Sociology

This essay focuses on the issue of ethnic discrimination manifested in the process of labor division, in todays society. This paper examines the differences between races that have influenced the division of labor. There are many factors that need to be taken into consideration, such as biological, social, historical and cultural factors, which provide the basis for ethnic stratification by affecting the degree to which people are able to acquire and control the sources of a society.
    I think this is a very topical subject of the present time, when the world is full of bipolar relations, such as rich countries and poor countries, men and women, black and white, employers and employees.
 Various forms of inequality are a topical subject of the present time and, also, an intrinsic part of society, even though, many people have been trying to abolish it over time. There are important debates regarding inequalities on labor market, but the racial and ethnic inequality has been a major focus of attention around the world.
    Each society has different norms and values that guide the human behavior and the cohesion of the people. This is called solidarity, which appears to people that have the same characteristics, such as religion, skin color, language and so on. These people learn to live with each other, they work, help and respect each other, they coexist. But what happens to those immigrants who couldnt make a living or who couldnt integrate in their native countries It is well-known the fact that skin color have a dramatic social and political meaning.The most common concept related to these differences is the term prejudice which means a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority. These prejudices tend to perpetuate false definitions of a group and, once created, a prejudice is perpetuated through social influence that is present in the in-group and interpersonal interactions (one example is mass-media, which is an opinion maker). It is very hard not to have a stereotypical mind, because once accepted, these stereotypes linger on, decade after decade.
    Discrimination is, unfortunately, part of everyday life, even though many people have tried to abolish it over time. In their daily operations, institutions also practice discrimination. Sociologists are concerned about how a discriminatory behavior affects employment, health care, government operations and housing. The institutional discrimination, as defined by Schaefer, refers to the denial of opportunities and equal rights to all people, facts that are also highlighted by the Commission on Civil Rights. Labor market discrimination occurs when two equally qualified individuals are treated differently solely on the basis of their gender, race, age, disability, etc. For example, Blacks and Hispanics in the U.S. earn less than comparable whites and Arabs in Israel earn less than Jews with similar characteristics.
    Schaefers research about ethnic discrimination is also based on legally facts, brought into discussion in order to increase the veracity of the facts. He talks about the various forms of institutional discrimination identified by the Commission on Civil Rights (1981) and , among others, the followings are relevant for this topic rules requiring that only English be spoken at a place of work, even when it is not a business necessity to restrict the use of other languages or preferences shown by law and medical schools in the admission of children of wealthy and influential alumni, nearly all of whom are White. 
    Several factors contribute to differences in earnings among different groups of people. Earnings are assumed to increase with education due to a resulting increase in worker productivity. Another means of increasing worker productivity is through on-the-job training. However, even when these factors are taken into account, at each worker category ethnic groups are still paid less than the majority group.
    An article wrote by Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild entitled Global Woman shows the story of Josephine Perera, a nanny from Sri Lanka, who had to leave her children and home behind, in order to earn money by breeding other families children. This article is presented in a particular way, but like Josephine, are millions of other female workers that have chosen this path in life. She stresses on the fact that women workers are nannies, maids and sex workers in the new economy, in other words, they are seen like objects that take care of the children, clean and satisfy others sexual pleasures. (Third World migrant women achieve their success only by assuming the case-off domestic roles of middle and high-income women in the First World- roles that have been previously rejected, of course, by men.)
    Analyzing the ethnic pay gap, some scientists came up with a quantitative method of measuring the earnings differentials. This method was developed by Oaxaca (1973) and extended by Cotton (1988) and Neumark (1988). The specific form of the model employed here, follows closely that used by Gaynor and Durden (1995). The model incorporates four main types of variables human capital-related, job-related, personal, and regional. The empirical analysis is estimated for white males, white females, Hispanic males and Hispanic females.
The numbers show big pay gaps between white and Hispanic men, but especially at women. A summary of the data shows the following in 1990 Durden and Gaynor found that the earnings difference (in logarithmic values) between white and Hispanic males was about 1.1 and for Hispanic females about 22.2. Reimers found a 15 differential between white and Hispanic males and Pagan and Cardenas found a similar difference in logarithmic values. In dollar values, Torres found a residual of 3,808 for 1980 Puerto Rican-born Hispanic males and -310 for females for 1980 U.S.-born Hispanics the discrimination residuals were 1,590 for males and -641 for females. Verdugo found a larger difference in 1987 for Mexican-American workers of 2,098.Analyzing the four variables, the residual difference, which is the sum of advantage and disadvantage effects, may be attributable to discrimination.
When analyzing the race pay gap, it is important to take into consideration the period of time when the study was released. For example, today, when talking about pay differentials, we take into consideration the education and the skills, but, at the beginning of the century, going to college wasnt very popular. Not only because the salaries of college graduates were not too high in comparison to those of high school graduates, but a college graduate would lose four years of payment and specialization. Another important factor is the period of time that we refer to. Francis Fukuyama talks exactly about this issue in his book entitled The Great Disruption  Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order(1999). Regarding to this matter he states that between 1960 and 1995, womens participation on labor market from Japan was higher than anywhere else in the world, but a reason might be the decrease of the number of men after the war in Pacific.
Most ethic groups gain less compared to the white groups, but, on the other hand, there are some minorities, like Jews, Chinese and Japanese who do as well or even better than the white majority. The earnings gap for most groups declined over the 1960s and the 1970s and the portion of that gap that might be assignable to discrimination also declined.
After World War II, immigration restrictions were relaxed in order to accommodate increased labor demands of a rapidly expanding economy. However, the 1953 Immigration Act continued to allow the government to bar entry for reasons such as ethnicity, nationality, and peculiar customs, habits, modes of life or methods of property. British, (white) Americans and, to a lesser degree, French immigrants were preferred.
An important moment in soften the rigidity of ethnic preferences was the industrialized period. The reason of the changes that emerged from the industrial period is reflected in Taylors principles of scientific management. He proposes the study of time and movement, the opportunity of choosing one best way in effectuating operations, a division of workresponsibilities. All these brought the resounding success of mass-producing (conveyor belt).The key word was efficiency, the work was divided and automated. Due to international competition and technology change, new jobs are created, which require qualification, and unqualified jobs disappear or are very poorly paid. Therefore, the return to education creates a gap between people that have different level of education. Therefore, the level of education might be an answer to the gap that exists between ethnic groups. However, there are, without any doubt, many employers who are still facing problems about accepting an employee who is part of a subculture.
Discriminatory practices are still a port of contemporary society, in every part of the world. Reasons are mostly the same, the differences of beliefs, color or region, but, in part, another reason is that various individuals or groups benefit from racial discrimination in terms of money, status or influence, on the expense of others.
Some theories, such as the neo-classical one, states that ethnic discrimination on the labor market is irrational, because, while employers underpay minority workers, they overpay the majority workers so much that it shows that employers lose from discrimination. The only ones who benefit from this chain are the employees from the super ordinate group. Also, a society that is leaded by discriminatory beliefs fails to use the resources of all individuals, they chose the service of certain people, that may be under qualified for a job, just because they are members of the dominant group. Another thing that is not taken into consideration when choosing to discriminate is risk of delinquency and crime, solutions that may be approached by the minorities in order to prevent starvation.
Even though there are written laws, norms, values and ethics cant be standardized. People are part of different cultures and what is a value for a society might be a non-value for another. What people can do is not letting stereotypes interfere on the labor market. To get rid of these stereotypes, it is important to assure interdependence between in-groups and out-group. If we see how dependent a person is of another persons help, even though one of them is part of an out-group, then they will see each other as an individual, as an ally and not as a whole. Also, interacting with someone from an out-group may get to a contradiction of the stereotype and one might notice that the stereotype was not well founded and not use it again.

Traditionally, crisis management was known to be an institution that responded to catastrophic weather related events and other natural calamities that affected the wellbeing and functioning of the society. However, this perception changed at the end of the last century when the emergency events took a different turn. The increase in the terrorist attacks in the US led to the active engagement of crisis or emergency management agencies in planning and coordination of emergency response.
It is in this consideration that this paper explicitly explores how the roles of the crisis work have changed since the September eleventh episode. In order to enhance a harmonic consideration, it will analyze the approaches that are presently undertaken with respect to the event and its repercussions.
Changes in crisis work since 911
To begin with, Rosner and Gerald (2006) indicate that the disaster response and management team has adopted more multifaceted approaches to crisis management. Unlike in the past, the current crisis management team has several programs that seek to address the emergent threats that include chemical, biological, nuclear, incendiary and explosive scenarios. Notably, attention is no longer concentrated on terrorist activities. Resources that can be used to effectively manage these scenarios have also been put in place and the relative machinery is maintained accordingly.
The training of the personnel involved in the crisis management has also become more real. In this regard, Mason et al (2002) ascertains that the exercises and drills are undertaken more frequently and the underlying attitudes have now shifted from what if to when. The exercises and drills play a critical role in enhancing public understanding and building trust in the emergency equipment and capacities.  In addition, the current approach is holistic in manner due to the fact that awareness creation is now public oriented. In this regard, Finnegan (2006) affirms that unlike in the past, the last eight years have been characterized by intensive awareness creation in the public sector. This is in an attempt to equip the public with necessary skills regarding emergency management and response. It is believed that a public that is well informed about these strategies can be very instrumental providing critical aid during emergency situations.
Further, it can not be disputed that in the past, crisis work was considered to be a quiet role that solely involved relevant agency officials. After September eleventh, Tarpley (2007) indicates that this has changed and the local communities presently participate actively in the development and assessment of emergency plans. For instance, he ascertains that the local communities are increasingly being actively involved in threat assessment and various state plans for anticipated emergency events that are likely to involve weapons of mass destruction.
In their study, Rosner and Gerald (2006) also note that the roles of emergency management personnel have changed. Traditionally, these were solely charged with the responsibility of providing vital resources and coordinating accordingly with various partners at the local level during emergencies. However, new responsibilities have been introduced and presently, emergency management teams also coordinate homeland security. Notably, networking between major security stakeholders and emergency management agencies has improved in the later part of the decade. In this regard, Finnegan (2006) points out that the communication infrastructure has been improved from the local to the national level. The security agencies like the FBI presently collaborate with the emergency management teams during the execution of their duties. In addition, safety the emergency management team has also established closer working relations with the safety personnel (Rosner  Gerald, 2006). This has gone a long way in making the response more effective and customized.
Furthermore, the September eleventh episode has prompted the need for establishment of more emergency operational centers in cities, capitals and counties across the nation. Indeed, Mason et al (2002) shows that emergency offices have been established in different parts of the nation. These are vital as they help in coordination of various activities in response to the unfolding events. Furthermore, more than ever, businesses have gained increased interest in emergency planning. Various cities across the nation are now enacting relevant legislations in an attempt to enhance emergency planning. Specific areas of concern have been high rise evacuation training, stringent emergency planning and other strategies that are geared towards attaining better response.
Conclusion
From the analysis, it is clear that the September eleventh episode prompted more stringent security measures and enhanced the coordination between various stakeholders. This has led to the redefinition of the crisis work and presently, emergency management is not only charged with the responsibility of coordinating emergency services, but it also provides homeland security services. In addition, it is certain that the communication network has been improved to cater for the emergent security needs at different levels. Of great concern however is the increased participation of the local communities in assessment of security threats and planning for state security. It is in this consideration that this paper concludes that crisis work has changed significantly since 911. In deed, it is clear that various approaches have been adopted in respect to the event and its repercussions.

One of the individuals who attained recognition throughout the world for being a social worker in twentieth century America, a feminist and an internationalist was Jane Addams. She was an individual who devoted her time and effort into fields of civic responsibility and had been appointed as head in several committees and organizations (The Nobel Foundation).
    She was also the first woman to be able to head the National Conference of Charities and Corrections as the president. Jane Addams also led investigations in Chicago regarding narcotics consumption, milk supplies, sanitary conditions, and midwifery. Apart from this, Yale University also awarded her with an honorary degreethe first ever awarded to a woman (The Nobel Foundation).
Jane Addams was a feminist and she believed that women should be able to make themselves be heard therefore, she also believed that women should be able to vote. Apart from this, Jane Addams believed that women are not to be shelved in the home instead, they should create their own dreams and aspirations and find opportunities and means to realize these goals (The Noble Foundation).
Jane Addams was an individual who believed that war is not the answer to misunderstandings. In fact, she even taught other individuals about her beliefs. She also had published a book, entitled, Newer Ideals of Peace, wherein she discussed about means to attain peace without going through war (The Nobel Foundation).
Allen Davis American Heroine The Life and Legend of Jane Addams is a book that discusses Jane Addams life and works and how she was able to attain her goals through her hard work. The book also describes how Jane Addams proved herself to be a strong woman who wanted to make the world a better place for other individuals despite the fact that there may be a lot of problems to face.
Background
    Jane Addams was born in the Illinois in 1860 and belonged to a generation when women were experiencing changes in their roles in society. Women during Jane Addams generation were amongst the women who were first to go to college, the first to develop professional careers in government, research and social work, the first to be able to transcend the notion that women are bound to housework, and the first to be able to win the vote (Davis 3).
    However, the shift of womens roles and status in society, as well as the opportunities and situations, gave Jane Addams and the women of her generation much pain and remorse. It was the time when feminism was on its formative years and Jane Addams and her generations were amongst those who experienced the struggle (Davis 3).
    Jane Addams was from a family not different from other families, despite the fact that her family is complex and that she had an illness. Her mother died when she was only two years old and she had always been protected and pampered by her sisters, Martha and Mary, due to her tuberculosis of the spine. Her father was always on business or in Springfield as the member of a legislature, so she depended on her older sisters (Davis 6).
    When Jane Addams was young, she was just like most women of her generationshe was not militant like Elizabeth Cady Stanton or Susan B. Anthony who were militant pioneer feminists whom pushed for womens rights. In fact, she did not consider Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony as her heroines. She did not look up to themand the only women whom she looked up to were her mother and the two older sisters in Little Women by Louisa May Alcott. Most of the people whom she looked up to were men such as Carlyle, Emerson, Mazzini, and most importantly, her father (Davis 3).
    Jane Addams father, John Addams, was the dominant individual in their household. He demanded respect and obedience, but the management of Addams household and family was taken care of her mother, Sarah Addams. Her mother was not aspiring for a career and she did not care for the womens movement, and she was a woman who knew her place in society however, underneath this all, she was a woman who had an ability to command, a sense of purpose as strong as Jane Addams father, and determination (Davis 5).
    When Sarah Addams was pregnant, she went and helped another pregnant woman who was in labor for the village doctor was not available. She was able to successfully help the woman deliver her child however, on the way home, she stumbled and fell. She had a miscarriage and the baby that she was carrying died after a week, Sarah Addams also died and was buried with her child (Davis 5).
When Addams was six years old, her older sister, Martha, died of typhoid fever she often got nightmares that her other older sister, Mary, would die and leave her alone and unloved. Marthas death prompted Jane Addams to strongly attach herself to her father and to Mary (Davis 7).
    Jane Addams life was once again changed after two years. Mary left home to marry a Presbyterian minister and Jane Addams father remarried. Jane Addams stepmother, Anna Haldeman Addams, was an attractive and high-strung woman who had minimal formal education. However, she was from an intellectual familyshe read a lot of books and was very talented in music (Davis 6).
 She introduced order, discipline and culture to the Addams household and these were concepts that developed Jane Addams into who she is. However, despite the rigid changes that her stepmother made in the Addams household, Jane Addams had an affectionate relationship with her stepmother (Davis 7).
    The events that occurred in Jane Addams life were all factors in her future development. As she was growing up, she early developed a sense of purpose and commitment. Although Jane Addams was sickly due to her illness, she never let this preoccupy her mind. She never tried to be burdened by her sickness and tried to function as an individual who is well. Apart from these, given that she grew up in a family that was exposed to culture and proper discipline, Jane Addams grew up believing in equality, democracy, as well as equal opportunity, despite the fact that she was from the richest family in their village (Davis 7-8).
    Jane Addams father, John Addams, was different from most men, for believed that women should be educated. Given that he believes that educated women are vital in society, he supported the Rockfold Female Seminary. Jane Addams entered this seminary just like her sisters and studied there for over a year (Davis 11).
Social Work
Allen Davis American Heroine The Life and Legend of Jane Addams discusses how Jane Addams was able to determine that her calling in life was to be a social worker when she was in Chicago, she began a settlement house wherein she was flocked by a lot of people who needed child care, medical care and so on. It also provided classes for immigrants to learn English, vocational skills, music, art and drama.
    Jane Addams settlement house, also called the Hull House, was something that seemed to threaten the feminine ideal, however, people were more accepting of her role as a social worker, for she had not abandoned a husband or a child in order to help the poor. It must be understood that during 1889, people still believed the feminine ideal, which states that women are destined to be homemakers and mothers (Davis 66).
    In 1910, people began to notice that there was, indeed, a change in the feminine ideal. People started realizing that the feminine ideal does not necessarily mean that the women have to be weak and dependent. Apart from this, women were seen in a different light, wherein they could be much more than just homemakers and mothers (Davis 207).
    The books also states that Jane Addams was someone who was able to fight for women and childrens legislative protection, advocate womens suffrage, a juvenile court system, compulsory education and labor laws. She also became internationally famous as an advocate for peace and was a founder of the Womens Peace Party, for she was intent on searching for a moral equivalent to war (Davis 135).
    A lot of radical individuals misinterpreted her intentions and said that if she werent appealing to wealthy people, she would have been branded as radical. Jane Addams had always felt that it was her job to make peace with all groups and to help them address their issues regarding war with other groups. Apart from this, she also believed that she played an important role in making people realize that war is not the morally right way to achieve a certain end (Davis 119).
    Jane Addams was also a member of the investigation committee of the Civic Federation of Chicago, where she and the other committee members were concerned about how much class warfare is prevalent. They wanted to sort out the differences and restore peace and order amongst the classes (Davis 112).
    According to Allen Davis American Heroine The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (294), Jane Addams characteristic of being a reformer earned her a Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. It was an achievement that she and her friends considered a vindication for all their efforts in the peace movement and they were optimistic that the peace movement may be considered and understood more by other individuals.
    Jane Addams helped create the Womens Peace Party, wherein she was appointed as a leader because of her prestige when it comes to fighting for peace among groups. She devoted a lot of time and energy in the Womens Peace Party (Davis 222), which was a result of her goal to give women a share and a voice in the decision-making processes which occur between peace and war (Davis 225). In fact, Jane Addams and other members of the Womens Peace Party were so persuasive and unrelenting that they managed to convince President Wilson of their plea (Davis 250).
    According to Davis (22), Jane Addams believed that women should be able to make themselves heard. They should also know that by being able to make them heard by other people, or speaking out for themselves, they are taking the path to truth and knowledge. Apart from this, women should learn that they should use their talents in means that would sway and en-noble those around them.
Criticism
    Despite the fact that her intentions were good and the she was only working to improve the current society, Jane Addams also faced a lot of criticism from other individuals. When Jane Addams spoke in defense of labor and that American businesses were depriving working men and women of their basic rights in labor, a lot of people branded her as an anarchist and a socialist, for they believed that she was trying to redo the current system, which everyone has already adhered to (Davis 111).
    In fact, one Chicago businessman stated that Jane Addams was not a good leader and that people should not follow her. He insisted that Jane Addams was become far more socialistic than what is tolerable and that it was no longer wise to follow her goals (Davis 116).
    Apart from this, a lot of her critics insisted that she was a radical however, Jane Addams consistently and constantly rejected the radical option and always opted for the middle ground. She stated that a lot of individuals misinterpreted her advocacy for freedom of speech--which is why they keep on criticizing her standpoints. Jane Addams believes that war is not an option and that there are other means to do sohowever, a lot of people still criticized her for being a pacifist (Davis 116).
    In fact, private citizens, medical organizations and church groups were among all of those groups who criticized and tried to undermine Jane Addams. The most persistent group who wanted to undermine her was the Daughters of the American Revolution. Despite the fact that she was given membership to the group, they were vindictive towards her and continuously attacked her (Davis 267).
Because Jane Addams tried to influence American citizens to change their views about the reality of war, a lot of her critics deemed her to be a Bolshevik or a Communist. America feared subversion and they anyone who stated a view or perspective that is different from the current dominant perspective was considered against them and would be branded as disloyal and un-American (Davis 251).
Jane Addams never took a side when it comes to her beliefs. She always took the neutral ground she was not a radical and nor was she a conservative. However, by taking the middle ground, she made herself vulnerable to attacks from both of the groups. Radicals would criticize her and say that she was simply not doing enough, while those who are on the conservative side would criticize her and state that she is a traitor to the Americans because she is acting like a Communist or a Bolshevik (Davis 110).
Given that a lot of organizations and the press were trying to undermine Jane Addams, she decided to shift her humanitarian goals to helping people through the Department of Food Administration with the help of Robert Hoover. She helped in providing children and women relief goods and other vital supplies. She also asked other women to help in the production, as well as conservation of the food, so that there may be more to go around for other individuals. In fact, she spoke to high school assemblies, womens clubs, and public meetings about the need to do so (Davis 247).
Davis (258) states that Jane Addams was considered to be the most dangerous woman in America during her time. Most defined her as a dangerous radical and one critic even stated that Jane Addams merely an ignorant immigrant trying to become a socialist (Davis 118).
Subversives are referred to as Communists or pink, and Jane Addams was on top of the list. In fact, one general during her time stated that Jane Addams was the reddest of the red among the list of subversives (Davis 272).
According to Judy Bloom Fradin (158), sometime in closing of the 1920s, Jane Addams was described as a woman who worked against her countrys best interests and that she stands out as the most dangerous woman in America. When this occurred, Jane Addams friends were quick to defend her.
Carrie Chapman Catt defended her friend by publishing a letter in the Woman Citizen journal. She wrote that Jane Addams is a great woman and that she had given her life selflessly to other people without a single selfish motive, and yet people keep on criticizing her with harsh words and slanders. Despite that, Jane Addams never complained. She just went through her job and tried her best to help other people (Davis 158).
Another friend of Jane Addams, Florence Kelly, told Jane Addams that she should file a libel suit against those people who are trying to undermine her by saying negative things about her work and her personality. However, Jane Addams had no intention of getting back at her oppressors, no matter how much they branded her as a disloyal and dangerous American woman (Fradin 158).
During those times, people were convinced that pacifists, radicals and Bolsheviks are all the same, and that they are dangerous beings who would try to destroy the current peace within society. Jane Addams. They argued that they could not control Jane Addams actions, but they are welcome to refer to her as dangerous to America. Jane Addams stated that she is open to all forms of criticism, but to brand her as disloyal to her country would be taking it too far, for everything she has done was for the countrys benefit (Davis 262).
Whenever someone would brand her as someone dangerous or as a Communist, Jane Addams would often try her best to not retaliate. In a manner of speaking, she also did her best to live up to her teachings. Instead of retaliating, which she considers as a trigger of war, she would try to talk with the individual in a peaceful manner wherein they could discuss their differences (Davis 270).
Analysis
    If one looks at Jane Addams life story at a sociological perspective, it could be said that she was one female who tried to defy all odds in order to give voice to other women, the poor, and the numerous victims of war. She was a woman who wanted other people to see that there is nothing wrong if women and men are given the same privileges, for they women are capable of doing other jobs than just merely staying at home doing housework and taking care of children.
    She wanted people to see that there is nothing wrong with choosing a life as a mother, or as a homemaker, but she also wanted to show that women can aspire for dreams and goals, and that these dreams and goals are not out of their reach. They just have to work to attain it and believe that they are not pre-destined to stay at home while men pursue their goals in life.
 She was also a humanitarian who believed that helping other people is important if one wants society to remain intact. People need other people, and Jane Addams story showed that she wants to be able to help people realize their dreams and finally raise themselves from their problems, be it monetary or whatnot.
It could be said that Jane Addams greatest work is that she convinced people that war is not the answer to differences between people or countries. She wanted people to be able to talk through their differences, instead of shooting people down, or firing bombs and rockets. She was a pacifist, and a lot of individuals criticized her for wanting to create a world where people were not at war.
However, as seen in the previous discussion, given that Jane Addams was a pacifist, she did not want to strike back at those people who were criticizing her, even if they were saying that she was a Communist, threatening the American society or that she was the most dangerous woman of her time. She lived by what she preached, and she chose to talk to them in a peaceful manner in order to settle differences. Despite the many criticisms that Jane Addams received during her life, Jane Addams was able to make herself heard, help people, try to prevent wars--and those things, apparently, are far more of significance than what any critic would say.

Euthanasia is one of the most important issues in the society today because of the presence of moral and ethical impact and implication of the issue on the society and its perceived idea and moral standard of living, making euthanasia a contentious issue (Weston 22). The human life is a very important consideration when it comes to deciding whether or no killing should be justified. In many places around the world, traditionally, the belief is that it is not right for another human being to be the one who would take another individuals life, especially if there are options available to sustain the life of the individual. There are many pros and cons in the debate of euthanasia, but the prevailing idea is that euthanasia still presents a negative impact because of its role in the death of many people who could have been saved and could have been alive longer, had it not been for the practice and concept of euthanasia (McMillan, Engelhardt, Spicker 223). Though it is fully logical, and in expert and conscientious hands it could be the most humane way of dealing with such a situation, legalizing euthanasia would be a most dangerous weapon in the hands of the state or ignorant or unscrupulous individuals (McMillan, Engelhardt, Spicker 223).  The thesis of this paper is this that active euthanasia should not be legalized for it will bring forth numerous unnecessary killing.
There are currently two classifications of Euthanasia. One of the classifications of euthanasia is considered voluntary euthanasia. Under voluntary euthanasia, the individual gives his or her own personal consent regarding pursuing euthanasia on himself or herself. The key factor here is that the individual who wishes to die can make the decision for himself or herself. Once the individual is not capable of doing so, then euthanasia becomes involuntary, wherein authorized individuals like members of the family can decide on the application of euthanasia to a person who is already incapable of making such decision, like a person who is already in a comatose or a person who is too old, weak and feeble and is only living off life support system.
There are two ways on how to do euthanasia, and it is through active and passive means. Both voluntary and involuntary euthanasia can be done through either active or passive euthanasia. In active euthanasia, the person takes a lethal substance geared at killing the individual, while in passive euthanasia, the idea is to allow the body to die naturally by withdrawing medicines that are used for treatment, not allowing other medical procedures and intervention and eventually removing the life support system. Regardless of the cases of passive, active, voluntary and involuntary euthanasia, euthanasia, as a practice of killing individuals, is still very controversial issue because of the fact that many people are still arguing for or against this issue.
Euthanasia has featured cases of physician misconduct. Often, this is found in hospitals inside countries that are very favourable to euthanasia. One of these countries is the Netherland, which legalized euthanasia. As a result of the legalization of euthanasia in Netherlands, the physicians in this country is more prone and more vulnerable to physician misconduct involved in the act of committing euthanasia, especially in consideration to the many different predicaments surrounding the request for euthanasia and if all of these euthanasia acts are done with real consent and genuine intention of considering the welfare and well being of the person who is about to die, above everyone else, and not just being used as a tool by individuals to eliminate people so that they can pursue their own selfish goals. This is one of the main reasons why euthanasia has the potential to be immoral (Gorsuch 135).  Non-consensual killing have become more acceptable - as they surely have in Netherlands, where the government has sough to justify them as necessity (Gorsuch 135). 
Many Physicians in Netherlands do not follow the process of deciding if the patient is necessary for active euthanasia. One of the sources of physician misconduct in Netherlands when it comes to euthanasia is the problem of due process when it comes to undertaking euthanasia. Some people accept the concept and act of euthanasia because they found the process acceptable since the process protects the interest of the patient at all times. But when this process is not followed, there is also the chance that the rights of the patient are being violated. Worse, the doctor or physician attending to this practice is guilty of misconduct and malpractice. The breach of process and procedure is more pronounced in active euthanasia since death is instantaneous and there is very little chance for the patient to be revived or to recover should other individuals or agencies intercede upon detection of possible misconduct and inappropriate and incorrect process and procedure leading to the consent and act of euthanasia. The problem of legalizing euthanasia is that it becomes common. Physicians become lax and consider this practice as one of the other common procedures inside the hospital. Because of this attitude and outlook, the physician is more inclined to not strictly follow the process and procedure of euthanasia, which will eventually make the physician more prone to committing acts of misconduct and malpractice in the undertaking of active euthanasia, as well as passive euthanasia. Those who do not agree with euthanasia believe it is because guidelines in line of euthanasia are violated (Cohen-Almagor 65).
The problem of malpractice and misconduct in the undertaking of active euthanasia is ethically wrong. This is more pronounced since this is a direct act of killing an individual, who may not want euthanasia in the first place but is subjected to such practice because physicians did not exercise prudence and care in the observation of the correct process and procedure in the obtaining of the consent of the individual and in the ascertaining of whether or not the consent was obtained legally and ethically. Once euthanasia becomes a socially accepted practice, the consideration for saving the human life becomes affected since physicians can easily kill anyone since this becomes an ordinary part of the day to day job.
When this happens the life of individuals are placed at stake, especially the life of individuals who are victimized by the presence of legalized euthanasia and the lax behavior of physicians in safeguarding the processes and procedures necessary for euthanasia.
The physicians moral view may alter the decision of euthanizing a patient. Doctors and physicians have a great influence on the patient. Having physicians and doctors who are pro-euthanasia increase the chances that the patients will also go for euthanasia, especially if the doctors managed to influence the patient. It is important that even if euthanasia is accepted or not, doctors should keep their own point of view for themselves and refrain from influencing the patients decision regarding euthanasia because euthanasia is a matter of life and death, literally. If physicians consciously try to convince or influence the patient to favor euthanasia just because the physicians moral point of view is in support of this belief, then at some degree, the physician is guilty of taking the patients life.
A physicians moral value and view shouldnt decide if a person is necessary to be euthanized. The physician should refrain not only from influencing the patient but also refrain from having his or her own personal opinion, moral standpoint and point of view on euthanasia influence the decision on euthanasia that the medical institution or the family and friends of the patient would make. This is also immoral since the physician is using his or her medical authority to influence a decision to which he or she does not have any moral authority to do so. The decision of taking or preserving life is not a medical decision but a moral and ethical decision.
Because of the nature of euthanasia (its condition, it practices, perspectives and resultimpact in the society), it is not surprising that individuals and organizations are intent on using this tool to kill people and taking human life legally, using euthanasia as a tool for repression and oppression and as a new method for a new style of genocide. Killing through euthanasia can be targeted towards a specific group of people.
Euthanasia can be used to target and eliminate a particular group of people. While this maybe something akin to conspiracy theory, in consideration to the extent of how people in the past resorted to the most evil and vile of methods to exterminate people by race or ethnicity the thought of using euthanasia as a new form of eliminating people based on race and ethnicity is not surprising. Considering the fact that there are groups of people by race or by ethnicity that outnumber other groups, it is possible that euthanasia can be the new tool for race or ethnic cleansing.
The growth of a particular race can be quelled and can be controlled through the use of euthanasia, especially if this particular racial group depends on professionals belonging in other racial group for their medical needs. Also, governments may support the move for euthanasia (and the reckless practice of this) in other countries, with the agenda of using the practice of euthanasia inside the country to kill this particular race. For example, the government representing Race A can encourage the government of Race B to legalize euthanasia in exchange for political and economic and financial support. The real agenda of Race A is to kill as many people belonging in Race B as possible, without the risk of being the one to be blamed in the end.
Like the case of racial groups, particular ethnic groups can also be targeted by euthanasia. For example, the spread of a particular serious ailment inside a community that is predominantly inhabited by a particular ethnic group can be addressed by the use of euthanasia backed by medical justifications like preventing more contact and increased spread of disease. The disease being incurable at the moment etc, when all along the real intention was to find a legal way possible to decimate the population of a particular ethnic group.
Physicians who have grudge against gangs and gang members (for example, a violent history with this group) may try to get back to this group by encouraging the use and practice of euthanasia on these patients, giving the doctorphysician a certain feeling of being able to kill these people in return. While this type of possibility maybe a highly isolated case and situations necessary for this pattern is highly improbable to happen in a continued basis (since not all of the gang members are mortally injured or have a deadly disease or is brought to the same hospital and same doctor for the acts of euthanasia against the gang members to be committed by just one doctor with a grudge), the point is that with the legalization of euthanasia, individuals are presented with another option that they can exploit, which they can use to kill people and can increase death and mortality rate.
Ones life seems more important than the other. Another important consideration with regards to euthanasia is that there would be unfair and unequal appraisal of the value of life of different individuals, with those who are being saved from euthanasia (with or without the influence of the physician) being viewed as more important compared to the lives of those who are not spared from euthanasia, which can be viewed as a life that is not as valuable. Therefore, the physician can euthanize a person who seems less important to give space to person who seems to be more important. With the consciousness that there are more and less important lives, the doctors and physicians are again vulnerable to committing moral crimes. To make room for more important lives, they might pursue the use of euthanasia to eliminate the life of individuals whom they consider as less important. Often, the idea or concept of whose life is more important is hinged on the financial capability as well as power and influence of the individual in question. Profiteering physicians may try to accommodate a patient who is rich and well connected, and would not think twice of euthanizing a poor patient so that resources are made available to take care of the well to do patient. This makes euthanasia a tool that creates the demarcation line that distinguishes two lives  the more important and the less important, the poor and rich, the influential and the ordinary.
Euthanasia aids in the act of people committing suicide. This is not morally acceptable. Euthanasia should be limited to those who are terminally ill or in pain. Once euthanasia is legalized and becomes an accepted aspect of human life, people may use it to assist their own acts of suicide, which is an immoral act and is made possible because of the presence of euthanasia in the first place. Today, there are already figures supporting euthanasia and suicide in several countries (Gorsuch 135). Within Australia...voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide collectively represent approximately 1.8 percent of all deaths...voluntary euthanasia and assisted suicide accounted for 2.2 percent of all deaths in the Netherlands in 19990, and 2.7 percent of all deaths there in 1995 (Gorsuch 135).
Those who wants to commit suicide, but dont have the courage, will be able to do so through euthanasia. Once euthanasia is legalized, the idea that euthanasia is legal can given physicians the moral security that it is not wrong. They can use it to assist individuals who are just intent on committing suicide. Euthanasia can only be used as a tool for suicide with the consent and cooperation of a medical professional. If physicians do not have enough reason for euthanasia, the doctor or physician may think twice of doing it, for legal implications. But not all physicians will think in this same way. Those who have more personal reasons to do otherwise are empowered by the legalization of euthanasia to commit this sin and to assist in the suicide attempt of the individual. With this, the physician that assisted the individual in using euthanasia as a tool for suicide is just as guilty in killing the individual.
Many people, who want to commit suicide, fortunately couldnt commit suicide because they were too scared. Often, suicidal people are scared to take their own life. However, with the presence of doctors and physicians who can help them, the deterrent factors preventing suicide is lesser. Euthanasia can facilitate suicide and scared individuals can simply ask the assistance of the doctor, and giving the physician sufficient reason to cooperate, the suicidal individual will eventually be able to commit suicide despite being scared because of the role of the physician in the process.
More people will go to a physician to assistant suicide. Euthanasia will make doctors the main targets of suicidal people, who will bribe doctors just to assist them to commit suicide which puts the physicians in a more serious moral situation. People who are suicidal will know that the doctors can help them. The doctors maybe tempted to use this power as leverage for financial or in-kind compensation, while suicidal individuals are not given the correct counselling that they need and are instead pushed deeper into the thinking of committing suicide because of what the physician stands to gain in this arrangement.
It is bad enough that people who cannot be cured by medicine or those who are beyond curable state causes deaths that medicine cannot prevent from happening or delay from happening. With euthanasia, there is the possibility that the cases of deaths of non-ill individuals will increase because of the increase of suicide cases that are assisted by physicians and are undertaken through the practice of euthanasia (Gorsuch 135). As voluntary assisted suicide and euthanasia become more common, so too will non-consensual killing due to abuse, mistake or coercion (Gorsuch 135).
Euthanasia is a process of killing someone, which many people find a task too difficult (LaFollette 55). All of these arguments provide the framework that supports the idea that euthanasia should not be legalized because it presents a set of repercussions which will eventually be about death and killing, deaths of people who should not be dead in the first place, death as a result of suicide, and deaths as a result of racial and ethnic antagonism. If euthanasia can increase the tendencies of unnatural and preventable deaths and can give more power to people to kill and will contribute to the distortion of moral personal values, physicians and non-physicians alike. There are two important lines of thoughts to be considered in the analysis of why euthanasia should not be allowed to be legalized. First, active euthanasia, in particular, should not be legalized for it will bring forth numerous of unnecessary killing and second, due to unnecessary killing of euthanasia, the legalization of active euthanasia can lead to genocide and murderous act. This has the potential to be used as a tool to legally murder and kill not just select individuals, but also groups based on race and ethnicity and other socio-political alignment of the group and its members.

In the past two decades plastic surgery has become one of the largest and fastest growing medical specialties in the world. Initially, plastic surgeons used to practice reconstructive surgery only but with the turn of events cosmetic surgery engulfed it all. (Envy, 1997, p.2). The recent proliferation of reality based programmes highlighting cosmetic surgery has raised concerns that such programming promotes unrealistic expectations of plastic surgery and increases the desire of viewers to undergo such procedures. Its at no doubt that a hundreds of women are undergoing plastic surgery in search for either a smoother skin or a super  cinched waistline. In the current world where extra, extra small and even 00 sizes and shapes are hailed, it explains why all these women, in their quest to attain these glamorous looks, are turning to plastic surgery to meet the thin, sleek and sculpted standard of beauty the media has imposed on us (Loftus, p.76).
Citing from a wide array of resources - individual accounts, personal medical records, magazines, books and journals, beauty guides and even articles in newspapers, it has come to dawn on us that our culture has come to highlight cosmetic surgery as a panacea for the body mind and spirit and a requirement for individual persons and the society as a whole. Medical practitioners and plastic surgeons have linked the need for normal standards of beauty and style to social class ratings and economic success in the society. They have also related the most undesirable physical characteristics in terms of looks and appearance to psychological condition of the mind such as the inferiority complex to which cosmetic surgery has managed to offer a remedy to. Cosmetic surgery is perceived as a practical and structural solution for the never ending problems raging from low self-esteem to lost careers. (Envy, 1997, p. 56)


The theoretical analysis of plastic surgery
In exploring the similarity experienced in the development of cosmetic surgery and human physicality, researchers has managed to highlight a number of philosophical and psychological queries that underpins the practical ideas given by surgeons or doctors to potential individuals considering carrying out this forms of surgery.
In analyzing this incorporation some theories were put across by theorists like Sigmund Freud, Alfred Adler, Karl Menninger, Paul Schilder and other contemporary feminists, its considered that there is a high and unstable form of cultural notions of health, happiness, and beauty. Revelations of ideas relating to race and gender have structured early understandings of aesthetic surgery, discussing both the abnormality of the Jewish nose and the historical requirement that healthy and virtuous females look normal thereby enabling them to achieve invisibility. (Gilman, 1998, p 16).
Upon reflecting on matters like the widespread prejudices caused by either ones physical appearance or looks, the functionalist theory highlights and describes how cosmetic surgery can save us from the persecutions, persecutions, physical attacks, and even killings that continue to occur due to bodily difference. It educates us in thinking about the cultural assumptions which continue to suppress the increasing adoption and acceptability of this helpful form of psychotherapy.
              Let nothing or no one impair your success thats what the theory of functionalism advocates for. If one feels that by changing hisher physical appearance will bring make things good for him then let him do so.


Critical analysis
A significant percentage of people from around the world seem to concur with this theory. Adoption of change is starting to dawn on people. A survey carried out in the United States by the American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery, 2005 indicated that in the year 2004, the total number of people who undertook cosmetic surgery procedures nearly clocked 12 million. This represented 17 rise in all forms of surgeries and 51 increase in cosmetic surgery compared to the previous year. This kind of drastic change meant that people are getting more enlightened about this form of surgery. However, research showed that this was mostly influenced by makeover programs depicting cosmetic procedures.
          The criticism about this programmes are true, they present invasive cosmetic procedures as of relatively low risk. They only highlights the positive impacts of these procedures leaving the negativities for one to find out incase it fails.
 They generally suggest that these are a common and acceptable ways of lifting ones physical appearance leading to satisfaction. Lets assume that the audience blindly buy these ideas and adopt these dangerous views, the repercussions are unknown. They can either be positive or negative.
          Again, these assertions are based on the assumptions that there has never been strong proven empirical evidence. This also does not imply that these arguments are not consistent with theoretical principles. This argument was not based on one theory only. The theories of cultivation, social comparison, and social cognitive have all been used to evaluate on the effects of the media content on body image generally. The results implied that with all the damage the media has caused, we are still to blame for our actions. The decisions we make are not supposed to be influenced by all the hype these form of practices get from the media.

 Structured inequality means that people can be ranked differently depending upon their social importance or status in the society. The concept of inequality in a structured context entails that this kind of differentiation or classification among groups of people are recognized as acceptable and even legal. Due to this, the presence of inequality in the society, which is observable in the existence of social class greatly influence the decisions and actions of people.
 The field of sociology is responsible in studying the human societies, which includes giving due attention to the behavior and interaction of people. In line with this, the emergence of sociological theories has the purpose of explaining the human action and relation among each other. The concept of structured inequality is considered as an important issue or problem in sociological theory because of the very reason that it affects the behavior and relationship of individuals among each other. As described in the different sociological theories, structured inequality affects the development of societies because the way by which people arte group or stratified in the society affects their respective behavior as well as the development of the society as a whole.
 This kind of adage is observable in the theory of Karl Marx wherein he asserts that the main basis for the existence of social class is the means of production. The group pf people who owns the means of production is placed in a higher level in the social status. Due to this, the behavior of the people are affected wherein those who own the mean of productions acts as landlords while those who do not have such resources end up to be the servants of these landlords. In addition, the society as whole changes because as Marx described it, the social struggle among different classes brought about the development or evolution in the society.
Being the case, sociological theories give emphasis in structured inequality because it acts as an important factor, which greatly impacts and even direct the behavior of people and how they will relate among each other. Sociological theories are created as a means by which the phenomena that are happening in the human society could be explained. Structured inequality becomes an important concern because they have to carefully study this factor in order to explain why certain groups of people act the way they did and how this contributes in the formation of the human society.

State of Inequality
    The concept of social class has an essential part in the theories of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber because they use it in order to explain the respective role of the presence of social class in explaining the inequality that is happening in the society together with its respective implications.
Karl Marx uses the idea of social class when he asserted that the cause of inequality in the society is because of the idea that human is a material being. One of the most important purposes of humans is to produce the necessary material needs that they have to use. Due to this, they enter in a relationship with other people because this a way by which they could be able to get their needs. The kind of relationship that Marx is pertaining to is characterized by inequality. The idea of social class is related to the means of production because those who own the means of production is recognized to be in the upper level of the social class as compared to the mere laborers who are in the lower class. Due to the importance of means of production to the life of people, social inequality exists as well as social class because people are identified and differentiated based on the means of production that they have or do not have (Rummel n.p.). Thus, the concepts presented by Marx are merely focused on the problem that people are capable of production however due to provided aspects of the laws and norms of society inequality is not present.
Social class fit in the theory of Emile Durkheim in the part wherein people need a new way to relate to each other during this modern society. Durkheim argues that the society is bound together by shared values. However, in this modern society, anomie had been observable because the lack of norms and the weakening social value no longer enable the people to be bounded together. Due to this, a new means of cohesion is necessary, which is seen in the division of labor that exists during this time of industrialization. The source of cohesion in this modern time is seen in the idea of interdependency because an individual needs other people to sustain his or her needs because people work in a cooperative network of social exchange in order to get his or her daily subsistence. The presence of mutual dependence leads to cooperation that resulted to organic solidarity. Organic solidarity is dynamic and regarded as a living process that continuously related to differentiation. Differentiation is the one responsible for individual development, which leads to inequality. As such, inequality causes the establishment of social class because people are group in accordance to the differentiation that they have (Jones n.p.).
    In the case of Max Weber, social class is brought about by economic action because the social action that is involved is based on utilitarianism. In this context, the people who belong or constitute a certain class have the same market and money economy. In this sense, social class is based on the money or economic utility that a group of people have wherein those who possess abundant goods and opportunities for income as compared with others belong in a higher social class than others (Elwell n.p.).  Accordingly, Weber highlights the important of continuous production of goods because stability is promoted to the company. Furthermore, Weber had seen parties as the most important branch of the society to attain  equity for people who are not heard by the government.
    In the current situation of United States, people are seemingly very equal with individuals. The societal structure is very lenient in which no one is truly rich or poor in the eyes of the government.  However, changes are occurring drastically in the social structure of the United States. Thus, the concept rich and poor is prevalent. In the concept of Karl Marx, he explains that social inequality is a manifestation of the economic capabilities of the people in terms of acquiring products and the likes. In addition to this, the view of Marx relating to the current situation of the United States is seen through the economic capabilities of people. But in reflection, the capabilities of people to attain goods are less than what the earn due to the situation of recession.
Moreover, the problem of society is much reliant to the ethnicity of the people. In many studies the problem of poverty is attached to the ethnicity of the individual. One of these examples is the poverty among Asian minorities in the United States. On the other hand, African-Americans are also having difficulties in availing health care. Thus, the issues with regards to the concept of equality are not reliant to the economic background of the people but in the ethnicity they have. Therefore, stereotyping is not only a situation but a reality faced by the American society. Through the concept of Weber of parties, such situation could be addressed through collaboration of different groups that advocates such concerns.
      Thus, the problem of equity underlies in the historical background of United States. Reflecting back to the earlier centuries of United States, African-Americans were not given any rights and liberty, instead they are made to be slaves in different farms and plantations. Although there were freedoms for the African Americans, opportunities to development of individuals are limited. For monetary means are important in order to have further education, the ethnic minorities not capable of advancing their education thus, they do not have higher opportunities to have a better life (Jarrett 192).
    Due to the lesser opportunities many of the ethnic minorities and those people in poverty fail to gain to advancement in their lifestyles. Thus, unlike other classes in the society those that in the poverty line are struggling to gain opportunities to study and have good jobs that provide higher compensation. Moreover less opportunities means less capability to help in the economic gain of the government. Reflecting on Max Webers perception of the society and equity, people need to have opportunities in order for them to be equal with other people. For the current society is providing different aspects of opportunities for people, the case of inequity is also underlying to the concern where opportunities are given. Hence, unequal distribution of opportunities to chosen societies is also a great concern (Gerth and Wright Millswith 187). Due to the unequal distribution, inequity is continuously working within the society which leads to a much problematic nation and government.

Prescient Account
    Inequality within the society is known to be prevalent during the earlier times. Different social strata are important in order to predict a persons stance in life as well as his or her capabilities. Thus, social status is important to the social structure of different societies of various nations. Moreover, the issue of inequality is further experienced by the laborers and the lower classed individuals in the society. On the other hand, the bourgeoisies become much richer through the course and sacrifice of the laborers. Thus, the concept of the rich becoming much richer and the poor becoming much poorer is promoted.
    In viewing the three concepts available from Emil Durkheim, Max Weber and Karl Marx, I viewed that the concept of Max Weber is much accessible and applicable to the current society. The perspective of Max Weber unlike Emil Durkheim and Karl Marx are much applicable to how the systems of society are currently working. Further, Marx was able to highlight different aspects of social actions regarding society. It is stated that the consciousness of the people is not communal. Given that the aspect of social consciousness is known to individuals, Weber suggests that the concept provided by class status is more related to the concept of an individuals perception of the situation. Furthermore, Max highlighted that a communitys consciousness is the responsibility of the people. Through a communal way of realizing that there is a need for social equity, the movement of issue is heightened to a higher level of acknowledgment. Thus, there are the creations of political parties within the nation. Moreover, the presence of political parties is a manifestation that the people through a community of people are now much aware of the situation of inequity within the area.   
    Through high level of having parties system, the community is creating a society that manifest consciousness and relativism in terms of the needs of the nation is important. In the current situation of the society, parties are needed in order for the nation to have awareness to different kinds of issues. Through parties, different issues are given attention unlike only focusing on a sole government or organization.
    The current world is now focusing different problems due to various factors of society. Through the manifestation of parties within the society, there are no minor or major issues that is placed to be important than others. Therefore, the parties do not represent any type of social class but addresses different aspects of the society. Some of the most common themed political parties (Hamilton 119) are those that represent the LGBTs, Labor workers, migrant workers and many others.
    In addition to this the party system is also providing the people a source of check and balanced system. The political party such that of the opposition is often aware of the actions being made by the government whether it is for the public interest or a personal interest. Through this, the people see the action of the government even when they do not see it literally. Thus, there is a feeling of security and equity in the provide information.
    Moreover, the concept of Equity by Max Weber addresses the needs of the current society. The peoples of the current times are not unlike before. Individuals are much knowledgeable and wise which results to methods of questioning, assessing and analyzing the situation. Thus, political parties provide the society a branch where in their priorities would be similar to others and these priorities would be addressed equally and accordingly. Hence, the process of equity in the United States is a desire that is needed to be attained by the government and the nation. Through parties and the recognition of different issues at hand, the concept of Weber is strongly supporting the claims of such need. Thus, the theory of Weber is a reminder that peoples need other institutions in the private sector to uphold their rights and desires.

Countries and economic regions in the former Soviet Union have had mixed, but very separate fortunes in their economies since the disbandment of the Union and its replacement with individual governments. A common thing with the economic regions here is that most of them have a wealth of natural resources.  The differences in how the economies have fared depends largely on how the governance structures managed their different economies.

Moscow, Georgia, Western Siberia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan
The 2000 election in Russia saw Vladimir Putin take over from Boris Yeltsin. With the entrant of the new president came some political semblance in the country. Most of the wealth in the new Russia was and is still concentrated in Moscow. The city accounts for approximately 25 percent of all the countrys tax revenues (Vorhees and Berkmoes 18), despite it being only 0.006 percent of the Russian Federations landmass.  Moscow also has the highest concentration of businesses, commercial banks, high-end retailers and commodity exchanges.  Starting in the mid-1990s, Moscow has also become among the priciest cities in the world.
According to Vorhees and Berkmoes, the newly found economic and social freedom has led to Moscow becoming a free city where everything goes (19). As such indulgence, libation, liberation and defiance are in open display. More to this, corporate decadence is for sale in the city. This means that Moscow has no surprises for the cynics, and no limits for the ambitious.
The location of Moscow in Europe further gives it economic advantage over other cities in Russia. The city is located in the central region of Russia. The entire Moscow region has a large enough population (especially in the northwest side) to drive the economy of the region. 
According to 2003 statistic published by Belov, the Moscow region alone accounted for 5.6 indutrial production in the entire country, while accounting for 16.2 percent of fixed assets in it. Further, Moscow accounted for 28.7 percent of all retail trade turnovers in Russia.
Some of the indicators cited by Belov as the main contributors of the superior economic performance of Moscow include the citys well-developed infrastructure, a wide range of real estate facilities and the accumulation of financial resources in the region. People in the region have managed to combine intellect, cultural and their administrative potential to create an economically thriving city.
According to 2002 statistics, the Gross Domestic Product in Moscow was estimated at 70 billion (2217.9 rubles). This amounted to a 20 percent of the entire countrys GDP.   Considering that the regions population accounts for only 6 percent of the countrys population. This means that a lot of the countrys wealth is concentrated on a few people.
 Economists have found a link between GDP growth in Moscow and the same in the entire country. In 2000 for example, Moscows GDP was at 7.7 percent growth, while Russia registered a 7.5 growth. In 2001, Moscows GDP was lower at 4.5 percent and so was Russias GDP at 5.1 percent. When Moscow registered 3.0 percent GDP in 2002, Russia registered 4.1 percent.  This means that although seen to thrive as a separate entity from the bigger country, Moscows growth usually corresponds to economic growth patterns in the whole of Russia
Statistics obtained from the Department of Economic Policy and Development in Moscow indicates that the food industry, power generation and machine building remain the leading economic industries in Moscow. In 2001, the food industry accounted for 29.3 percent economic productivity, while power generation accounted for 9.1 percent. Machine building on the other hand accounted for 27.6 percent economic productivity. Other contributors included the production of construction materials (4.7 ), clothing, textile and footwear (2.9 ), chemical industry (5.1 ) and other small industries (21.3 ).
In Moscow, the small industries play a significant role in the regions economy. In 2002 alone, the small industries grew by three percent and as a result, their contribution to the Gross Regional Product (GRP) accounted for 10.9 percent.  The St. Petersburg is second in Russia having 12 percent of the regions businesses in the small industry classification.  Moscow and St. Petersburg are the only two regions in Russia that meet the small businesses development criteria in developed countries. Moscow has 20 small companies per every one thousand people, while St. Petersburg has 23 such companies for every thousand people.
The city has also managed to attract foreign investment from different countries across the world. The biggest foreign investors are Germans accounting for 18.0 percent, Great Britain with 17.0 percent, Luxembourg and Cyprus each with 12.0 percent and France with 10.0 percent. Others include USA (6 percent), Switzerland (4.3 percent), the Netherlands (6.0 percent) and Italy (3.0 percent) (Dept. of economic Policy  development in Moscow).
The concentration of wealth in Moscow also means any interruption in the economy, like the just ending financial crises, is likely to have a bigger impact on the city too. However, the ripple effect will most likely be felt in the entire country, especially considering its contribution to the countrys GDP.  According to Murchie, the global economic downturn hit Russias businesspersons quite hard. Most of the super rich people in Russia have thriving businesses in Moscow, mainly because the city is the epitome of business expansion and growth in the entire country.
Like any region experiencing economical expansion, Moscow has its fair share of challenges.  According to information provided by the president of Russian Shito-Ryu Karatedo Federation, environmental pollution is becoming a major concern not only to the citizens, but also to the Russian government.  Of concern is the rate of water and air pollution by heavy chemicals. According to Dubinin, this is especially true in the south and southeastern parts of the Moscow region. Several sites have also been discovered as having been polluted with radioactive material. For Moscow unfortunately, the pollution is not selective and it is suspected that the pollution could easily penetrate the densely populated residential areas and even public gardens (Dubinin).
Moscow and Western Seberia have some economic commonalities. This mainly relates to the two regional economies dependencies of extractive industries. According to Minakir and others, Western Siberia is the only region in the Far East that beats Russia in its share of extractive industries, which stands at 16.7 percent in Russia compared to 36 percent in Western Siberia (45).
Unlike Moscow, which has something of everything, Minakir and others note that the economic development of Western Siberia is more specific in industrial material production rather than in processing industries, as is the case in Moscow (45).  As the main economic region in the Far East, Western Siberia accounts for at least 8.7 percent of food industry production, with fish and seafood forming the bulk of this sector.  The region also relies heavily on the logging industry, it accounts for 7.9 of the countrys timber, cellulose paper and wood processing output. 
The region also produces rolled metal and pig iron for sale to the Far East, and depends on this as a main source of revenue (Minakir et al 53). More to this, the region has vast oil fields and is home to the largest oil refinery in Russia. Other natural resources in Western Siberia include coal and steel, which are used for the production of chemicals and machinery. Moreover, agriculture is also practiced in the region and as such, products such as wheat, oats, sugar beets, rice and dairy are exported from this region to other parts of the country.
The social-economic indicators released in a 1999 survey gave Western Siberia a positive profile for its contribution to the countrys GDP. This was mainly from a combination of factors, which include a substantial population.  The survey further indicated that the regions gross product and the industrial productivity rates were half the mean rate recorded in the entire Russia. Because of this, people working in this region were more likely to earn more than other workers in other regions in Russia. In fact, the wage levels in the 1999 statistics were above the national average by one-third (University of Aberdeen). 
Like Moscow city in the Moscow region, the Kemerovo region has a predominant role in Western Siberias economy.  Kemerovo occupies only 7 percent of the western Siberias land mass. However, the area is home to 25 percent of the regions total population. It also accounts for 30 percent of the regions urban population (Kommersant). Some of the regions exports include coke, coal, cast iron, rolled metal cement, glass, plastic materials, electrical products, synthetic fibers and heavy machinery among others. Like Moscow, Kemerovo and the entire Western Siberia are facing immense challenges in environmental conservation.  There is deep-seated concern among environmentalists that Western Siberia may be trading the welfare of their environment for wealth.
According to Wiget and Balalaeva, the wetlands in Western Siberia are threatened by the constant oil spills that trap water therefore causing flooding and the subsequent destruction of forests, in addition to fires that easily start where the oil has been spilled causing acid rain.
Siberia region lies in the northern part of Asia, with huge parts of the eastern and central Russian Federation lying within the regions boundaries. Unlike Moscow, Siberia is not restricted by size, since its total landmass encompasses an approximate seventy-five percent of Russias territory (Hill 324). The geospatial position of Siberia places it across the Eurasian landmass thus contributing significantly to Russias economic development.  The Siberia region is a primary repository of Russias natural gas resources, and is therefore critical in the economic development of the country. Others resources from the region which contribute significantly to the national kitty include fur, salts, minerals and timber.  The oil reserves in the Western Siberia region remain the economical backbone of Russia today despite having served the same role in the past.  This is because the region holds 80  of the countrys oil reserves, 85  of natural gas reserves and 80  of the coal deposits. In addition, the area accounts for 40  of the countrys timber resources among other precious minerals (Hill 324).
According to Hill, Siberias vastness and natural resources wealth does not contribute to the national kitty as much as it should. In fact, the region suffering from decaying industries, forbidding climate and vast distances accounts for a major drain in the Russian budget (324).  The absence of significant private investors means that the economic future of Siberia lies squarely on the hands of the government. However, in the past, the government has failed to make the Siberian region economically viable, and thus its sustainability has always been pegged on increased federal subsidies.
According to Hill, the federal government has failed to sustain capital investment in the oil rich areas in Siberia (326). This means that in the past, government explored and got as much oil resources as possible without re-investing enough capital to ensure sustainability.  The government especially continued lifting oil from wells developed in the Soviet era without drilling new ones. As a result, it is estimated that most oil are nearing the extinction of resources, and their production capacities are either at a plateau, or is tapering off.  Hope for the region however remains with the huge untapped potential in resources. This however requires a great deal of investment, especially in the infrastructure that will enable government to access the untapped mineral deposits (Hill 327).
According to Shen, Ukraines economy has been a casualty of planned imbalances that were perpetuated for decades soon after the Soviet rule was over (33). Despite the countrys agricultural and industrial potential, lack of responsible economical guidance was largely to blame for this state of affairs. The great potential for Ukraine remains its proximity to Eastern Europe on the west and the continued growth of the black sea ports.
According to Subtelny, agriculture remains the biggest single occupation in Ukraine. As such, the country continues serving as a breadbasket for the entire region. The agricultural production in the country alone is sufficient to feed the entire population of what used to be the Soviet Union. In recognition of the great potential that the sector has, the Ukraines government has invested heavily in farm inputs and machinery in order to boost production.
Unlike Moscow and Western Siberia, Ukraine does not have sufficient natural deposits to fuel in its economy. This is especially so because its natural gas and oil reserves are largely exhausted. However, it is relatively wealthy in mineral deposits. In 2007, the government admitted that it was facing challenges in almost all sectors of its economy. According to Kinakh and Medish, 70 percent of all energy used in the country was imported from other countries. The government also admitted that the investment climate in the country was not appealing to foreign investors and neither was it good enough for small businesses. In this aspect, Ukraine was beaten by Moscow, which as observed elsewhere in this paper has at least 20 small businesses for every one thousand people.
 The over involvement of government in businesses has also had the economy of Ukraine lagging behind as compared to other economies in the region (Kinakh and Medish). This is because too stringent measures by the government kill the spirit of entrepreneurship. The Ukrainian government has been fretting with the idea of a free-market economy, yet the same government contradicts itself by applying some price limits on products on services. This means that investors cannot trust the government with the concept of a free market economy and thus many of them choose not to invest in the country.
According to information released in 2009 by FutureBrand, investors are starting to show interest in Ukraine, especially in the banking, agro-industries and the real estate sectors. Some of the strong areas cited by investors as desirable in Ukraine include effective job markets, macroeconomic stability, strong education system, and a large marketing scope. However, the country also has noticeable drawbacks such as an ineffective commodity market, unstable government policies, unstable government institutions, a weak financial sector and the slow adoption of new technologies by the government and the business community at large (FutureBrand).
Despite the shortcomings in Ukraine, its economy is fairing quite impressively. According to 2008 estimations, the economy was ranked number 45 among other economies in the world with an estimated GDP of USD 399, 866 billion.  Ukraine also has a ferrous metal industry, just like Moscow and Western Siberia. The countrys metal industry produces steel, cast iron and pipes. In 2005, the country was ranked as the eighth largest producer of steel. The chemical industry in the country is also vibrant, producing sulfuric acid, coke and mineral fertilizers. Like other economies relying on industrial development, Ukraine is also faced with immense environmental challenges.
Like Ukraine, Georgias economy has suffered significantly from the mismanagement in the 1990s. However, Georgias economic destabilization had more to do with civil strife in the country as opposed to lack of proper economical guidance. According to information obtained from CIA fact book, the country relies heavily on agriculture and industry to drive its economy.  Like other economic regions and countries analyzed in this paper, Georgia has a generous amount of natural resources and therefore the mining industry plays an important role in the countrys economy.  The mining industry is reliant in copper and manganese.
Like Moscow, the Georgian economy has developed a strong link with private investors who have introduced liberalism in trade, investment and the business sector at large. Unlike Ukraine and West Siberia, Georgias central government believes in the creation of government-formulated policies, which must be effective in enhancing economic performance in the country.  The financed services on the other hand are relegated to the private sector, whose activities and service delivery must meet set governing standards (World Bank).  Because of these measures, Georgias economy grew by 10.5 percent in 2008.
Although Georgia does not have a wealth of natural gas or oil deposits as some of the regions or countries analyzed in this paper, its proximity to the Black Sea means that the country is able to benefit as a transit point. The countrys strategic position on the Silk Road also offers it undue advantage as a transit point for goods being shipped between Asia and Europe.  More economic potential as described by the World Bank is in the countrys tourism sector. Tourists are attracted to the country by the mountainous terrain and the rich culture (World Bank).
Kazakhstans economy is the largest in Central Asia. Like other economies in the post-Soviet region, it also relies heavily on gas and oil industries. After the countrys independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has been a large supplier of gas and oil to countries that used to be the Soviet Union. At independence, the country has four economic pillars  manufacturing, mining, agriculture and gas and oil (OECD, 28).  According to Karatnycky and others, Kazakhstans economy was dependent on the production and export of a few commodities (220). This includes metals, natural gas and crude oil. These three commodities accounted for 70 percent of all the countrys industrial output. The situation has not changed much to date.  Kazakhstan has been hailed by the International Monetary Fund as being among countries with an impressive banking sector, which scored highest among the post-Soviet states in 1999 (Karatnycky et al 220).
In the past few years, Kazakhstan has benefited immensely from the steep increase in world prices in some of its main exports. This includes the rise in oil prices, metals and grain. The country has healthy trade relations with China and Russia.  The difference between Western Siberia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan is that the latter has invited international investors to the major economic sectors (Encyclopedia of the Nations). This means that in spite of the government being a major stakeholder in oil exploration and marketing, international oil marketers like Exxon Mobil and Chevron Texaco have invested in the country as well. As a result, the potential of the country to be a world class exporter of oil are looking good in the short-term. 

Social and economic conditions and environmental problems in Estonia and Latvia
Estonia and Latvia have both had social, economic and environmental problems as individual nations since the collapse of the Soviet Union.  For the two countries, the social, economic and environmental conditions all seem to play a vital role in the development of the countries. Of importance in the two countries are the problems involved in the transition from economies under the Soviet Union to independent economies.
Under Soviet Rule, both Latvias and Estonias environments and infrastructure were in near ruin (Laar).  Worse, the Estonians did not believe much in the countrys capacity to be a better state.  The Latvians on the other hand had serious economic shocks to contend with in their bid to transition from the Communist rule to the free market environment (Encyclopedia of the nations). Environment was thus not among the first priorities that the Latvian government focused on.   With a radical government taking over in Estonia in 1992, Estonians were promised of drastic reforms from the countrys past came into place. The new government started the reform agenda with monetary reforms and macro economic stabilization efforts. Under this, the country introduced its own currency, while emphasizing the need for transparency in all government transactions.  To ensure a steady regional environment, Estonia needed the involvement of other Baltic countries in the environment agenda.
    According to Laar, the Estonian government still suffers challenges to date in getting its people to think independently. This is mainly because the socialism imposed during the Soviet Union era had instilled in them the dependency mentality. The social fabric therefore had to be restructured in order to encourage people to do businesses and therefore create opportunities for the economy to grow.  The need to foster competition by encouraging foreign investors has also been important to the government. However, the conservatives are afraid of such openness, therefore leaving requiring the government once again to show the way. 
    Auer notes that Estonians have deep-seated sentiments about how the environment should be handles (353). Estonians have a specific perception about the unique nature of their countries environment.  However, Estonians have different perceptions of how the environment should be handled. These disagreements usually take a political perspective. Latvians do not however seem to care much about their environment and it is only through the intervention of the government that the society is starting to learn the importance of environment conservation.  Statistics from a 2005 survey revealed that Latvia is farming more and getting 2.6 percent GDP from farming (Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs). This was gotten from 133,000 farms. Estonia on the other hand, had 27, 700 farms and managed to get 2.4 percent GDP from farming (Stonkule et al 3).