 25 incidents. Had there been a corrective maintenance mechanism in place, errors such a malfunction 54 could have been reproduced and dealt with, accordingly. Lack of communication and fault removal methods allowed six patients to undergo faulty procedure that could have been detected on earlier model, Therac 20, when such errors were produced by new trainee students.

Fault Forecasting
Fault forecasting is usually conducted whenever fault is activated. Qualitative and quantitative evaluations are its two types. In qualitative fault forecasting, analysts try to identify faults by classifying them into various categories. This technique allows the developer to build priorities when working with multiple faults. On the other hand, quantitative fault forecasting evaluates in terms of probabilities. Each fault is measured according to the extent of probability that it has satisfied different attributes of dependability. Failure mode and effect analysis are examples of qualitative fault forecasting while Markov chains are considered a type of quantitative analysis.

Example - Fault Tree Forecasting
In fact, fault tree analysis is an increasingly popular method of fault forecasting that utilizes both quantitative and qualitative methods of fault forecasting. Therefore, a brief overview of fault tree can provide useful insight into the functioning of a reliable system. Fault tree is a robust system which is designed to calculate probability of occurrence of a certain event.

The popularity of fault tree is based on the fact that is very easy to implement, understand and design in comparison to other fault analysis system. Using fault tree methodology, analysts can utilize a pre-defined methodology to model a combination of fault events that can trigger fault within a certain system (Figure 2). As its name dictates, the tree consists of various branches protruding from different causes of failures, to reproduce all possible faults of a problem. The structure of fault tree is continuously elaborated whenever a new fault emerges. Its graphical representation is simply a combination of logic gates and fault events, all of which can easily be translated into mathematical model that is able to calculate the probability fault generation from other single causes. The hierarchical nature of fault tree allows software developers to add or remove fault events, allowing them to design an extensive but understandable cause and effect relationship.

Fault Forecasting  Therac 25
As with fault removal methods, fault forecasting in fault tree also utilize two functions. Proactive logic is integrated during the development stages while reactive function is designed after a fault is detected. The simple graphical interface of a fault tree is helpful in drawing fault events that have not yet activated. This graphical interface also allows developers to understand the interrelation of system events and their interdependence on each other. Recall events of Therac 25 where software developers would not have guessed how the earlier version, Therac 20 was depended on hardware checks to prevent an accident. Theoretically, fault tree analysis would have helped designers to generate further possibilities once multiple errors had been detected.

Recommendations
To be cost effective, experts recommend that fault tree analysis should be used earlier in the design process. SHARPE, SPNP, SURF-2 are some tools that help software engineers use fault tree and Markov chain fault forecasting models. Irrespective of the methodology used, it is important to understand that software developers use literature which is able to define fault analysis theory in detail (Ericson, 2005). Until now there has been a shortage of such literature. Hence, books such as Hazard Analysis Techniques for System Safety by Clifton A. Ericson should serve as good source of information on different methods of fault analysis. 

This paper tackles many different areas of discussion which is important in the discussion of the evolution of marriage and family life in lieu of the evolution of the woman in the society as well. The paper begins with the Introduction followed by the discussions starting with the family and marriage structure during the Pre-Columbian North America and later, the different modern evolutionary phases. This includes the following discussions (1) women in America and gender role and its role in changing marriage and family (2) the financial independence and economic evolution of women in America and its role in changing marriage and family (3) the social role of women and its role in changing marriage and family and the (4) sexual developmentsexual evolution and its role in changing marriage and family. The paper wraps up with the conclusion of the discussion.

There are several opposing views seen in this paper. It is larely influenced by the opposing views seen by the traditional patrilineal, patrilocal and patriarchal perspectives and the modern matrilineal and women-centric and women empowered society. This has seen the transformation of the social role and gender role of women from what it was in the past (which is limited and constricted) and what it is in the present and what it can be in the future, which is a more empowered and more forward-moving.

Two of the important institutions in society are marriage and family life. These two changed over time because of the role of, and transformation, of women. The evolution of marriage and family in America is strongly connected with the evolution of women because of the significant and important role of the women in marriage and family. Because of this issue, the study and tracing of the history of marriage and family life in America goes side by side the evolution of women in America. The evolution is characterized by specific areas of evolution, namely gender role, financial independence and economic evolution, social role and the sexual development.

The discussion of the paper takes many different paths to provide a reinforced and strongly cohesive idea presented in the paper. The paper moves from social to practical to moral implications of the changes. It tackles and attacks issues affecting home and society and community, from the personal level of the evolution and transformation to the societal level of change and how everything eventually came in place as it is seen today.

It is safe to say that as marriage and family life in America changes and transforms, a large part of it is because of the changes that women are experiencing at the same time. If there werent any changes in women and there is no evolution among the female in the society, there wouldnt be any form of catalyst that can change the structure, design and nature of marriage and family in America. Of course, there are also other factors. There are social factors that are beyond the power and control of women, like war, mass media and its influence in the thinking of the people and the civil rights movements which will eventually include womens rights. These things also are important components in how the evolution of marriage and family life in America took place. Above these things, what remains consistent is that the strongest source of change in marriage and family life and the changes that happen to the women in general. Because of that, the evolution of marriage and family life will always be connected and parallel to the changes in the evolution of the woman.

Even before the entry of the European explorers in the South and North America, the natives residing in this country already have their own form of marriage and family life structure. Travelling across prehistoric North America, natives utilized many different styles of family organization for their benefit (Kowtko 174). As in other places contemporary of pre-Columbian era, the family acts the basic unit of the society. The family forms the small groups and communities, which in turn, form the societies inside this country which is yet to have its own modern form of national governance. During that time, family is already important in the society. The main alliance and affiliation of the individual is to his or her family and to his or her tribe. Similarly, marriage is already established as an important institution in these societies. The communities, tribes and groups of people have varying practices that affect marriage, which, at the time is very much heterosexual. Marriage, as a practice and part of social life, involves the pairing of two individuals, a male and a female.

The ceremony of marriage sanctifies the union. Through marriage, the society or community is officially informed about the union. The couple and their families are officially allowed to the privileges that go along with the practice of marriage. During that time, the important role of marriage is for reproduction, to make sure that there are individuals that will continue the existence of the society and their culture and tradition. The more recent idea of marriage and family life results from a manifestation of what is called a romantic love between the two individuals. This hardly exists in the past family and marriage structure. During that time, marriage and family exists for their practical and socio-cultural purposes that serve the best interest of the society and the community. In The Radical Idea of Marrying for Love, the author explained that romantic love was hardly a reason at all why women involved themselves in marriage and family life (Coontz 3). It also explained why marriage and family life persisted and existed for thousands of years not just in America but around the world.

In many of the pre-Columbian North American tribes, one of the noticeable qualities inside the society is the subjugation of the women to the patriarchal and patrilineal society. In marriage, for example, it is often the father who chooses and approves of the partner that the woman would have in marriage. As a wife and mother, the woman is delegated to domestic tasks of maintaining and managing the family and attending to its basic day to day needs, like cleaning and feeding of the babies. Men are often sent out for other tasks, like food gathering and other tasks. In tribal settings, women often portray roles that made them secondary citizens to men. It was men who became leaders, who are crowned warrior kings, while women, at best, can be socially relevant because of their role in assisting birth giving, as healers and sorcerers still under the king or ruler.

The pre-Columbian North America and the family, marriage and women role here is one of the initial stages in the long process of evolution that family, marriage and women role would underwent. Not even the resulting European colonization can improve the condition of these three aspects in social life. European system is very much the same. They subjugate women, curtail them and limit their importance and significance in the family and more so in the society. They have men creating practices and tradition which, in turn, comprises the set of practices and beliefs that identifies the role, boundaries and importance of the woman in marriage and in the family life, as a wife, mother, aunt and female child.

There would always be male-dominated and male-designed roles exclusive for the woman as a wife, mother, aunt and female child in the society. These roles and characteristics appear to be constantly restrictive and limited compared to their male counterparts (husband, father, male child). The glimmer and realization of change would begin in the more modern era when socio civic thinking would revise the appreciation for and role of women in the society, which in turn, would impact the design of family and marriage and the womans participation and role in it.

The modern evolutionary phase of the transformation of women refer to the eras, decades and clusters of timelines which have become significant because of the marked development women has experienced during these periods. As mentioned earlier, there are very little, if any difference in the position, role and significance of women at home in marriage, family life an in the society before the entry of the Europeans and even after the US has significantly adopted the European culture and ways. The next step in the evolution of marriage and family life vis-a-vis women evolution and development would happen during the time when there are significant changes in the way women in the society thinks and lives. This will translate in the transformation and changes on how they perform their roles as mothers and wives, which in turn, would hint change in the marriage and family life in the America.

The first important positive and constructive change towards the upward evolution of women, and later the change in the institutions of family and marriage, is the change of the gender role delegated to women. This development is not a singular happening and did not happen over a course of several days, weeks, months or even years. This is characterized and explained better as something that happened in different parts of the world. This is a result of the new perspective and consciousness regarding the role and significance of women, regarding a re-visitation of what they can and cannot do, what they should and shouldnt do, what they can and cannot have.  There are many social global events that acted as catalyst for this change.

There is the eruption of World War II and the participation of the US in this endeavour. There is the rise of civic rights in the US and around the world. Lastly, there is the feminist movement that identified and empowered a new, significant, politically power bloc in the United States previously tamed, untapped and unrecognised. All of these events acted as separate keys responsible for transforming and unlocking what would be womens new-found power that will transform the woman as an individual, the woman as a mother and the family life, and the woman as a wife and the married life. Women were previously delegated to domestic chores and are considered as either slaves to their own home, or the bourgeois, another elegant trapping of the house. The women found their deeper and more significance social importance when the United States resorted to employing more and more women for work, jobs which, in the past, are hands-off to women and exclusive to men alone. Most of the workers became soldiers during WWII. To allow the country to continue being productive despite the war, women started to occupy a bigger and bigger share in the workforce in the absence of their male counterpart, signalling the change in gender role.

This was the start of gender equality and the removal of the idea that there are social aspects that are gender exclusive (or more appropriately, exclusive to men), which was important to evolution and change. The struggles of women for greater equality have affected the family structure and its central dynamics in a variety of ways (Williams 6). This development was an important part in the transformation and evolution of women. As they transformed as individuals, there were resulting effects that are manifested in the changes in marriage and family life. Besides these, there was also the rise of civic movements geared at giving people regardless of ethnicity and gender equal rights.

Soon, the victories in this battlefield resulted to the right of the women to vote. They also had many other privileges allowing them to enter to what was previously known as exclusively mens turf. There were others who were not contented with such development, using gender equality as catapult to push for the ideologies of feminism which empower women. This was the key to many important socio-cultural, socio-political and socio-economic changes that affected and transformed women, and side by side, marriage and family life, based on how they affected these realms.

One of the important developments in the evolution of marriage, family life and women is the change in the financial and economic dependence of the woman. As a social structure that is dependent on one another, the family has long been designed so that there is breadwinner in the family, someone who gets the food, produces money and is the reason for the financial and economic stability of the family. For many years, this role has been exclusive to the father or the eldest man in the house. The exclusivity of the role as a bread winner in the family to the father alone made women dependent. Since they are dependent, they are easily subjugated by the dominant male.

This condition affected women in different levels. Women are tied to their responsibilities at home because this is her role and this is how she repays the man in the family putting food in the table. In marriage, women are constrained to marry even those they did not want, approve of and love. They are scared of the fact that as a spinster, they are subjected not only to ridicule but also to the prospect of being poor and starving to death (since most of the jobs are for men only). Women who are married and have sufficient reasons to leave and abandon the marriage cannot simply do that because of the prospect of ending up with nothing. The husband and the children would end up with the family money. Women cannot pursue what they want because they are indebted to the male figures in married and family lives since these are the providers and part of the design is giving the providers rule over the dependent members of the family.

This made wives plain housewives, without any other life or career once married and tied to marriage and family. Single women abandoned their other dreams and hopes and goals and aspirations because of the necessity of marriage and family life in lieu of what it can do to the economic and financial stability of the women. This has been the problem of the women that they have endured and suffered for long period of time until transformation and change slowly manifested itself in the form of empowering women to be economically and financially independent, resulting to change. Women are beginning to pursue personal goals independent of the goals they have for their families (Munhall, Fitzsimons 70). Women became financially and economically independent during the rise of women employment and the growth and support for single parent (women) starting at the middle of the twentieth century until today.  Marriage and family life has changed. The structure of the American family has changed drastically such that the nuclear family is no longer the predominant configuration (OLeary, Jemmott 143). The empowered woman is now accepted as a single mother and this family structure is a deviation from traditional family form and is accepted today as part of the change and evolution of family, marriage and woman.

In the past, it is almost impossible for women to be separated from her husband because of moral, financial and economic concern. However, when women finally became financially capable and independent, it also gave rise to new forms of family and marriage structure. In place of the traditional family structure are single parent families that are run by the mother. The economic and financial role and importance of the women also changed families with a father and a mother, with the mother also working full time and earns equal to or even sometimes greater than her husband.

This is the status of the financially enabled and empowered women, family and marriage set up.  Because of the growth of the economic and financial power and earning capability of the woman, the family and married life are also characterized by modern legal concepts and practices. Example of this is the pre-nuptial agreement or simply the pre-nup that stipulates that the earnings and properties of the husband and the wife shall not become conjugal property and remain separated even after marriage. Until today, the financial and economic transformation is one of the important stages in the evolution of the woman, the evolution of the married life and family life in the United States.

Indeed, the new-found financial and economic power and the resulting state of independence that it gives a woman have removed the stigma of being a plain housewife by force of social structure. Women, now, can be a housewife and a career person too. The transformation gave many women a chance to ponder at who and what they are inside the building of marriage and family life before and after this transformation and ability for financial and economic independence. Many have realized that changed has indeed come when women are not already tied and there is one less gender role enforced upon them. This was an insight succinctly written and discussed by Hekker when she talked about, among many things, the prospect of full time housewife as the main occupation of women, becoming obsolete (Hekker 2).

Another factor that is hinged in the changes in the women that changed and contributed to the evolution of the family and marriage institutions in the US is the change in the social role of women. Social changes in mid nineteenth century America affected womens role in the family, the work that women performed, and ideas about femininity (Carroll 83). Women finally had the chance and opportunity to vote, to work and earn their living and to be socially accepted as independent individuals who is in command of their own house in the absence and removal of the husband in the new family and marriage life settings. However, there are also other social changes in the woman that influenced change in family and married life.

During the era of the beginning of women empowerment, women became leaders in different fields and sectors of the community including business and politics which allowed for the continued change in how women act inside the society and inside family and the married life. Privileges and rights previously denied women transformed women when these things were finally extended to them, including their political as well as socio-civic rights. Among the many proofs of evolution of women and the married and family life is the rise of women as an important political sector of the society and their role in important fields, like business, science and technology and other aspects of life.

One of the most important stages of the evolution of the woman affecting marriage and family life is the sexual development and evolution. In the past, one of the problems of women is that they are restricted and curtailed when it comes to their sexual freedom. There are many taboos. Women are discouraged strongly by the society to explore their sexuality, especially in conservative societies wherein sex is merely for reproduction. Sexual activities and actions exceeding that is considered as immoral and unethical and is strongly disapproved and frowned upon by the society. As women and society evolved, the society and the women became more comfortable with their body. Their sexuality and the empowered women who became significant in socio cultural and socio political realms supported the efforts at giving the womans sense of sexuality freedom.

The sexual revolution affected women and their behaviour and changed women. In turn, these transformed women impacted family and married life structures. Wives are not afraid or reluctant to demand from their husband pertaining to sexual matters without appearing like a sexual addict and immoral. Womens health and reproductive issues are addressed, making married life more in tune with these kinds of concerns among women. Inside the family, women (wives and female children) are getting what they need and deserve to address issues upon this matter. Females are being taught about sexuality and health. Women stopped becoming mere obedient bed mates but are equal individuals in bed. This means that they should get and give what their male counterparts get and receive, resulting in a change in womens role in marriage and family life.

Women are empowered to refuse sex if she is not dispensing full consensus on the matter. It became grounds for rape and sexual assault even against a legal husband. This step protected women and made family and married life less and less patriarchal, patrilineal and male-dominated and male-centred. Women are becoming more able and aware of their rights. However, the sexual revolution was also a cause for concern among social critics. They believe that this was the main reason why more women are being involved in the practice of having sex and intimate relationships with different individuals without the strings of responsibility and the prospect of marrying and settling down to build and raise a family (Wilcox, Marquardt 2). This is something that many people still see as deviation from the traditional values and practice. Although this is strongly debated among those for and against this practice, still, this mirrors the change and evolution in women, how they think and act and how their behaviour contributed to the change in family life and marriage. This is especially true since the rise to popularity and public acceptance of such set-up has lessened the pressure of marriage and weakened the lasting power of marriage. Couples can opt for divorce or annulment when both parties are not happy any more with the marriage.

The evolutionary stage discusses how evolution as a process changed the woman, and how the changed woman changed family life and marriage the changed woman as an individual, the changed woman as a wife and the changed woman as a mother. All of these things tie woman development and transformation to the transformation and development of family and married life. There are many factors and components in the society that can change marriage and family life. In the review of the history of the transformation of women, it can be seen that as they transformed, they affected marriage and family life and was key to the transformation of these two institutions as well.

Argument of the study
The study under review, Can Men Mother Life as a Single Father by Barbara J. Risman, takes  issue of the effectiveness of single fathers as it announces in the very first line that the present study addresses the question of focus on single fathers (Risman, 1986, p.95). It argues that mothering is not an exclusively female task (Risman, 1986, p.95) and states the  argument for conducting the study because more children than ever before are living- at least part of the time- with divorced fathers (Risman, 1986, p.95). 
   
Previous Research
The study includes previous research to help support the importance of the study as the research on the roles of single fathers had started in 1960s and, as Risman states, in Canada, Australia, England and the United States researches were conducted but the limitation of the previous studies was that they were descriptive owing to the reason that the methods, samples and therefore results differ dramatically by geographical region (Risman, 1986, p.96).

Researcher Bias
The study contains researcher bias as it becomes evident when the participants selected for the study are mainly white while the population of the U.S or even in the states, where the study was mainly conducted, is comprised of people from diverse community. The sample does not represent the population to whom the study may have some importance. The reason for researcher bias is neither reflected in the discussion in the study nor does the researcher herself state the reason as what makes her to select white majority as participants to study the single fathers population.

Important Concepts
The study revisits the important concepts of individualist and structuralist theories which are important to identify whether single fathers can be viable primary caretakers for young children (Risman, 1986, p.95). The individualist theory is defined as a predictor of a single fathers lack of motivation and expressive skills in the provision of intense intimacy necessary for young children (Risman, 1986, p.96). While the researcher defines structuralist theory as it suggests that social context mainly determines the role of a single father.

Staement of Purpose
The study does not include a clearly written statement of purpose where the researcher would have ushered the purpose of the study. In addition the researcher does not identify the type of study but it becomes evident when the result section is analyzed that the research is quantitative in its very nature. As the mean response of the fathers rating of childs self disclosure evinces that the results of the survey were quantified that makes the study a quantitative one (Risman, 1986, p.99). In the study the population that is being studied is discussed in detail in methodology section (Risman, 1986, p.97-98).

Technical Terms
It does not use any technical terms as the only key terms are child custody, gender roles, single fathers and single parents (Risman, 1986, p.95).

Argument
The research is based on the argument that is developed in the literature review but she goes on to discuss theories in such a diverse way that the reader is detached from the main argument. She admits that she would commence her study with the discussion of previously held theories regarding the research objective as she sides with the conclusion that if the previous literature is analyzed, it comes to light that structuralist theory provides a better explanation than individualist theory for the experiences of single fathers (Risman, 1986, p.95).

Methods
Sampling and issues involved in sampling
The sample used for the study is large and diverse so that to disentangle the independent effects of economic status from reasons for father custody on fathers perception of their role in life as single parents (Risman, 1986, p.97). One hundred and forteen single fathers were selected as a sample. The researcher announces in the discussion of methodology that she has avoided sampling and therefore only the respondents who were identifiable via social serice agencies or parenting associations were included as the target to whom the questionnaire were distributed (Risman, 1986, p.97). The questionnaire was distributed among two hundred eighty one single fathers and one hundred forty one returned the survey. The criteria for sample selection is not stated by the researcher but she reports that ninty per cent of the single fathers in the study were white (Risman, 1986, p.98).

The researcher first discusses the data collection techniques and then the resultant sample characteristics (Risman, 1986, p.97). The researcher announces that the sampling was avoided as only the respondents who were identifiable through social service agencies or parenting associations were used as the participants.The press releases were distributed to Washington state and national media. Among the 281only 141 returned the questionnaires of the survey.

When the researcher reports that 90 of the participants were white, the authenticity of the sampling tends to undermine. The reason for dissatisfaction over the sampling is that the black and brown community is not a minority any more and when their large population is ignored in the study the findings become vulnerable to criticism.

Results
Analysis of the Data
The analysis of the data is related to the techniques of data collection in the way that the data was collected by receiving responses in the form of questionnaire from the respondents, so it was analyzed through obtaining the mean, average, rating of the responses. For example, to gain the average rating about fathers rating of childs self disclosure, mean response on sadness, anger at father, loneliness, etc., were analyzed (Risman, 1986, p.99). In the discussion of the impact of social class the researches analyzes the data as she states that over half of the most wealthy men (57.6) hire outside help for housekeeping, in cooking dinner they are likely to hire help (tau b  .15, p .05) (Risman, 1986, p.100).

Findings
The major finding of the study is single fathers prove to be effective in mothering their children and that most men felt comfortable and competent as single parents (Risman, 1986, p.95). Moreover Rasmins study correlates with the findings of the previous researches as well suggesting that at least in their own perceptions, costudial fathers are competent as primary parents (Risman, 1986, p.101). In addition the study suggests that childhood experiences and sex roles do not create inflexible gender typed behavorial patterns (Risman, 1986, p. 101).

Limitations
The researcher does not state the limitations of the study neither she leaves any space for the critics to identify the limitations as she states the implications of her results as well (Risman, 1986, p.101-102). Rather the researcher ends the study with an optimist note that the research presented here should reassure single fathers that mothering is not an exclusively female skill (Risman, 1986, p.102).

Personal Opinion
By reviewing the article a very interesting point comes to light, which is one of the findings of the researcher as well, that the role of single fathers is as important as that of single mothers. The government of the U.S has often announced various programs to support the single mothers but single fathers are subsided in the discussion of the parenthood although single fathers can perform the dual role of a father and of a mother while nourishing the child.

Strengths and Weaknesses
Although the researcher attempts successfully to address the issues raised in the beginning of the research, the study is not complete in its entirety as the sampling criterion is ambiguous. Moreover the analysis of data does not cover all the concerns. If the completeness of the study is analyzed in terms of the research concepts, it comes to light that the few concepts discussed in the study, e.g. individualist theory and structuralist theory, are defined comprehensively. The researcher identifies a major weakness in the past research as most researches have been exploratory with small and homogenous samples (Risman, 1986, p.97). She identifies further that the previous American study lacks a large and diverse sample which she used in her study (Risman, 1986, p.97).

The researcher postpones the sampling strategies by referring to some other article as she states that a detailed discussion of sampling strategies is available elsewhere (Risman, 1986, p.97) which would have been helpful to the readers. Another important point about the review is that the journal article chosen for the review was published many years ago, in 1986, but this must not imply that the study lacks authenticity. The study focuses on the issues which were later researched by other researchers, thus it opened the road for new researches. The central limitation identified in the research is regarding the sampling criterion as the sample does not represent the population therefore it becomes difficult to trust the results and to generalize the results. But the researcher gives the theoretical and practical implications in her conclusion that is the strength of the study.

The police force is one sector that holds a special, if not a dangerous place, in our society.  Not only do they uphold the laws that govern a particular geographic area, but more importantly, they are the ones given the responsibility to ensure public order and safety, and to apprehend those who have chosen to violate its sanctity.  Hence it had always been a profession dominated by men, that only until recently in the more modern era, did it become an accepted social norm to include women among its elite force.

Because of the general inherent physical characteristic of women being less capable than their counterpart, it has been an endless debate whether their inclusion was indeed for the betterment of the entire force, or would it prove to be detrimental, as the hazards innate in this profession might be too overwhelming for the female gender.  Several issues seem to point to the reality that women should be discouraged and even deprived of the opportunity to participate in the police profession.  This reasoning may be due to the fact that societal factors tend to be suggestive of some perceptions that put them in this disadvantage.

First is the fact that in general terms, most women will, at least once in their lifetime, have to bear children, and during the entire phase of their pregnancies, plus another three or four months needed in weaning their child, they will not only be under great physical and emotional distress, but will likewise entail their respective police divisions to make several sacrifices.  These may include making decisions such as reassigning them in the middle of investigations to less excruciating assignments, resulting in a setback in solving such investigations.  Also, the privileges entitled to women during pregnancies, i.e., maternity leave with pay, maternity benefits, and others, are only added burden to the government agencies responsible for awarding them of these financialeconomic assistance packages. 

Likewise, several limiting physical capabilities, whether real or perceived, will only make them a liability to the group.  One of those is the inherent capacity of women to be less proficient in handling mechanical devices as compared to men. These devices are essential in their performing of everyday duties, such as their driving skills especially during high-speed chases, and in their swiftness in reloading their guns, especially when extremely-perilous situations call for immediate responses. 
On a societal level, several reasons also suggest of obvious disadvantages in having women as police officers.  Most evident of which is the authority that society in general allocates to women.  Being widely considered by many cultures as the weaker sex, it is harder for the male populace to regard them with the same respect, apprehension, awe, and esteem as compared to their perception on male police officers.  Add to this reality the portrayal of women by the mass media as sex objects as someone who is sleek, pretty, demure, and dependent on men for their safety. 

Conclusion
It seems mens perception of women as his subordinate is not exclusively limited on what the mass media, society, and history had dictated.  The reality of the situation may also be viewed on a theological sphere, as the inequality between the two sexes can be found in various religious texts of antiquity.  It has always been the norm for men to assure that women will always be safe and secure.  Changing the trend now, simply because of the prevalence of gender equality issues, will not alter the fact that women will always be inferior to men, in the arguments presented on this paper.  This is a simple case wherein the laws of nature will forever be proven true and appropriate.

Embracing women into the police force has certainly resulted in several advantages, although mostly, these were exclusively for their own economic welfare.  In truth, women should be deprived of this privilege, as this practice had resulted in the deterioration of police efficiency and made the world a much dangerous place to live.               

Two evolutionary studies, namely The Communist Manifesto and The Origin of the Species were made by two prominent people, Karl Marx and Charles Darwin, respectively. Needless to say, these two people had influenced many studies of philosophy and political science, or perhaps the whole realm of social sciences. There are many points of intersection between Marx and Darwin. By way of enumeration

Both presented an evolutionary theory of man, one is biological, another is social.
The direction of their theories present a positive teleology.
Both used materialist analysis in their study of man.
Both believe in the dynamics of contradictions, binaries, and synthesis that would usher in a qualitative change.

Both presented an evolutionary theory of man.
Marx prides himself with being the Darwin of the social sciences. While Darwin outlined the dynamics and main forces in the biological evolution of man or homonization. Marx outlined the dynamics and main forces in the social evolution of man or humanization.

The Manifesto that Karl Marx created is a policy that outlines the impending rule of the many over the few. As such it is stated that, the Communist Manifesto had as its object the proclamation of the inevitably impending dissolution of modern bourgeois property (Marx  Engels, 2002, p.6). This outline started from a vision or a preamble, followed by three sub-sections, first is the bourgeois and proletarians, then down to the proletarians and communists, to the socialist and communist literature, and as the concluding part, the position of the communists in relation to the various existing opposition parties. From the outline, which turned out to be an evolution of the relation of the people in the society, developed as if Karl Marx had organized a pattern that will describe how a revolution will come up to its success.

While Charles Darwin, after his ample time of navigation, later found out and was struck by certain facts in the distribution of the inhabitants of South America, and in the geological relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent (Darwin, n.d.). Due to what he had observed, he had concluded and implored upon the origin of species, in which he had hypothesized their creation. Likewise he had visualized, from a naturalist perspective, how living organisms evolved in to something different from its original stance. However he had also inferred that in the theory of evolution there were factors that would result either to extinction or survival. The evolution is dependent upon the patterns of nature.

The direction of their theories present a positive teleology
Both Marx and Darwin believed that there is a positive direction towards the good. Even though they both speak of the randomness of chance and the compelling force of necessity regardless of individual subjective will, the direction of change is all going towards the good. The ultimate end of Darwin in biological evolution is the homo sapiens sapiens while the ultimate end of Marx in social evolution is the communist society. Both ends are qualitatively higher than their previous forms.
Both used materialist analysis in their study of man.

Both Marx and Darwin used purely materialist factors in their analysis. Darwin used adaptation, natural selection, and survival of the fittest amidst the random chances of this world to describe the ascent of the homo sapiens sapiens. Marx used the principle of the necessity of labor, the objective laws of class struggle, and the material mode of economic production determining the superstructurality of society.

Both believe in the dynamics of contradictions, binaries, and synthesis that would usher in a qualitative change.

Both presented binary relationships or kinds of variations. In Marxs Manifesto he mentioned about the relationship of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The latter refers to the modern wage laborers who use their labor-power in order to live Note by Engels to the English edition of 1888 in Karl Marxs Communist Manifesto, p.30 and the former refers to the employers of the proletariats, who owned apparatuses for social production. Examples of oppositions are HYPERLINK httpen.wiktionary.orgwikifreeman freeman and slave,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiPatrician_(ancient_Rome)patrician and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiPlebsplebeian, lord and serf,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiGuildguild-master and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiJourneymanjourneyman or in a word, oppressor and oppressed (Marx  Engels, 2002, p.31). As the character pronounced, these two types of people were in contradictions, which are also called as contending classes (Marx  Engels, 2002, p.31).

Darwin on the other hand, presented relationships or variations through the law of nature. He purportedly described species differences through their individual capacity. He identified some doubtful species, characterized by their few and rare characteristics. The opposite of this are those common species that may cope or adapt to the changes of the environment. He stated that, species of the larger genera in any country vary more than the species of the smaller genera, another is that, many of the species of the larger genera resemble varieties in being very closely, but unequally, related to each other, and in having restricted ranges (Darwin, n.d.).

 The contending classes were deliberately presented by Marx as part of his Manifesto. He considered this as a factor behind creating and propagating people that would participate in peoples struggle for survival. Proletarian and Communists showed the gradual evolution of social struggle, from capitalism, socialism, up to communism. This is where the whole objective of the Manifesto was manifested. Aims such as, the abolition of both private  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiLand_ownershipland ownership and of the right to  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiInheritanceinheritance, a progressive  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiIncome_taxincome tax, universal  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiPublic_educationeducation, centralization of the means of  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiCommunicationcommunication and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiTransporttransport under state management, and the expansion of the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMeans_of_productionmeans of production owned by the state. The implementation of these policies, would, the authors believed, be a precursor to the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiSovereign_statestateless and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiClassless_societyclassless society (Marx  Engels, 2002, pp.58-60).

The evolution from capitalism or those characterized by the bourgeoisies or the ruling class, to socialism or a society that is ruled by workers, until communism kind of society or classless society (Marx  Engels, 2002) would be attributed to the existence of a few higher class in the society that control the many lower class.

Natural selection on the other hand is a concept that pertains to the survival of the organisms. These organisms survive because of the common innate traits due to adaptation. These traits arm the organisms from extinction (Darwin, n.d.). Defining briefly natural selection is like a process wherein inter crosses happen between individuals of the same species (Darwin, n.d.). In this natural selection, Darwin also raised a question of how individuals survive and procreate. He illustrated how individuals multiply more than survive and procreate, however countered this by stating the response from natural selection that preservation happens through rejection of adverse variations (Darwin, n.d.).

The transitions to this evolution were heightened by, the discovery of America, the rounding of the Cape, opened up fresh ground for the rising bourgeoisie. The East-Indian and Chinese markets, the colonization of America, trade with the colonies, the increase in the means of exchange and in commodities generally, gave to commerce, to navigation, to industry, an impulse never before known, and thereby, to the revolutionary element in the tottering feudal society (Marx  Engels, 2002). As a result, this rapid development opens the traditional period. The aftershock of development, as illustrated by Marx will organize peoples power, especially from the proletariat class by means of revolution. Thereby revolution would swept away the conditions for the existence of class antagonisms and of classes generally, and will thereby have abolished its own supremacy as a class (Marx  Engels, 2002).

Bringing back the question, is the Marxian process of the class struggle merely a political-economic version of Darwinian natural selection, from the illustrations above about the transformative process in the long period of time that were indicated and illustrated in the Communist Manifesto which is and The Origin of Species, it appears that the class struggle is the process that is exemplified in The Origin of Species. In other words, Darwinian Theory describes the continuous struggle in Marxs Manifesto. The Manifesto somewhat fulfills the precepts of Natural Selection- the many or the common, adapted to the needs of the environment or the society to be able to survive or live. Thus, the struggle will continue from population to population, which also is a process of evolution. Both fulfill the precepts of a revolution to live the Manifesto tells to support every revolutionary movement against the existing social and political order of things through forcible overthrown of all existing social conditions (Marx  Engels, 2002,p.76). The same with natural selection, generic traits are the reason for the organism to survive, thus to be able to live and first organisms must adapt and become more common in a population (Darwin, n.d.).

One very fundamental element of human beings is human sexuality. Human sexuality though common to all people becomes problematic when human beings are aware of the different components of sexuality. It suddenly becomes about individual sexual preferences and orientations and these emerging differences only breed controversies. This occurs despite the fact that as human beings we are keen to appreciate the overall genetic diversity of sexuality. Bancroft (20095) acknowledges that human sexuality is indeed quite diverse and coupled with social, cultural and legal considerations its discourse has proven to be quite complex. This paper seeks to unravel this complexity and address human sexuality as a form of diversity. In essence, the discussion revolves around social and legal constructions of sexuality and emphasis is placed on advancing social unity and embracing diversity of human sexuality.

Sexuality was first regarded as a concept of human nature in the nineteenth century to define normality and its limits. This aspect arose after the conceptualization of human rights and the recognition that all human beings were born free and had equal rights and dignity. In this regard, sexuality was used to define what was considered as normal and those who sought to go beyond these boundaries were considered psychopathic. This ideology brought great controversy over the credibility of regarding homosexuality and lesbianism as abnormal. The inception of Sigmund Freuds and sexology theories in the twentieth century altered the view of this concept where sex was organized as a fictitious unity of disparate functions and feelings with no necessary relation among them. The notion of the concept then varies to describe what is natural as a social construct (Nelson, 2006, p.15). Sigmund Freud argued that these forms of sexuality defined as abnormal were so due to the societys discontent as emerging sexuality alternatives were going beyond the organized norms and functions of heterosexuality. Furthermore, Freuds relation of human sexuality to personality development paved way for the understanding of how homosexuals and lesbians possessed those specific personalities and what led to their choice of orientation.

In todays society, sexuality debates have been focused at sexual orientations and whether they are acceptable in the society. In understanding the extent in which sexual diversity has led to controversies it is vital to apply various theoretical frameworks. Such models like symbolic interactionism, queer theory and conflict theories will enhance the understanding of homosexuality and gay rights controversies. Furthermore, other aspects to be addressed include social constructions of sexuality which include social exclusion of gay people and the hegemonic compulsory heterosexuality. In a bid to encourage diversity and fight negative social constructions of sexuality, legal frameworks have been set up even though they are also tainted with controversies. However, this proves to be a stepping stone towards stemming out social exclusion. Ideally, it is upon individuals to transform the society and encourage the shift from discrimination to acceptance and empathy for all human beings.

Sexuality refers to the way people experience and express themselves as sexual beings. The concept of sexuality encompasses an array of social activities, behaviors, actions and societal topics. These aspects are rooted in the definition of the meanings of gender which is constructed by the notion of different sexes. In this regard, it emerges as the characteristic which identifies individuals as being male or female. Sexuality, from the biological perspective entails all forms of sexual contact as well as medical concerns of the psychological and physiological aspects. From this mindset, sexual orientation takes root in understanding the relationships human beings form as they advance their sexual interactions. Sexual orientation encompasses emotional and sexual attractions directed to all genders, men or women. Perrin (2002116) also asserts that sexual orientation is also characteristic of forms of social and personal identity as individuals choose to express themselves differently.

Diversity of sexuality emerges in morality, ethics and theological discourse where sexuality is defined and analyzed with respect to the principles of these fields. Furthermore as highlighted by Nelson (200613) cultural and social constructs also present an array of diverse understandings on sexuality.
There are several legislative provisions that address sexuality in all parts of the world. The UK Law on Equality and Discrimination covers the relevant issues on sexuality under it. The law has precise legislation on equality which prohibits discrimination and provides a mechanism for persons to lodge complaints with the courts in cases where they experience any kind of discrimination. This discrimination draws its focus on race, beliefs and religion, sex, sexual orientation and status on transgender, age and disability. Reed (2006) also points out that discrimination against aforementioned cuts across, education, employment, the provision of goods and services, and housing. These are well covered under The Human Rights Act of 1998 which incorporates rights contained in the European Convention of Human Rights. The Human Rights Act is enforceable directly against public bodies such as the police or local authorities and private bodies that exercise public functions. Courts and tribunals are by definition public offices hence need to interpret and apply legislation compatible with the Convention even in matters accruing in parties to a dispute, that  are not public bodies.

The fourteenth article of the Convention prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex, religion, race, political affiliations and any other status which in content covers status on financial employment, sexuality, and physical and mental ability of individuals. The article specifies that it prohibits discrimination in respect of access to other Conventional rights and intends to guarantee equality before the law of the Convention. In addition, the article has to be utilized in combination with other articles of the Convention to form a strong base of reasonable solution.

The UK Gay Law highlights the age of consent for heterosexuals, lesbians and gay men as sixteen male rape has been criminalized altering previous law where it was not recognized as an offense. It also addresses the employment rights where all workers are protected from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation and direct abuse by colleagues as well as general homophobic comments. It is through this legislation that diversity of sexual orientation is safeguarded. Even in the midst of a society which is still reluctant to accept this diversity it seems to be the way forward.

Transgender workers are protected from discrimination at their workplaces by the Sex Discrimination (Gender Reassignment) Regulations of 1999. As pertains to Tax Consequences of Civil Partnerships, the Civil Partnerships Act of 2004 provides civil partners the same rights and responsibilities as accorded to married couples. The Law further makes provisions for same sex couples as they are allowed to adopt children contrary to previous laws which created barriers for them to do so.

Symbolic Interaction
This is a major framework of the sociological theory which plays a major role in encouraging the diversity of human sexuality. It considers the function of an immediate social interaction as the basic place for the existence of society. Symbolic interaction, a micro-sociological concept, analyzes by addressing the subjective contents that people impose on objects, behaviors and events. In addressing subjective aspects of social life, symbolic interactionism looks at individual behaviors and actions and from the meanings of the derived symbols symbolic interactionists are able to understand the creation of those individual behaviors. It therefore interprets the social order as being constantly negotiated and created through the interpretations that people give to their behavior. Ideally, there is an established continued renegotiation process of social actions and as Hird (2002586) argues there is bound to be an emergence of different identities which compel the likelihood of conflicts. Individual identities are not inborn but are instead created.

The ethical and theological debate over the homosexuality issue arose in 1993 with the possible discovery of genetic disposition to male homosexuality. Results of a genetic research showed that the gay gene is inherited maternally as the X- chromosome contains a gene which influences sexual orientation. Ethically, should the biological basis be confirmed, the implications would point to a number of directions. The central question would be owing to the fact that one is disposed towards homosexuality genetically would they be innocent or guilty From a biological perception, a homosexual individual would declare innocence as a result of inheriting the gay gene.

On one hand, interactionist theorists may choose to accept homosexuality arguing that it is just another consequence of the social process. On the other hand, the gay gene would be identified as a carnal disposition of sin. The inheritance of the gay gene would be equated to other innate dispositions such as lust and greed that are also inherited. An individual is endowed with a sound mind to make sound decisions, a persons body belongs to who they are therefore one is left to make the ultimate decision. As such homosexuals with this inherited gene are given the responsibility of choosing their place in the social process as they react to the societys views on their sexual orientation.

Theories on Sexuality
The Queer Theory
Queer theory is a component of the field of critical theory where theorists focus on analyzing ideas on sexuality. Gender and sexuality is distinctly categorized by social constructivists who argue that these concepts are created through social discourse and that they have no natural identity. Social constructivists argue that gay individuals should not be taken to have objective reality and that they can only be addressed in reference to their social context. Queer theorists aim to deconstruct these ideologies and argue that sexuality is not fixed to particular perspectives and identities but it is subject to change. Furthermore, they acknowledge that individuals possess many identities and that both men and women can remain as such despite their sexual orientation.

Associated with radical gay politics, this theory was originally embraced by individuals and groups of people who acknowledge queer as their identity or rather a concept of non conformity. Queer theorists appreciate sexual diversity in their respect for the place of the individual in establishing their sexual identities. As asserted by Seidman (1996195), even though the society plays a part in this construction of identity, the individual is still of great importance. It further establishes the notion of society playing a significant role in forcing sexual boundaries and dichotomies on people rather than heterosexuality and homosexuality attractions being left entirely to the field of biology. This theory has been developed largely through new studies on transgender, cross dressing, bisexuality, gay and lesbian experiences which were previously in the realm of social deviance. The theory challenges the thought of describing individuals as gay or straight as well as the assumption of only one form of sexuality existing as normal and all others as deviant. In addition, the theory links the study of sexuality to that of gender and subsequently shows how violating the categories of fixed gender would reconstruct the possibility of how people construct their gender and social identities (Anderson  Taylor, 2002). Through violating these constructs, individuals are liberated from the social constrictions that presumably create fixed identities of these categories.

The Conflict Theory
The conflict theory highlights the role of coercion and, power, which is the ability of individual(s) to exercise authority over others in an effort to produce a social order. Cohesion in society promotes functionalism while the conflict theory emphasizes discord and friction. This theory is derived from Karl Marxs work where society is pictured as fragmented into groups that compete for available social and economic resources. The social order is maintained by domination other than consensus with power retained in the hands of those with the greatest political, social and economic resources. Conflict theorists believe that people draw on consensus in circumstances where common interests are the main focus of their interactions. As such, they tend to attack and criticize each other when they do not share common interests.

From the conflict perspective, inequality despite being unfair still exists in our society because those who hold the power to the basic resources control a disproportionate share so as to secure their advantages. This control takes the shape of coercion and social control, non-conformity to shared values and the binding of people to society. Individuals and groups struggle for the control of resources as a result of advancing their personally vested interests. Those with this power exercise control over those without resulting in inequality. Hughes, Kroehler and Zanden (2005) explain that Marxism conceptualizes that controversies on sexuality are merely a reflection of who holds the most power. Homosexual individuals are incredibly less compared to heterosexuals and in this sense, heterosexuals consider themselves to be powerful and in a position to press homosexuals for conformity to social standards. In their failure to conform to shared values, they fail to appreciate the existing similarities in human beings. Instead of acknowledging that homosexuals are also human beings with feelings, lives and opinions, they alienate them due to the difference in sexual orientation. This case can be illustrated in the many gay bashing and hating incidences which are rampant in the society.

Social Constructions of Sexuality
Compulsory Heterosexuality
Compulsory heterosexuality is a social construct which implicitly emerged from the theorization that there can only be male and female sexual relations. This explains the assumption that women and men are inherently connected and attracted to each other both emotionally and sexually. Following this, individuals with other sexual orientations are forced to conform to heterosexuality so as to avoid social conflicts. Eyre (1993273) illustrates a case where university students with other sexual orientations are forced to publicly acknowledge that they are heterosexual in order to avoid the never ending controversial debates on homosexuality and lesbianism.

The dominance of heterosexuality has led to the development of inequality between heterosexuals and non- heterosexuals, and between men and women, permeated by power with far reaching consequences. Under such a regime, men control women in all aspects, that is, in access to education, physical movement, labor amongst others. The non- conformity to societys rules and regulations expose one to punishments. The main critique of this concept is the fact that it does not embrace the provisions of nature and innateness and instead encourages the use of discriminative approaches and opportunistic individual interests as indicated by Rich (1984). However, dominant heterosexuality can only be subsided if non-heterosexuals emerge as dominant as illustrated by Caudwell (200235) where overt and deliberate lesbian visibility has been seen to transform dominant heterosexuality in female football teams.

Hegemonic Sexuality
The concept of hegemony tends to address the relations of power and ideology. The domination includes those taken for granted and the commonsense of the situation. Its difference from compulsory heterosexuality lies in the fact that it does not incorporate coercion or brutal enforcement. It is about the ways through which the ruling class establishes and maintains its dominance. It involves persuading a greater part of the population through the media, or other organizational social institutions in ways that appear natural or normal (Rich, 1984). For instance, the media instrumentally broadcasts controversial debates on homosexuality where gay rights are dismissed by religious organizations who consider them as immoral. In reference to male masculinity, media content more often than not portrays the male gender as powerful and dominating. Dominant masculinity encourages the suppression of womens rights and inequality.

The concept can be narrowed to the application on male masculinity. It essentially describes the role of persons in patriarchal gendered social processes and considers the social construction of the mens practices and boys bodies (Rich, 1984). This refers to the physical sense of maleness which exists in all males and that which fosters their desires to partake in social interactions which involve physical strength and the occupying of space. For young boys, they are often actively engaged in physical activities such as sports for most of their school years while adult males consider their physical abilities important in their work, fatherhood and their sexuality. Connell (20006) asserts that this physical capability greatly characterizes male dominance in the society and depicts the hegemonic notion of power and ideology. Indeed, masculinity becomes prominent in social life when physical strength is highly valued in carrying out different tasks and even becomes a condition for acquiring specific jobs such as wrestling, and construction jobs. Ideally, the concept of masculinity has to an extent provided an understanding of hegemonic sexuality but the lack of ample empirical research has heightened the concepts criticism.

Heterosexuality
Heterosexuality in its entirety is fabricated with gender performance. Femininity and masculinity override the input of culture in this concept. The application of this concept has been resilient to the revolution of sexuality in general as it clearly distinguishes the role to be played by different genders. The male however tend to control a large percentage of power options available (Rich, 1984). This characteristic is observed in heterosexual relationships where males are perceived as the dominant gender. In general all societies have designated gender roles which recognize males as dominant. They are seen as heads of families, providers and protectors of others including their female partners. As such, majority of heterosexual relations are founded on this basis with females perceived as submissive in the relationship. Therefore, heterosexual as a social construct has also created inequality dimensions which do not appreciate diversity. Male dominance is very rampant in todays society considering that males are leaders in almost all sectors from the government, education, health and sports among others. For instance, government leaders hold so much power and authority and are expected to showcase the same in their social relations. It thus becomes discordant for women in the society to equally relate with their male counterparts due to the existing societal expectations of them.

Understanding Social Construction of Sexualities
Social construction is a multi-faceted approach. It can be described through historicism which entails historical investigations on sexuality that involves a particular set of concerns, and the allocating of an overarching term to them as result of their uses. Moral currents of the nineteenth century sexology demand the delineation of sexes and ambiguities explained in ways that were previously not required. At the same time, sexual predictions were catalogued frequently which invoked sexual personages other than the mere prescription of social acts. In addition, the historicist literature adopts, modifies and contests that the increasingly influential fields of medicine and psychiatry consolidated the idea of homosexual personage with a case history, and a possible mysterious physiology (Metcalfe  Humphries, 1985).This approach is essentially useful in the current social arrangements of sexuality in their longer reaching developmental context.

The other is symbolic interaction, comprehensively covered in the preceding literature. From the above information, social construction is gathered as based upon the consideration that social reality is created through the process of daily, practical deliberation. Social construction is usually distinguished from essentialism, the certainty that there is a fixed essence to individuals and groups. Among the core tenets of the perspective is the conceptualization that social reality is created as it is lived. (Metcalfe  Humphries, 1985) indicates that facts are themselves creations of those who provide accounts of them. As such sexual diversity can only be accepted in a society which chooses to do so, that is, individuals are keen to respect and treat people with different sexual orientations equally.
Social constructs can have negative impacts especially in their capacity to encourage social divides and inequalities. Such social constructs of sexuality like compulsory heterosexuality are responsible for the stigmatization and consequent social exclusion of gay people. As the society continues to perceive heterosexuality as the appropriate and normal sexual orientation, gay people become considerably alienated and treated as social outcasts.

The Civil Partnership Rights Age Consent for Homosexuals Equality Bill- A Case of the United Kingdom
The United Kingdom in 1994 was going to discuss an amendment to the Criminal Justice Bill so as to lower the age of consent for male homosexuals, heterosexuals and lesbians as well as remove sexual discrimination against gay men. The arguments given were that the law needed to provide an equal age for all sexual acts and a repeal of the offense of gross indecency that applied to gay men. The population of gay men by 1994 had clocked to120000, those who participated in the Pride Festival further giving reason for visibility. Several company policies had also embraced sexual orientation and gay and lesbian police officers were increasingly open about their sexuality. The visibility notion would help neutralize bigotry and overcome discrimination and as indicated by (Lewis, 1996) it was because gay persons were being treated as criminals.

This case highlights just a part of numerous legal debates on Homosexuality. Legislators argued that there is concern in lowering the age of consent for homosexuals. Such concerns included risks to sexual diseases and increased sexual offense crimes. However, it still emerged that the main opponents of this change stemmed from religious backgrounds which believed that these sexual acts are sinful, not sanctified by marriage, and did not result in procreation which made them unnatural. Hull (2006153) emphasizes that the society should move from these theorizations and embraces the value of life and love regardless of sexual orientation beliefs.

In a study carried out in Trenchard and Warren (1984) on a group of young gays and lesbians it was evident that these individuals as a minority group encounter many negative experiences as a result of social exclusion. After examining how these young people interacted with others at school it was observed that they experienced great difficulties especially because other people are not willing to associate with them because of their sexual orientation. Unfortunately Trenchard and Warren (198492) also showcased that these young people resulted to suicide as a result of lowered self esteem, maladaptive coping and alienation. In order to understand well the reasons for this, it is viable to ascertain the stressors faced by young people when constructing their identities. Young people as observed by Douglas (2006 17) maintain high levels of confidentiality and it takes probing to have them disclose such information on their sexuality. Consequently, they are likely to remain secretive and unable to share their experiences which only heighten their isolation as they tend to avoid other people in case they discover their sexuality. Furthermore, young people are easily influenced and they are likely to stigmatize their gay counterparts if they deem their sexual orientation as inappropriate.

In conclusion, it is evident from the above discussion that human sexuality is indeed diverse and that society should strive to embrace this diversity. Defined as the way people experience and express themselves as sexual beings, sexuality has also been observed to form a basis for personal and social identity. Even though it is important to embrace the diversity of sexuality it is also equally important to acknowledge the diversity of opinions and perceptions on sexuality. This form of diversity has been illustrated in the discussion of the concepts of queer theory, social conflict theory and symbolic interactionism. These theories showcase an understanding of how individuals and society perceives sexuality and more so aid in understanding the discrimination against individuals of non-heterosexual orientations. Queer theorists argue for the acceptance of homosexuality as a form of personal identity and not a social construct while Marxism tends to depict that homosexuality controversies are a consequence of the societys failure to accept the rights of the minority.

On the other hand, social constructions of sexuality such as compulsory heterosexuality, hegemonic heterosexuality and heterosexuality are useful instruments in widening the equality divide in the society. These constructs which have evolved over time are detrimental to the diversity of sexuality. However, this fight is not yet lost as legislation has made major developments in altering the negative social attitudes on homosexuality. Legislations which allow gay marriages and adoption of children by gay couples showcase the significance of accepting people for who they are and not for what they might represent. This philosophy calls for empathy and the recognition that the society must appreciate diversity at the same time as it appreciates social unity.

It is indeed shocking, that any woman, regardless of the race or status is bound to experience some sort of violence in her lifetime. The National Violence Women Survey has severally conducted research on sexual assault in women. In 1998, more than a half of the women population in a certain society was reported to have experienced either completed or attempted physical assault or rape. Men are also rape victims, but women are the most affected by this crime. One in every six women report on rape attempts. On the other hand, the ratio of the men that report on rape is just one in thirty three (Hensley, 2002).This essay seeks to analyze the treatment of rape victims, with more emphasis on the women.

Rape The Aftermath
 Most rape victims do not experience chronic psychiatric disorders. The only rampant effects of rape are those which are associated with disturbances of the mind. Most of the psychological trauma as a result of rape results to substance misuse and phobic anxiety. Additionally, there are depression and stress disorders (Mezev, 1997). The long term consequences reveal the terrifying, violent and traumatic nature of the rape ordeals. Other symptoms include generalized anxiety, sexual dysfunction, depression and public anxiety. There are also feelings of loss, vulnerability, irritability, anger and loss of confidence. The victims also experience low self esteem, and have an impaired capacity for intimacy. However, the most important thing is the kind of treatment that they receive from the community agencies. It determines whether they heal quickly or not (Mezev, 1997).

Rape treatment is a very complex procedure. This is because despite of it being an individual psychological and physical trauma, it is a criminal activity. Therefore, the parties that deal with rape cases include both the police and the medical experts (Ostremen, Barbiaz  Johnson, 2001). According to Campbell, Seft  Ahrens, (2003), the health distresses that the rape victims go through are real and very common. Rape victims are more likely to have several kinds of chronic illnesses than non victims. These include arthritis, asthma and diabetes. They also experience gastrointestinal symptoms like indigestion, constipation and nausea. The reasons why the rape victims have many problems than the non rape victims is not known. Therefore, utmost care should be taken when dealing with the victims of sexual assault, whether men or women.

Fair Treatment of the rape victims
Forensic examinations
The first step that is taken once a rape occurs is to inform the police. Once a rape incident has occurred to victims, there is a certain period of time which the state has set that the evidence may be collected. If the time has already elapsed, then the medical examination continues. A legal statement is required, which includes the history of the patient and a detailed description of the sexual assault. Incase the patient does not share the same language as the officer interviewing him or her, or has impairments in his or her hearing a hospital interpreter should be sought. A relative should not talk on behalf of the victim because it would violate the evidence and the law. Women are the most assaulted victims in the world today. The information collected from them by the legal officers include the last menstrual period date, past health history, physical illnesses, allergies and the current pregnancies (Ostremen, Barbiaz  Johnson, 2001).
 
After all information has been got from the patient, the patients clothing is collected. Samples of seminal fluid and sperm are also collected as proper evidence for anal, oral and vaginal examination. Additionally, evidence from blood swabs, fingernail scrapings, hair, saliva and some fibers from the body of the victim are also collected. The sexual assault victim should also be screened on whether she was drunk or had used drugs. This information is also important for the forensic examination. All theses reports should be forwarded to the forensic experts, so that they can assist in tracing the criminal (Ostremen, Barbiaz  Johnson, 2001).

Therapy
Relaxation and Rational Emotive therapy
The women rape victims need therapy to assist them in relaxation. The first step is that of muscle relaxation. This helps the victim overcome all attacks of anxiety and help them sleep. In addition, relaxation helps the victims to lessen the number of times she cries and the frequencies of the headaches. Rational emotive therapy is one of them, whose purpose is to help the victim overcome trauma, and all the feelings of fear. This therapy helps the rape victims to be assertive. Group therapy is also important as it assists the rape victims to benefit emotionally (Psychology Today, 2010).

Group and art therapy 
When women who have been victims of rape come together and share out their experiences, their level of anxiety and fear is reduced. Those who had been previously numb also get the confidence to talk out as they share with the group. Group therapy is also combined with art therapy. Art therapy includes narration of how they managed to overcome the bitterness and trauma that they had. Also, they engage in activities such as puppet making, story telling, face painting and autobiographical performances. These activities have helped the victims ease their pain and fear (Psychology Today, 2010).

Hypnosis
Hypnosis is also another way in which the sexual assault victims are assisted. There are several feminist groups which deal with self-hypnosis in the U.S. and the world at large. These groups have benefited the female rape victims a lot. Ordinarily, the victims usually have a sense of guilt, helplessness, social isolation and fear. Hypnosis helps to do away with all these negative feelings (Psychology Today, 2010). Studies have revealed that hypnosis is beneficial when fused with family therapy. There have been very many cases where hypnosis of the rape victim has occurred together with the husband of the victims. In one instance, a husband of one rape victim was always enraged when the woman purged out her pent up emotions. This revealed that even if the assault was not committed to him, he was equally traumatized. This trauma was however undone through the hypnosis process. The woman was able to overcome her anxiety and fear. She also dealt with the abandonment feelings she had. The husband was able to deal with anger in a better way than before the therapy occurred (Psychology Today, 2010).

Couple or family therapy
Couple or family therapy is also important in dealing with the victims of rape. It is advisable for the members of the victims family to have their full participation in the therapy sessions. This is because some of the members are always blaming the victims, and they even end up rejecting them (Psychology Today, 2010). The parents or partners of the rape victims usually experience feelings of anger, helplessness, homicidal fantasies and frustration towards the rapist. Therefore, therapy is important for them so that they can be able to deal with these feelings. This enables the family to help the victim in the healing process. This is because once the other family members are assisted on how to deal with the trauma associated with rape they understand and accept the patient more. Additionally, those who always blame the patient for the rape occurrence stop it once they are relieved from trauma (Psychology Today, 2010).

Existential therapy
Afterwards, existential therapy principles are also important for the victim. They occur later in the therapy sessions. Their purpose is to ensure that the victims are able to overcome helplessness and find a meaning with life. Additionally, they are assisted on how to take responsibility to curb their numbness (Psychology Today, 2010).

Humanistic Approach
Humanistic approach is also another way of treating the victims of rape. It is very important to all the rape victims. Here, the patient requires a lot of understanding, support and acceptance from the therapist. The client-centered therapy helps the victim in self expression (Psychology Today, 2010).

Psychodynamic Approach
There are those instances where a rape victim has gone through another sexual assault form in her childhood. This is the only case where psychodynamic approach is helpful. However, it should not be administered at the start of the therapy sessions. It is only after the victim has dealt with the current rape ordeal that she later employs this therapy. Psychodynamic therapy involves the process of helping other women who have not only gone through rape, but also previous sexual assaults in their day to day life (Psychology Today, 2010).

Pharmacotherapy
There are cases where the depression may be too much in the rape victim. Additionally, cases of hyper- arousal may also be rampant in some female rape victims. This results to a functioning impairment. Therefore, in such cases, drugs are administered to the patients. The tranquilizers are meant to bring some relief, as the patients can get enough sleep and experience less anxiety. There are also drugs which are meant to help the patients completely forget about their rape ordeals. Ordinarily, these types of drugs are used as an adjunct to all the other forms of therapy (Mezev, 1997).

(EMDR) Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing
There have been very many reports which have revealed that EMDR has been successful in treating trauma in rape victims. However, the numbers of people trained in this technique are very few. Additionally, the procedure is not convincing to many people. This method relies on a reliance of a reflex which inhibits and opposes mechanisms of avoidance. This method ensures that the painful flashbacks of the rape ordeal are not remembered, and the traumatic memories and anxieties are swept away. All the same, this method has proved to be very effective as it lessens depression in the affected rape victims (Mezev, 1997).

Cognitive therapies in terms of behavior
There are several cognitive_behavioural programs that have been developed for the victims of rape. The behavioral programs have proved effective to some of the rape victims. The program has four main components the first one involves the victim narrating all the experiences that she went through during the attack. The second and third parts of this therapy consist of the myths of the rape ordeal, and the information on the kinds of problems that the victims are bound to experience. The last component is the introduction of coping skills to the patient (Medev, 1997). 

In this program, Stress Inoculation Training (SIT) is employed. SIT is meant to treat persistent anxiety and fear. This kind of treatment is two-phased. The first one involves explanation on fear and anxiety of the victim. The second phase involves training on skills on fear prevention .The patients are encouraged to relax, where they are involved in deep breathing and self dialogue. Throughout this process, management and avoidance of anxiety, fear and depression is learnt (Medev, 1997). 
Unfair treatment of the rape victims

Secondary victimization
Sexual assault has a lot of effects on the physical and psychological health of the woman. As a result, the victims of rape look for help in several community agencies which assist the victims to overcome the trauma. There are a number of these types of agencies that are very effective. However, there are cases where the rape victims have been denied help, and if any, it makes them end up being re-victimized. Additionally, not all women can access the community agencies which help the women to deal with the rape trauma. Some may fear rejection, and other may not have the necessary support from family members and friends. All this kind of treatment leads to what is known as the second rape, or the secondary victimization (Campbell  Raja, 1999).

In the U.S. there was a rape legislative reform in the 1970s and the 1980s. It was an empty promise because up to date, there are very many rape victims who continue to face challenges as they search for the community resources. There are two types of rape processing. The unresponsive and responsive types. The responsive type of treatment is where all the practices performed prioritize the victim of rape. This takes place in the legal organizations. On the other hand, the unresponsive processing emphasizes more on the organizations, police, hospital and the prosecutors needs. The prosecutors and the police are always occupied on how they are going to win their cases (Campbell  Raja, 1999). 

Since the people involved are not genuine in helping the victims to solve their cases, the victims do not completely heal. The treatment that the rape survivors receive can be quite devastating. This type of negative treatment is referred to as negative victimization. It is defined as the process whereby there is a prolonged and compounded consequence of certain crimes it results from negative, judgmental attitudes and behaviors directed towards the victim, which results in lack of support, and even condemnation (Campbell  Raja, 1999).

The social system personnel are usually blamed for the occurrence of the unresponsive treatment. Secondary victimization of the rape victims stem from three factors. To start with, the rape victims face harsh treatment from the personnel that treat them. Secondly, the rape victims suffer because of the assistance that they are denied. In 1998, research reveled that sixty seven percent of the cases of the rape victims had been dismissed, and over eighty of the cases are prosecuted against the wishes of the victims. Lastly, there are several rape victims who are not able to assess the desired services (Campbell  Raja, 1999).

Victimization by the media
There are also debates on whether the newspaper editors should name the rape victims or not. The newspapers often name the women who are assaulted sexually for their own beneficial purposes. They claim that rape is just like any other crime in the world today. In 1996, a journal, popular for twenty five years, named eighteen women who were rape victims (Haws, 1996). The women were so stressed by the reports of the journal. Some of them received anonymous calls after their names were published in the journal Others continued to receive sexual harassment from those people who knew them. This affected even the women who had gone through rape at the time the journal was being published. This is because they felt that their names would also be revealed if at all they would report their cases. However, the journal defended its actions. It claimed that the rape stigmatization would decrease once their names were published (Haws, 1996).Other researchers claim that since the names of the men are published in the newspapers, the womens names should also be published. This is meant to bring equality between the men and the women as far as the cases of rape are concerned (Sarler, 2006).

Inadequate provisions of contraceptives
In 2005, there was a general public alarm concerning the provision of contraceptives for the rape victims. The Justice Department did not in any way fight for the rights of the victims. This incited a lot of controversy from the civil liberties, health organizations and womens groups in the U.S. This kind of unfair treatment has continued up to date, where the rape victims are denied drugs to help them in the prevention of pregnancies. Despite the efforts that have been made by the officials of the many feminist groups in the U.S., the female sexual assault victims are still treated unfairly (Verma, Hafiz,  Nicholas, 2005).

The unfair treatment has also been used by politicians to attack their opponents in the U.S. This is because the issue of rape is taken very seriously, and any person who does not side with the rape victims becomes an enemy of the people. Therefore, any politician in the majority of the U.S. States who does not support the sexual assault victims has lower chances of being voted in (McAffee, 2010). An example of this kind of scenario is the wrangles that were present between Coakley and Scott Brown, who were both vying for a senatorial seat in Massachusetts.  The Coakley campaigners were distributing fliers which accused Scott brown of failing all the rape victims, both men and women. The fliers stated that Scott had supported a legislation which declared that all rape victims should be denied emergency room help. This was so serious that they all faced each other in court. The reports of the fliers indicated that 1,736 women were raped in Massachusetts in 2008.Scott Brown wants all hospitals to turn them all away (McAffee, 2010). This is the kind of treatment that some of the victims actually go through (McAffee, 2010).

Victimization of the rape victims is not only presented in the U.S., but in the world at large. In 2009, the England Ministers observed that there were very many cases where the sexual assault victims were denied their rights. They therefore declared that they would review the way the rape victims were treated from the time they interacted with all the authorities involved (BBC, 2009). The Ministers concerns were that the rates of conviction were still very low despite the efforts that had been made to improve them. Statistics recorded that only 6.5 of the cases that were reported in 2007 and 2008 led to the arrest and conviction of the attackers. Additionally, the police officers had relaxed in this area. Several victims had reported that the police were not interested in their cases and that they were not taken seriously. There were even cases where criminals revealed that the police officers in Britain were very ineffective in dealing with crime, especially on sexual assault. The Ministers also observed that there lacked collaboration between the doctors, police and lawyers. As such, the rape cases were often delayed or characterized with a lot of flaws (BBC, 2009).

Recently, there are several high-profile women of the black race who have admitted that they have gone through molestation and rape. The author of a book known as Surviving the Silence, Charlotte Pierce-Baker was one of the black women in the US who have suffered silently. She stated that I bought into the whole mythology of rape. I felt this had sullied me or dirtied me in some way. I thought this made me less touchable (Starling, 2002).

Her case reflects the statistics that have been collected over the years, that one in five White women are raped after age 18, but for black women the ratio jumps to one in four (Starling,2002).

Conclusion
Just like all the other crimes in the U.S. and the world at large, excellence should be practiced by all the parties that are involved in dealing with rape in women. This will decrease the number of rape cases that have continued to escalate everyday.