Sociology

Bedau, Hugo and Paul Cassell. (2004). Debating the Death Penalty Should America Have Capital Punishment The experts from both sides make their case. London Oxford University Press.

This book brings together seven expertsjudges, lawyers, prosecutors, and philosophersto debate the death penalty in a spirit of open inquiry and civil discussion. Here, as the contributors present their reasons for or against capital punishment, the multiple facets of the issue are revealed in clear and thought-provoking like detail like if  the death penalty a viable deterrent to future crimes. In confronting such questions and making their arguments, the authors made an impressive array of evidence, called both from statistics and from their own experiences working on death penalty cases. The authors put together considerable experience with both the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject the result is a set of essays of unusual comprehensiveness, variety, and accesability for a diverse public audience.

Haines, Herbert. (1996). Against Capital Punishment The Anti- Death Penalty Movement inAmerica, 1972-1994. Oxford Oxford University Press

Herbert Haines traces the struggle against capital punishment in the United States since 1972. He reviewed the legal battles that led to the suspension of the death penalty and examines the subsequent conservative turn in the courts that has forced death penalty opponents to rely less on litigation strategies and more on political actions. Using social movement theory, he diagnoses the causes of the anti-death penalty movements inability to mobilize widespread opposition to execution. The book concentrated primarily on a time period from 1972. He then described the slow development of anti-death penalty organization and offered an explanation of their victories and defeats during those years.

Lacey, Nicola. (1988). State Punishment Political Principles and Community Values. London, Routledge

Lacey presents a new approach to the question of the moral justification of punishment by the state. She focuses on the theory of punishment in the context of other political questions. Arguing that so far no convincing set of justifying reasons has been produced, she puts forward a theory of punishment centered on the value of the community. It is basically about justification of state punishment. Lacey then discussed the main points, first is that the problem of punishment can only satisfactorily be addresses within the context of an integrated philosophy and second is about the unexamined political and philosophical assumption underlying the traditional theories of punishment.

Laurence, John. (1963). A history of Capital Punishment. New York Citadel Press

John Laurence discusses the history of capital punishment. It is a storytellers journey on how capital punishment began. According to him, it is an unbiased narrative of how people were punished thru out history. He enumerated everything from beheading, hanging, electrocution, guillotine and concentrated cells.

Mitchell, Hayley. (2001). The Death Penalty Contemporary Issues Companion. California Greenhaven Press Inc.

Addresses social problems effectively that assists the process of research by providing readers with diverse essays on current issues such as capital punishment, through personal accounts and case studies, pertinent factual and statistical articles, and relevant commentaries and overviews that death penalty and the capital trial.

Sarat, Austin (1999). The Killing State, Capital Punishment in Law, Politics, and Culture. London Oxford University Press

Comprised of a three-part essay in which the first essay entitled  The Politics of state Killing discusses the dialec tics of democracy and death penalty through historical and comparative analysis from past to contemporary American situationcondition. It follows through with Capital Punishment and Legal values expounds on he limitations as well as possibilities of death penalty. And ends with the Death Penalty and the Culture of Responsibility that points out capital punishment and its cultural representations constitute its subjects at the same time enacting a denial of irreconcilable possibilities in changing contemporary community.

Zimring, Franklin and Gordon Hawkins. (1986). Capital Punishment and the American Agenda. Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Zimring and Hawkins gave a clear account of how the current situation of capital punishment in America was reached. They argued that Americans have outgrown the social and political conditions in which capital punishment can continue to be practiced. They pointed out that thirty-two of the thirty-five states enacting new death penalty laws after Furman had capital statures at the time of the decision. For this among other reasons, Zimring and Hawkins believed that the Supreme Court will yet be the instrument of what they firmly predict the abolition of the death penalty in the United States. Lastly, according to the authors, the end to power of the state to execute its citizen represents to them. Not just an evolving attitude toward offenders but a statement about the proper limit on governmental power. This provides countries throughout the world with an index of the degree of recognition accorded to human rights.

Andre, Claire and Manuel Velasquez. Capital Punishment Our Duty or Our Doom. Retrieved from  HYPERLINK httpwww.scu.eduethicspublicationsiiev1n3capital.html httpwww.scu.eduethicspublicationsiiev1n3capital.html

Andre and Velasquez provide an in-depth analysis of Capital Punishment and its effects on the society and the people. They argued that Capital punishment is often defended on the grounds that society has a moral obligation to protect the safety and welfare of its citizens. Murderers threaten this safety and welfare. Only by putting murderers to death can society ensure that convicted killers do not kill again. The main point however is that death penalty should be abolished because it is unjust. Justice, they claim, requires that all persons be treated equally. And the requirement that justice be served is all the more rigorous when life and death are at stake. The article clearly showed why the death penalty is unjust because it always inflicts innocent people. While the state, the justice system continue to serve the ruling classes interest, death penalty would be problematic because people will still be wrongly convicted of homicide or capital rape, especially those who belongs to the lower classes. The death penalty makes it impossible to remedy any such mistakes. Since, there is a dominant class that influences moral and cultural norms and judgments, it is somewhat difficult to determine the stakes of having or not having capital punishment implemented. Since the above mentioned class dictates what is morally and politically incorrect or appropriate, but most likely, having capital punishment, in more ways than one, and ruling class identification aside, is a sign of insecurity, that the state must have overlooked its policies most especially its economic relations that to resort to capital punishment doesnt remedy the real issue, of which it is trying to conceal the truth and insecurity.

Bonner, Raymond and Ford Fessended. Absence of Executions A special report States with no death penalty. The New York Times. Retrieved from HYPERLINK httpwww.nytimes.com20000922usabsencesexecutions-special-report-with- no httpwww.nytimes.com20000922usabsencesexecutions-special-report-with- no death penalty.html

Bonner and Fessended presented in this article the twelve states that have chosen not to enact the death penalty since the Supreme Court ruled in 1976 and showed that in these states, absence of execution is effective because according to statistics they have lesser number of homicide. The study by the experts also found that homicide rates had risen and fallen along roughly symmetrical paths in the states with and without the death penalty, suggesting to many experts that the threat of the death penalty rarely deters criminals. Although, this article provided some statistics and it showed how states with capital punishment or death penalty has the same number of homicide rates with states with no death penalty, it does not mean that it is the determinant factor. Other factors affect homicide rates, these includes unemployment and demographics, as well as the amount of money spent on police, prosecutors and prisons. The other factors such as unemployment, demographics, and funds for state apparatuses such as the police, prosecutors, and prison  have a common denominator, which is based on the economic condition. This common factor to these other circumstances might have influence the rate of homicide that influence the implementation of capital punishment. The economic situation must be put on the spotlight to further elaborate on the issue, that might be the major root cause of all, if not for most homicide cases. Taking a further step on studying the grounds of economic condition might be a huge impact on not implementing capital punishment.

Volpe, Tara.  Does Death Equal Justice Retrieved from httpwww.jmu.eduevision
Archivevolume2essysvolpe.html

For Volpe death penalty should end because it does not deter crime and it risks the death of an innocent person, it costs millions of dollars, it inflicts unreasonable pain and most importantly it violates moral principles. Capital punishment does indeed fail to eliminate crime from the streets the possible execution of innocent individuals outweighs many other concerns. Most capital punishment cases pose great difficulty in the determination of guilt or innocence beyond a reasonable doubt. While many societies have used capital punishment as a way to control crimes rates, capital punishment does properly punishes those convicted of capital offenses. The government should focus more on rehabilitation rather than execution after all, some convicted murderers do feel strong remorse for what they have done. I think that the legal system should require inmates to meet with counselors, or spiritual advisors if they wish, and work to pay their debt to society, while they stay in prison. Prison should be a form of reformation institution. The take on prison  being an apparatus or an institution that is about reformation is very positive. It is very much likely to be agreed with because capital punishment per se, does not see the long term benefit and goal of life, and has misconstrued the whole essence of life and humanity. Since capital punishment does not meet the ends of a civilized and moral society, its repeated implementation does not show any remarkable result. But to look forward to rehabilitation and reformation is but a progressive outlook that promises a better society.

National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty. Death Penalty Overview Ten Reasons Why Capital Punishment is Flawed Public Policy.  Retrieved from HYPERLINK httpwww.ncadp.orgindex.cfmcontent5 httpwww.ncadp.orgindex.cfmcontent5

The website provided reason why death penalty should be abolished. It is organized by the National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty, an organization that promotes anti-death penalty campaigns. According to them, executions are carried out at staggering cost to taxpayers. Also it does not defer crimes. Third, it goes against all religions in the world and life without parole is a sensible alternative to the death penalty so it really is not needed. The unequal access of wealth can affect death penalty issues, because almost all defendants in capital cases cannot afford their own attorneys. In many cases, the appointed attorneys are overworked, underpaid, or lacking the trial experience required for death penalty cases. There have even been instances in which lawyers appointed to a death case were so inexperienced that they were completely unprepared for the sentencing phase of the trial. All circumstances with regards to capital punishment is nothing but a losing end to the face of humanity. It works on both sides of the plane, also causing a chain reaction to the whole of the society. It logically encourages a cynical and pessimistic standpoint of society  having its members to work hard labor to pay taxes that will kill, what not, their colleagues, having to pay for this worker from his hard earned money to hire lawyers who will take him out of capital punishment charge but in turn will not be able to do so since the institution has long produced lawyers who are incapacitated to get the worker out of the death row, with this chain of events, the society produces an anti-human taste of life. Having this said, the implementation of capital punishment is not an absolute consequence to homicide or murder crimes, and only result to unnecessary funding, and poor economic logistics and relations that shape a backward society.

ProCon.Org. Does the death penalty cost less than life in prison without parole       httpdeathpenalty.procon.orgviewanswers.asp questionID001000

This site contains the data about the cost of implementing death penalty provisions. Given the long-time debate on this topic among philosophers, religious leaders, politicians, scientists,and the general publicthe organization decided to devote their time and resources to fully explore the pros and cons of allowing the death penalty and what the cost will be if ever the implementation will push through. The main question in this article is the cost will be if death penalty is implemented, and will it be less costly than life imprisonment. The site provides the pros and cons of the topic but it really promotes anti-death penalty campaigns because it tends to show more negative effects of death penalty than positive effects. There clearly should not have an argument, whether it would be more costly or less for that matter to implement capital punishment. These public and private entities that discuss the logical and practical way of dispensing life should not be the issue. These entities should try to look more on the economic side of state, for having such kind of crimes that are worth implementing capital punishment should be taken to consideration. Determining the root cause is nothing but the core solution to whether implement capital punishment, or may be it is unnecessarily, and it follows that there will be no long, gruesome, and heated arguments on a costly or inexpensive use of capital punishment. In turn, all efforts are worth the cost that measures the strength and limitations of society into a better perspective.

System Comparison Matrix
Juvenile Justice SystemAdult Justice SystemBothCourt jurisdiction is determined by age.
Individuals on trial do not have a right to a jury trial.
Purpose of procedures is to protect and treat.
Proceedings are not considered criminal.
Court proceedings are private.The purpose of the procedure us to punish the guilty.
Individuals on trial have the constitutional right to a jury trial.
Court proceedings are public.
Court jurisdiction is determined by offense.
Proceedings are considered criminal.Individuals arrested have the right to receive Miranda warnings.
Individuals have the right to counsel.
There is the ability to negotiate and plea bargain.
Justice system personnel use discretion.
Prosecutors and defense attorneys are key players in proceedings.
Issues Impacting the Juvenile Court System

The similarities and differences of the juvenile and adult justice systems identify the respective objectives and processes of these justice systems. It is observable that the juvenile justice system aims to rehabilitate and protect juvenile offenders in order for them to be given a chance to change their ways and become productive citizens of their country. In addition, the juvenile justice system was also developed in order for juvenile offenders not to be associated with hardened criminals. However, the conflicting values in the juvenile justice system raises some issues regarding the efficiency of the system (CNN, 2005).

The juvenile justice system is grounded on the doctrine of parens patriae, which allows it to give the necessary treatment to juvenile offenders in accordance with the doctrine. Nevertheless, over the past century, the juvenile court is having difficulties in providing the treatment for juvenile offenders and at the same time ensuring that they are given the constitutional due process. In addition, the juvenile justice system are also bombarded with violent juvenile crime and family breakdown, which is why some judges and politicians argue that juvenile system should be eradicated. In relation to this, experts who advocate the retention an independent juvenile court also asserted that the juvenile justice system should be restructured. On the other hand, crime control advocates suggested that the jurisdiction of the juvenile court should be limited and that prosecutors should be given more freedom to try juveniles charged with serious crimes in adult courts. Moreover, child advocates also believe that the court should scale back its judicial role and give it to community groups and social service agencies (CNN, 2005).

The difficulties that the juvenile justice system is facing should be address properly. In doing so, eliminating the juvenile justice system is not the answer to the problem because juvenile offenders should not be under the jurisdiction of adult courts and most especially be associated with hardened criminals. Being the case, it is more appropriate if the juvenile justice system would be restructured in order to address the weaknesses and problems of this justice system. By doing so, the juvenile justice system could still protect the welfare of juvenile offenders and at the same time helping them change their untoward behavior.

How does gender affect delinquency
Historically, males were considered to be more prone to delinquency than females, given that the latter were less aggressive than males. Female crimes were different in nature than the respectful male, since they had more to do with sexuality (prostitution, sexual crimes, running away). However, nowadays gender does not seem to affect delinquency as much as it did in the past. And that means that although female delinquents are still less than their male counterparts, their areas of engagement are not very different (gangs, larceny, assault being a few examples of the commonest female crimes).

What are some current explanations for gender differences as they relate to delinquency
 First of all there are types of developmental differences between the two genders. These can be summarized as a) socialization differences females are often more closely supervised unlike males that are more likely to display physical aggression. b) Cognitive differences Males excel in working memory tasks whereas females in the retrieval of long term memory. c) Personality differences females are often more easily revealing and express concern for others. Males behave dominantly and are less verbally proficient. Explanations for these differences between genders in delinquency are (1) the trait view,( i.e. when women become delinquent they do so due to either precocious sexuality, hormonal changes or premenstrual syndrome) (2) the socialization view that dictates that women are more closely monitored and that broken family plays an important role in their turning aggressive, (3) the liberal feminist view which has altered in theory the womans place in society and has a changing role in womens criminality and (4) the critical feminist view, that believes that criminal women are created due to the oppression that they succumb to by males.

How does family affect delinquency
Family is thought to influence the way an adolescent is developed by providing continuous support and inhibiting antisocial patterns. Frequently, broken families or dysfunctional families are placing kids at risk for delinquencies, by failing to provide positive role models and a stable environment deprived of abuse and conflict.

How does family makeup affect delinquency
The American family is not a large family but more a nuclear family nowadays. Moreover, almost 40 of children will experience parental divorce or separation or multiple family disruptions before age 16. Moreover, nowadays, a significant number of children are born to single unmarried women. The lack of positive role models and parental absence is a cause for delinquent behavior risk.

How does family behavior influence delinquency
Parents who neglect their children give way to delinquency. Inconsistent discipline and lack of supervision have been provably linked to juvenile crime. Parental and sibling misconduct and the case of child abuse, are all factors that predict delinquent behaviors. The shifting to a more nuclear family model, has changed the way families operate, since multiple family members used to constitute positive supporters, caregivers and played major roles in the upbringing of an adolescent.

Are delinquent females treated differently than delinquent males by members of the juvenile justice system
Although the justice system often treats offenders different based on their race ethnicity (Snyder  Sickmund, 1999) they do not offer a different approach when treating males or females. Many views exist that females are discriminated against receiving suitable treatment inside the juvenile correctional system.

Are they treated unfairly
Most believe that the inability of the system to recognize the basic gender differences between delinquents does not overall act in favor of the female offenders, since they receive suboptimal corrections directed initially at males. These girls require interventions by individuals capable of helping them with their problems.

Do they benefit from being female Why or why not
They certainly dont. Still most female offenders enter the JJDPA for lesser offenses than males, such as truancy or running away and moreover receive more severe sentences (Barnickol et al, 2000) (Miller, 1994). The environment of the juvenile detention facility constitutes a big threat to the female offender, since often crime is solicited and prostitution or drug abuse institutionalized. Often, pregnant delinquents have to spend time in correctional facilities with fear for their life and the safety of their embryo.

All the businesses and corporations are run by directors and shareholders. The latter are people who own a certain percentage of the company. The stock is a share in the ownership of a company and it represents the claim a person lays to the companys assets as well as the earnings. Acquiring stocks from a certain corporation has become a common form of investing. Investment made by businesses, partnerships or individuals affects the economy as a whole. The reason for the companies to issue stocks to the public is to raise money.

There are risks involved in buying or investing in the stock market and there are no guarantees of success, just like in any other business especially when it comes to individual shares. Taking more considerable risks, though, brings higher returns on the investment made. The study was conducted concerning AAR Corporation.

Company history
AAR was founded in 1952, structured in 1955 and reincorporated in Delaware in 1966. AAR is a corporation that provides a wide range of products as well as value-added services for the aviation or the aerospace industry. It uses a close to the customer business model, AAR serves airline and defense customers through four main operating segments, namely i) Aviation Supply Chain, which consists mainly of the business activities conducted through AAR Parts Trading, Inc, AAR Allen Services, Inc and AAR International, Inc. ii) Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul, which includes the business activities conducted through AAR Services, Inc, iii) Structure and Systems, which serves the customers through AAR Manufacturing, Inc and iv) Aircraft Sales and Leasing which conduct their business activities through AAR Aircraft  Engine Sales  Leasing, Inc.

AAR recently formed an international defense and government joint venture to serve domestic and foreign customers in three key areas, namely technical services, aircraft services, providing comprehensive aviation support, relief and security functions as well as construction services.
AAR has more than half a century of experience in helping commercial as well as governmental customers to achieve their goals as they control their costs. Their commitment according to the board of directors is quality, safety, customer satisfaction in addition to airworthiness serves as the cornerstone of their business. AAR Corporation faces tough competition in the current market just like any other company in the world. The competition is based on the quality as well as the variety of products and services, the speed of delivery and the price. The corporation has competitors who have much more considerable financial and other resources, but they maintain their position. As of May 31, 2008, the backlog of AAR Corporation was about  466,700 as compared to  319,700 at May 31, 2007. At the same period of time, it had provided the employment for around 5,400 people worldwide.

The competition in each of the worldwide markets is based on the superiority, the ability to provide an extensive assortment of products and services, the speed of delivery and the price. Competitors in the Aviation Supply Chain and the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul segments include the original apparatus manufacturers, the service divisions of big commercial airlines as well as other autonomous suppliers of parts and renovate and repair services. The AAR Corporations engineering, manufacturing, machining in addition to integration activities in their Structures and Systems segment struggle with a number of divisions of large corporations and other large as well as  small companies. In the Aircraft Sales and Leasing segment, the corporation has faced the competition from hedge funds, syndicators, financial institutions, profitable and specialized leasing companies as well as other entities that provide financing.

Every business undergoes certain risks and the principal risks AAR Corporation has to face are those affecting the aviation industry. The general economic conditions of the aviation industry affect the business of AAR Corporation, which is a provider of services as well as providers to that industry. The aviation industry is said to be historically cyclical and with time has been adversely affected in the previous years by attacks by terrorists in 2001, September 11. This caused a decline in air traveling, and there were cases of high oil prices which affected the industry. The outbreak of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome and the war on terrorism have also affected the aviation industry and consequently the AAR Corporation. As a result of all these and other events, certain customers filed for insolvency protection over the past several years. Most recently, in 2008, a good number of the U.S air carriers have announced a new wave of cost reduction initiatives, route consolidations, including staffing reduction as well as the capacity reductions. It is believed that the announced capacity reductions have a 10 to 15 percent impact on the U.S fleet. The announced fleet reductions are due to the recorded high oil prices and the economic conditions. There have been reports on the credit market which have been tightening and this consequently affects the ability of the customers to raise equity capital and debt capital.

Problem statement
The stock market is a public market used for the trading of company stocks as well as derivatives at an agreed price. These are securities that are listed at the stock exchange in addition to those that are traded privately. The size of the world stock market has been estimated at around 36.6 trillion at the start of the month of October 2008.  The estimation of the total world derivatives market is around 791 trillion nominal value and this is eleven times the size of the entire worlds economy. The stocks are usually listed and traded at the stock exchanges which are entities of a corporation or mutual organization which is specialized in the business of bringing forth buyers as well as sellers of the organizations to the listing of stocks and securities together.

There is a direct relationship between the stock market and the modern financial system and this is the reason why investing in the stock market has become very popular. The general public ha heightened its interest in investing in the stock market and this is either directly or through the mutual funds. Statistics show that in the recent years, shares have made up a gradually larger proportion of the households financial assets.

There are companies issuing there shares but the question would be what is the criteria used to determine which company is viable for investment and presents less risks than other companies. What are the reasons to invest in the company and how to make comparison and come to a conclusion that a particular company is the best option and should be able to analyze critically whether or not this particular company is one that is worthwhile to invest in.

General objectives
The objective of this study is to establish how one can determine the best company to invest in using the performance and the history of the company. The comparison of the performance of the company with other companies and at the same time, the progressive performance over a certain period of time should be done. Another objective would be to make forecasts of the performance of the company in a few years to come.

Research hypothesis
The research or project should have a hypothesis to argue for or against it. AAR Corporation being the object of the case study, the hypothesis should state that the Corporation is viable and is a good company to invest in. the second hypothesis is that there is a relationship between the profits made by the AAR Corporation and the stock rates of the company.

Scope of the study
The study will analyze the performance of the AAR Corporation over a certain period of time. This means monitoring the company in terms of the companys history, the structure of the board of directors, the stock prices over a period of time in comparison to the profits made. Due to time and budget constraints, the study will concentrate on the information provided by the AAR Corporation. The accuracy of the data collected will depend heavily on that.

Significance of the study
Over, the years, the stock market has become a matter of much interest and it has a certain effect on the economy of the world. Many people have joined or are on the verge of joining the investment stock market but there are certain issues to be considered. This study should enlighten investors and the same time highlights the measures that should be taken to ensure the stock market grows stronger. The study will also validate whether AAR Corporation is viable for investments.

Literature review
Business trends and highlights
According to Preda  Alex (2009), in the year 2008, the majority of the U.S air carriers announced a series of cost reduction initiatives, route consolidations, capacity reductions and staffing reductions. There have been more recent capacity reductions and they are claimed to be the response to the deteriorating U.S economic environment as well as the considerable declines in the fourth quarter 2008 as well as the first quarter 2009. There was also a high rate of unemployment, greater than that in 1983. In the first quarter of 2009, in the North America the capacity was down by approximately 8 percent and the passenger traffic decreased by 10 percent. Some of the foreign carriers abroad and in the U.S had already filed for bankruptcy protection and some had already ceased operating.

During the fiscal year of 2009, sales to the global security customers improved by 16.8. May 31, 2009 represented 42.5 of general sales. AAR Corporations continued to create opportunities to make available performance-based logistics services in addition to manufactured products supporting their own defense customers requirements. Although it remained difficult for the corporation to forecast long-term claims for these types of products as well as services, they had to believe they were well positioned with the current portfolio of growth plans and products and services to profit from the longer-term U.S. martial employment and program administration strategies.

The AAR Corporations disclosure to the market risks included the unpredictable interest rates under their credit agreements as well as changes in foreign exchange rates along with credit losses on accounts receivable. During fiscal 2009, 2008 and 2007, AAR Corporation did not exploit derivative financial instruments to make up for these risks. At May 31, 2009, 187,090 was obtainable under their Credit contract. As of May 31, 2009, the exceptional balance under this contract was 50,000. A theoretical 10 percent raise to the average interest charge under the credit facilities applied to the average exceptional balance during fiscal 2009 would have reduced the pre-tax income by just about 108 during fiscal 2009. Revenues as well as expenses of AAR Corporations foreign operations were translated at standard exchange rates during the year, and balance sheet financial records were translated at year-end exchange rates.

Balance sheet translation adjustments were debarred from the results of operations and were as well put down in the stockholders equity as a constituent of accumulated income or loss. A theoretical 10 percent depreciation of the foreign currencies against the U.S. dollar would not have had a material impact on the AAR Corporation financial position as well as the results of operations.

Fiscal 2009 in comparison to fiscal 2008
According Richard J. Poulton, the consolidated sales for the fiscal year 2009 increased by  39, 057 or in other words by 2.8 percent over the previous year period. The sales to the profitable customers decreased by 5.5 percent as compared to the previous year and this reflected a reduction in the demand for the parts supports as well as the maintenance activities. All this was a result of the declining airline capacity. There was a decline in the sales to the commercial customers due to the lower sales in the Aircraft Sales and Leasing segment. This reflected lower aircraft sales as a result of the tight credit markets as well as the reduced orders for big ticket items. There was an increase in the sales to global defense customers by 16.8 percent. There was a favorable force of acquisitions as well as a strong demand for particular mobility products in addition to performance-based logistics programs.

Flint (1998) says that sales in the Aviation Supply Chain segment decreased by  22, 525 or in other words by 3.7 percent as compared to the previous year. The decrease of the sales was accredited to the drop in the demand for parts support from the profitable customers. This was as a result of the airline capacity reductions, the adverse impact of foreign currency translation as well as poorer sales to a regional airline customer. The gross profit in the Aviation Supply Chain segment decreased by  14, 680 or by 10.1 percent. The gross profit in that sector has also declined to 22.3 percent from 23.9 percent in the previous year. This was attributed to the impairment charges of  10,000 which was recorded in the fourth quarter of the fiscal 2009.

The operating income decreased 31, 626 or equivalently by 23.5 percent as compared by the previous years which was also due to the impairment charges, administrative charges and increases in sales. The factor that affected the operating income increased  11,717 as a result of the impact of acquisitions.

According to Keefe Lisa M (1990), during fiscal 2009, the AAR Corporation retired 110,510 of its convertible notes. The notes were retired for 72,916 cash as well as the gain after deliberation of unamortized debt issuance costs which was 35,316. It was reported in gain (loss) on extinguishment of debit on the consolidated testimonial of operations for fiscal 2009. During the second quarter of fiscal 2009, AAR Corporation sold their non-core developed turbine business, which was then after classified as a discontinued operation. Losses on the sale of business, net of tax, were estimated at 1,403. Net income was approximately 78,651 as compared to 75,144 in the previous year.

The financial year 2008 compared to the financial year 2007
The sales for the year 2008 increased by 30.5 percent or by  323,750 as compared to the financial year 2007. This is because all the four sectors of the AAR Corporation had all experienced an increase in the sales rates. The market share gains drove the overall sales growth through solid execution across the corporation business. Sales to the defense customers increased by 36.7 percent while the sales to commercial customers also went up by 27.8 percent as compared to the previous year.

The increase in sales to the commercial customers usually reflects gains in the market share. According to Murphy H Lee, (1994), this also reflects an increase in the demand for the aircraft maintenance as well as landing gear overhaul. The company is also deemed to have success in the international markets as well as impacts from acquisitions. The increased sales to the defense customers also reflect some characteristics. It shows that there is favorable impact of acquisitions. There is also a strong demand for the specialized mobility products and for the performance-based logistics program.

In the Aviation Supply Chain segment, the sales had increased by 62,816 or by 11.6 percent over the previous year. Murphy (1994) says that the sales increase was attributed to the strong demand for the parts support from defense-related performance-based logistics programs as well as aftermarket parts sales to commercial customers. In the aviation supply chain segment the gross profit increased by 30,708 or by 26.8 percent over the previous year. This was due to increased sales volume. The gross profit margin percentage increased to 23.9 percent from 21.0 percent in the prior year. This was due to the constructive mix of products the corporation sold as well as the 4,750 impairment charge which was recorded for the duration of the first quarter of fiscal 2007.

The sales rates for the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul department of the AAR Corporation increased by 42.2 percent or by 89,355 over the previous year. The increase in sales was principally attributable to improved revenue at the Indianapolis heavy maintenance facility. It was also attributed to  greater volume of landing gear overhauls as well as the addition of revenue from Avborne which was acquired in March 2008 .this contributed approximately 16,000 of revenues during financial 2008. Gross profit in the Maintenance, Repair and Overhaul department were reported to have increased by 47 percent or 14,052. The gross profit percentage improved to 14.6 from 14.1 in the previous year. This was due to increased volume in addition to operational improvement initiatives.

Factors that affect AAR Corporation
According to Lefer Henry (1991), making investment is the risk and one should be conversant with the factors that affect the company that one wants to invest in. This gives a clearer picture of what to expect. The financial condition as well as the results of the operation of the AAR Corporation may be affected adversely by the following factors. The first would be weakening in the financial condition of the existing as well as potential customers. The second factor that would affect the performance as well as the stock market would be reduction in the need for aircraft maintenance, spare part support and the deferral of those materials. The retirement of the older generation aircraft would automatically affect the operations at the AAR Corporation. This is because it would consequentially lower the prices of the services and the spare parts of those aircrafts. High oil prices would also adversely affect the operation of the Corporations and in return the stock prices of the company. Terrorists attacks or wars on terrorism have adverse effects on the operation of the airline industry which is the main factor of the AAR Corporation. Lastly, outbreak of infectious diseases would bring down the profits of the corporation and adversely affect the stock prices.

Factors that affect the stock market
According to the experts, when one is investing in the stock market, the investor should conduct a good survey of the entire market. As it is well known, it is not possible to make predictions on the stock market hence the need to know the functioning of the market. The first factor that affects the stock market would be the demand and supply. The trend of the stock market has a direct impact on the prices. When investors are buying more and more stock, then the prices of that particular stock usually increase. The reverse is also true if the majority of the shareholders are selling their stock then the prices consequentially go down.

Mandelbrot and Hudson (2006) say the second factor to consider would be the market cap. It is not advisable, according to the experts, to guess the worth of a corporation or company by comparing the stock prices. The stock prices do not determine the worth of the company but the market capitalization. The overall performance of the company matters and it should be the determining factor. The other factor that should help an investor would be the news. Positive news about a company usually increases the buying interest in the current stock market. The reverse is also true, negative press results in fewer buyers of that stock. So the type of news that reaches the clientele affects the stock prices. The last most important factor would be the earning or the price ratio. This usually gives the shareholders or the clientele an idea of a companys share price when compared to its earning. According to Preda, Alex (2009), the explanation is that stock usually becomes undervalued if the prices of the shares are much lower than the earnings of the corporation or company. The reverse is true the stock becomes overvalued when the prices are much higher than the actual earnings.

Methodology
Data collection, management and analysis
Data collection will involve the collection of secondary data. The study has already benefited during the proposal phase from many secondary sources such as the website and textbooks at a minimal cost. The research will be done using descriptive analysis methods time series analysis and regression analysis method as well as correlation. Some of the secondary data will be organized using tables and graphs.

Time series analysis
A time series is an ordered sequence of observations made at regular intervals over a given period of time, for example, hourly, weekly or annually. The time series analysis involves the way to fit a linear curve. Also future values of a series can be estimated from the past values but as discussed before forecasts of the stock prices can not be given. The time series analysis involves the analyst to identify the behavior of a series which could be trend, seasonal, cyclical or irregular variations. A trend variation is considered in this case and it is the tendency of time series data to either increase or decrease. The stock prices of the AAR Corporation would either increase or decrease. The time series give the description of the data using graphs and explains the variations.

Correlation analysis
The measure of correlation in this study will be done to show the relationship between the performance of the AAR Corporation and the stock prices. The null hypothesis would be that the performance has no relation to the stock prices and the alternative hypothesis is that the performance of the company has a relation to the stock prices. This should help the investors determine whether it would be wise to use the profits of the AAR Corporation in making decisions about investment.

Data analysis, findings and interpretations
YearMarket stock pricesProfit rate 200023.3014.9200128.1312.0200229.5616.3200321.7116.6200426.3817.8200529.5117.0200640.0618.2200745.1714.4200831.2713.4200925.443.0
The graph below shows the trend of the market stock prices from the year 2000 to 2009.
 SHAPE   MERGEFORMAT
The analysis shows there is a sharp decline in the market stock prices in 2003. There are peaks in 2002 and 2007. After which there is a steady decline to the fiscal 2009.

 EMBED StaticEnhancedMetafile

The profit rates have declined in 2002 and have gradually decreased since 2008.
The correlation test between the profit rates of the AAR Corporation and the stock market stock prices from the year 2000 to 2009 is done below.
Profit rateStock pricesProfit rate Pearson correlation
                 Sig. ( 2-tailed)
                 N1.000

100.196
0.588
10Stock prices Pearson correlation
                     Sig. (2- tailed)
                     N0.196
0.588
101.000

10

In this section, using the above table, one can test whether there is a significant correlation between the market stock prices and the profit rates of a company using the AAR Corporation as the case study. Spearmans rank correlation shows that there is a positive correlation between the two variables. This implies that the increase in the stock prices while consequentially imply a rise in the profit rates of the company. The reverse is also true, the increase in the profit rates of the AAR Corporation signifies an increase in the stock prices.

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendation
The table below sets forth for each quarter of the past two fiscal years the reported high and low
closing market prices of the Common Stock on the New York Stock Exchange.

                                     Fiscal 2008                             Fiscal 2007
Per Common Share Market Prices                     Market Prices
quarterhighlowhighLowfirst34.8628.5025.1719.50second33.2528.8827.6922.24third38.5425.8931.5226.32fourth28.1018.9433.5527.40

According to Donoghue J.A. (1995), the fiscal year 2007, the highest market price 33.55 and the lowest was 19.50 which gives a margin of 14.05. According to the stock market analysis that is a reasonable margin of a period of one year. Fiscal 2008, the highest market price is 38.54 which was in the third quarter and the lowest market price was  18.94 which was in the fourth quarter. The margin for this year was 19.60.

According to the results of a press release given in Wood Dale, Illinois in December 2009, the financial year 2010 second quarter sales of  328.7 million in addition to the net income attributable to AAR Corporation of  13.3 million or  0.34 per diluted share. Year over year, the sales to the defense as well as government customers increased by 4 percent and it also represented 48 percent of total sales while the sales to commercial customers declined by 15 percent. The company reported sales of  353.6 million as well net income attributable to AAR of  10.4 million or equivalently  0.27 per share and this was in the second quarter of the previous fiscal year.

According  to Sergey Perminov (2008), in opposition to a realistically tough trade and industry environment, AAR Corporation has delivered solid second quarter results. AAR Corporation has achieved well-built sequential earnings development, had solid margin expansion, in addition to generated cash the corporation has gained the benefits of the process development initiatives, cost reductions, as well as improved mix. Due to this several new businesses have benefitted. The company has won a significant contract pertaining to providing supply chain services as well as logistics support for the USAFs KC-10 fleet. Moreover, in the face of a soft profitable market, the corporation has increased their market share by winning more than a few previously unannounced awards providing MRO as well as supply chain services.

According to Dr. Steve Sjuggerud, (2002) when an investor is selecting a mutual fund, the standard annual return is a supportive guide for measuring a funds long-term performance. However, Homan Timothy (2009) says investors should also look at a funds yearly performance to fully appreciate the consistency of its annual total returns. For instance, a five-year average yearly return of 10 looks eye-catching however, if the yearly returns ,those that produced the average annual return, were 40, 30, -10, 5 and -15 (50  5  10), the funds current performance (past three years) is absolutely unpleasant.

With such a high-quality performance, the investors should be able to buy the AAR Corporate shares and have confidence in their investment. The stock market prices though fluctuate, are deemed favorable for investors. The fact that AAR Corporation has been in business for several years, is a good sign of consistency.

According to Silverblatt Howard (2010), an investor looks at the diversification of a company and as for the AAR Corporation it has several sectors such that if one sector is not so successful, the others would still uphold the company. This gives the investor a piece of mind and confidence to invest more by buying more shares. This increases the companys earning as proven by the correlation test done.

An investor should also be ensured that they achieve consistency as well as sustainable return. According to Guan Ong (2007), the main aim of an investor should not be to achieve the highest returns but to achieve and maintain consistent as well as sustainable returns. He says there have been many examples of investors who have invested in the most popular stocks believing that the performance will re-occur the next financial year. According to the AAR Corporation stock prices there is consistency. This helps the investor to make wealth creation instead of making quick profit. Wealth creation involves developing a diversified portfolio which in return helps the investor achieve realistic returns. There should be careful analysis as well as preparation when it comes to investing in the stock market to avoid losses.

According to Guan Ong (2007), the analysis and preparation include the investors understanding of the available asset classes, evaluation of the risks, the investment environment and also the associated return levels. The level of risks that an investor should prescribe to their portfolio should depend on the type of institution or the companies to be invested in. The companies are all different and the risks involved are of different capacities. Asset allocation is the discipline used to determine the level of risk for each asset class within the portfolio.

According to Guan Ong (2007), the review reallocation and frequency of the portfolio depends strongly on the availability of the investors resources in addition to the differential growth rates of the market.

Many cases, be they trivial or headliners, will always face the eventuality that it will be heading to the back of  police dockets, be it for length of time or the lack of evidence to pin down certain individuals guilty of the crime. Most often, it is the latter, with law enforcement authorities running out of leads that can break the case open for the swift dispensation of justice for the victims and the families. One such case, the murder of Congressional intern Chandra Levy, falls into the latter category. But with leads coming, the case is hoped to be deemed for resolution by law enforcement to give closure to those that the victim left behind.

Chandra Levy Murder Case Coming out of the cold
I Overview of the Case
On the 30th of April, 2001, Chandra Levy was seen at the health club located near her apartment in Washington, D.C. Preparing for her return to her home in Modesto, California, she went to the club to cancel her membership as her internship with the Bureau of Prisons had been cur short when Chandras supervisors during her internship at the agency discovered that she had completed her college coursework, thus making her ineligible for her to continue with her internship at the agency (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc., 2010).  Levy was supposed to go back home to attend her graduation at the University of California. Robert and Susan Levy, Chandras parents, had tried for a week, spanning from May 1to 6, and after to contact her, called the Metropolitan Police Department and had her reported as missing (Charles Montaldo, 2010).

On May 1, 2001, Levy had spent much of the morning surfing on the Internet, with police stating that the star-crossed Levy had been looking at a map for Kingle Mansion, located at Rock Creek Park. The park had been a popular spot for hikers, bikers and joggers. And that was the last time that there was any contact of Levy. Apart from the police, the Levys contacted their Representative,  California Democrat Gary Condit. Chandras last communication with them was the electronic mail regarding the schedule of he flight, to attend her graduation for getting her masters degree in public administration (Turner, 2010).    

The murder of the beautiful 24 year-old Congressional intern in 2001 soon became one of the greatest unsolved crimes in the United States (Paul Harris, 2009). In the investigation of the Metropolitan Police, they went to the apartment of the intern, but found no signs that there was any foul play committed in the area. Her personal effects, such as her wallet, credit cards, and her luggage, all packed ready for her flight home, were all in the apartment undisturbed. But the issue took on a more sinister note when it was discovered that Chandra might have been involved in a romantic relationship with the California Congressman, Gary Condit (Montaldo, 2010).

Ironically, Condit donated 10,000 as a reward for information on Chandra, describing the intern as a good friend. On the 16th of May 2001, some news companies had gained possession of an electronic mail message, written by Chandra in December, where she allegedly talked about an unidentified romantic liaison with a man who had tied to Congress. At first the parents of Chandra were unsure of the identity of the man or if the man was Condit, though they remained in the dark on her relationship with Condit. A short time later, Susan Levy, the victims mother, met with Condit and his lawyers, and asked Condit to come out with any information he may have with regards to the disappearance of their  daughter (Turner, 2010).

For months on end, the family of Chandra held vigils with the hope that Chandra will come home. They kept her pictures circulating in the media, hoping that news of her whereabouts can be acquired. In the woods that Chandra frequented on her jogging trips, teams combed the area, but did not turn up anything that was related to the disappearance (Montaldo, 2010). On the 25th of July 2001, three sergeants from the Washington Police Department together with more than 20 cadets scoured Glover Road in Rock Creek Park with the hope of finding leads into the disappearance of  Chandra (Sari Horwitz, Scott Higham and Sylvia Moreno, 2008).  

The cadets were under the command of the chief of detectives of the D.C. Police, Commander Jack Barrett. Barrett ordered the cadets to form a grid search of the area, combing 100 yards from the road that wind their ways inside the park. After a weary search in the area, the tired cadets boarded the bus to search out another area of the park. Little did they know that they were so close to the remains of the slain intern.  Roughly 80 yards off the Western Ridge Trail near Glover Road, the pair of sunglasses were quietly resting on the ground. Further down, a white Reebok rubber shoe and a black sports pants were turned inside out. Finally there lay the body of Chandra Levy (Horwitz, Higham and Moreno, 2008).

The discovery of the body came on the 22nd of My 2002, as a man who was out taking his dog for a walk in the park and searching for turtles in Rock Creek Park, located near the D.C.  apartment of  Chandra found some bones and some pieces of clothing. Upon examination of the remains dental records, the Medical Examiners Office determined that the body was that of Chandra Levy. Though they could determine the cause of death of Chandra, they had enough evidence on hand to rule that the death was a homicide (Montaldo, 2010). By that time, 10 months had lapsed, and the evidence that could have pinned her murderer- blood, fiber, or hair, would have all but vanished (Horwitz, Higham and Moreno, 2008).

Detectives searched on the sites that the murder victim had visited earlier in the day with the hope that this could provide some information on the activities that Chandra had planned during the day of her disappearance. A police sergeant with the D.C. police who did not have computer training turned on the blue Sony Vaio of the victim to determine the last searches of the victim on the Internet. Unfortunately, the activity of the officer unwittingly corrupted the search listings of the computer. The mistake by the officer delayed the information on the murder by a month since technicians would need that much time to reconstruct the list of sites that Chandra had visited (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).
The Search for a killer
Washington, D.C. law enforcement officials told Susan Levy, the mother of murder victim, 24 year old Congressional intern Chandra Levy, that they are on the verge of arresting a person in connection with the death of her daughter. D.C. Metropolitan Police Chief Cathy Lanier did not divulge the name of the suspect when she contacted the parents of Chandra. But sources close to the investigation claimed the name of the suspect was Ingmar Guandique, currently serving a 10 year sentence for two counts of assault in the same park that the body of Chandra was discovered in (Carol Cratty, Karen Zucker, Justine Redman and Rachel Streitfeld, 2009).

Guandique was singled out as the culprit in the brutal and cold-blooded murder of Chandra as he was also convicted of the attacks of two female joggers that were assaulted in the time frame of the disappearance of Chandra, from the 1st of May to the 1st of July. Police theorized at this point that Guandique, a day worker and illegal immigrant form El Salvador, attacked the two women at knife point, wrestled them to the ground where he attempted to sexually assault them. When he was arrested for the second assault, Guandique admitted in seeing Chandra at the park. Another piece of evidence that police hoped to sue against Guandique was that Guandique allegedly confessed inside the jail that he had killed Chandra (Alex Altman, 2009). II Presentation of the Evidence

Guandique denied ever seeing Chandra in the park, or ever seeing her at all. He constantly denied any involvement in the death of Chandra, and even boasted of his innocence in the fact of the investigation being conducted by the police (Horwitz, Higham, 2010). After allegedly admitting that he had indeed murdered Levy, Guandique was made to undergo a polygraph test on the informant and Guandique himself.  The informant failed the test, while Guandique passed the test, prompting the police to drop Guandique from their list of suspects, even though the administration of the lie detector as an accurate gauge of guilt of the suspect is far from absolute (Altman, 2009). But investigations on the veracity of the testimony of Guandique in regards to being involved in the case was shallow at best (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

In investigating the disappearance of Levy, the Washington Post had conducted its own interview with regards to the case. The paper reported interviewing a United States Park police officer who said that he had shown a picture of the young woman to the suspect, and Guandique admitted to the officer seeing Levy in the park at the time of her disappearance. By the end of the summer, detectives and prosecutors have continued to strengthen their case against the suspect. City prosecutors have convened a grand jury, and a new set of detectives and prosecutors were assigned to the case, immediately setting about the task of interviewing new witnesses and evaluating new pieces of evidence (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

Witnesses statements
Law enforcement officials have since gathered new pieces of evidence, with a team of veteran prosecutors and police detectives who have given new life to the languishing case. In the new affidavit gathered by the team, it was stated that there was another woman who was attacked on the day that Chandra disappeared. The woman averred that the attacker was a man of Hispanic descent, but she was able to escape and left the country on a trip abroad. One year later. The woman saw a photograph of the suspect in a newspaper about the time that he was considered as a suspect in the murder case (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

The two women who were attacked by Guandique were also interviewed by the police. Halle Shilling, who was assaulted by Guandique on the 14th of May and Christy Wiegand, attacked by the suspect on the 1st of July.  During the sentencing hearing for the suspect, both of the women testified that they were of the belief that Guandique had intended to kill them. Both of the women were not interviewed by the police until after the Post had published the contents of its own investigation (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

Other witnesses revealed other details that pinned down the suspect in the murder. One of the witnesses interviewed by police told investigators that Guandique had wrote letters that stated that he owned up to the killing of Chandra. When the witness became anxious, he called up Guandique about the details in the letters, recording the phone conversation with the suspect. In the course of the conversation, Guandique affirmed what he had written to the witness about who the suspect referred to as  the dead girl (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

Another witness interviewed by the police on November said that Guandique and him had been friends for a number of years, even saying that Guandique had prided himself as a member of the El Salvadoran Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13). In the gang, the witness said that Guandique was known in the gang as  Chuckie , named after the demoniac doll in the horror movie series, owing to his reputation of killing and mutilating his victims. In the statement of the witness, Guandique stated that he would rape the women as he lay in wait in the vicinity of a dirt path running near the park, tie them and proceed to rape them. Also, Guandique said to the witness that he was with two other men when they saw a female jogger in the park that had Italian features with dark hair (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

Seeking justice for Chandra
After nearly a decade after Chandras disappearance, the man suspected of murdering the young Washington intern was formally charged with first-degree murder. Ingmar Guandique was supposed to appear before the District of Columbia Superior Court for his first appearance with regards to the murder of Levy. The warrant issued a month earlier accuses the suspect of raping and brutally killing the woman in Rock Creek Park in May of 2001. As he arrived aboard a dark colored van, reporters rushed to interview the suspect, but Guandique did not respond to the questions thrown at him by the reporters. As he left the facility an hour and a half later, photographers scrambled to get a shot of the suspect, the tattoo of the MS-13 gang  visible on the suspects neck (CBS Broadcasting, 2010).

In the announcement of the United States Attorneys Office, they will consider in convening the grand jury to indict Guandique of the crimes, but did not give a definite time table for the convening. Suspects arrested in the D.C area must be indicted 9 months after they are charged of the crime (CBS, 2010). But lawyers intend to use the fact that none of the dozen witnesses that the prosecution has lined up can actually testify to the act that they saw Guandique attack Chandra in the park nearly a decade ago, with only two of the witnesses linking the suspect directly to the crime. In the past, prosecution teams have secured convictions on the basis of second hand and a preponderance of circumstantial evidence without the benefit of physical evidence (CBS, 2010).

Denial of Justice
In a twist of fate, the judge in charge of the case of Chandra ordered a 10 month delay in the trial of the murderer. Superior Court Judge Gerald Fisher agreed to postpone the Levy trial to October 4, instead of the original trial date of January 4. This is to give time to Federal prosecutors to amend the charges against Guandique to add on to the first degree murder charges already filed against the suspect. In the first indictment filed against the suspect, the charges were for first degree murder, attempted rape and kidnapping. But under the plan being devised by Federal prosecutors, led by United States Assistant Attorney Fernando Campoamor, they intend to file a superseding indictment by the middle of December. But the prosecution team would not divulge  the new details in the new indictment (Michael Doyle,   2009).

Threats to the witnesses have been revealed by the prosecution as instigated by the members of the MS-13 gang, which the suspect is allegedly a member. Some of the correspondence and threats have come in the form of, according to the prosecution, calls from Guandique direct to the members of the witness pool or from the gang cohorts of the suspect in the Salvadoran gang themselves. One of the letters purportedly sent by the group avers that if the particular witness takes the stand to testify, the witness was threatened that the group knows where his was living , an implicit threat that the group will do harm to the family of the witness. Under Federal law, coercing a witness is considered a crime, punishable with 10 years incarceration, and the transmission of the same can get up to 5 years imprisonment for the offender. The new revelations on the threats to the witnesses may be included in the new indictment, charging Guandique with jury tampering, adding that the filing of the new charges against Guandique contributed to the prosecutors decision to have the trial date moved to a later time (Doyle, 2009).

But the disadvantage is being claimed as on the side of the prosecution. Defense attorneys, citing the lack of physical evidence that would directly link Guandique to Chandra, or even an eyewitness testimony of what happened on that fateful day, state that these weaknesses can help strengthen their case for innocence for Guandique. The team that also worked on the 1996 murder of Shaquita Bell, securing a conviction on the case, is also the same group that gathered the evidence for the Chandra. It is interesting to note that in the Bell case, her body was never recovered and there were no eyewitness accounts that linked her killer to the crime (CBS, 2010).

In the aforementioned case, it was proven that Bells ex-beau, Michael Dickerson, also a convicted criminal, had plead guilty to the slaying after the authorities lined the evidence against him, inclusive of ballistic reports, records of past incidents of domestic violence and witnesses that saw the couple arguing. According to former D.C. Federal prosecutor Thomas Di Biase, there are a host of cases that the suspect in the crime were proven guilty though there was a lack of the body of the victim and there were no eyewitnesses to the crime (CBS, 2010). Also, the DNA that was lacking in the evidence proved to be the link in connecting the suspect with the murder victim. In a statement of a law enforcement personnel who had intricate knowledge of the crime, said that the DNA samples gathered were retested and gathered, and the match linked the suspect to the murders (USA Today, 2009).

But the statement did little to calm down the firestorm of criticism that hounded the investigation of the murder of the young intern. At the onset, the investigation had been beset by mistakes by the police in conducting the investigation. Critics point to the time it took the police to locate the corpse of the victim, taking a full year to find the body. Others say that the problem lay with the police centering the issue on the victims romantic link to Congressman Gary Condit, who due to his silence on the matter, lost his seat in 2002 (USA, 2009).

In the March warrant and affidavit, the presence of DNA was not mentioned in the documents, nor were the presence of any pieces of forensic evidence that could link the suspect in the killing, but according to United States Attorney Jeffrey Taylor, though they do not have any physical evidence in their possession, the total weight of the circumstantial pieces of evidence eventually linked Guandique to the case. At the time that the warrant was served, the suspect was serving a 10 year sentence at the Federal Correction Institution-Victor ville, which is a medium security penal facility north of San Bernardino in California, with Federal authorities moving him to the government transfer facility in Oklahoma, then on to Washington for the trial of Levy (CBS, 2010).  

Finding Closure
With the impending solution of one of the most sensational cases in modern American history, the news that the man allegedly responsible for the gruesome murder could help in the redemption of the name of one of earlier suspects in the case, California Congressman Representative, Democrat Gary Condit. Condit was romantically linked to the victim before her death. As the police launched a massive manhunt to locate Chandra, Condit suffered under the eyes of speculation that eventually cost him his bid for re-election in his Congressional district. The situation of the young, fresh faced intern being swept off her feet by the married Washington power broker became a symbol of youth open to the whims of the older man. After the discovery of the body of Chandra in 2002, the media circus soon shifted its guns sights on Guandique from that of the embattled congressman (Harris, 2009).  

In assuming the role of silence, Condit was contrived to be concealing his involvement in the murder of the young victim. But the defense that Condit pursued was not that of a man with a lot to lose in the affair, but a man who was trying to save his job and more importantly, his marriage. The media firestorm was relentless in the coverage of the incident, only being temporarily displaced by the terrorist attacks on the United States in September 2001. But the media circus may be harder to satiate than that. Unbound by the accountability bought about by stringent laws on libel as found in countries as the United Kingdom, the American media feasted on the case as the police searched for the body of the murder victim (Harris, 2009).

The issue that the police had taken a year to locate the remains of the victim also gave rise to the circulation, and speculation, on what really happened to the ill-fated congressional intern. As the media became hypnotized by the case, the name of Condit became a byword for the guilt of a person, since that Chandra was younger than the daughter of the congressman when the news that the two were in a romantic tryst and the reputation of Condit as strongly a family man politician left his career in tatters (Harris, 2009). After his ouster from the House, Condit briefly ran a couple of franchises of Baskin-Robbins, and have since filed a number of legal actions to rehabilitate Condits reputation. For the family of Chandra, they were forced into a situation that their daughter was missing, thinking of all what might have happened to he, all under the bright media lights (Altman, 2009).

III Analysis of the Evidence
In analyzing the pieces of evidence that were used and gathered in the case of Chandra,  law enforcement officials followed a certain thread of logic, building the case against the suspect according to what the procedures they had been trained to follow. In the opinion of the American psychologist George Kelly, people are scientists in their own right. Not that people are constantly surrounded by laboratory equipment, Kelly was suggesting that for the individual to succeed, people are responsible in the collection of information, understand that set of data and attempt to predict the outcome of those events or data. A part of dealing with these data is good common sense (John Medcof, John Roth, 1979).

How does the assertion of Kelly and the instance of common sense deal with the case of Chandra Levy After understanding the dynamics of the environment around the individual, as the definition of common sense implies, we have to see if that will solve the issues surrounding the case of Levy. In effect, can common sense dispute what is being ingrained in the police officers that investigated the case Can this prove that the conduct of the investigation into the murder was done in scientific and set procedures, or would have thinking out of the box helped in the resolution of the case much faster

In this, what is being asked is that the set logic of the police failed in the early resolution of the case for Chandra Levy. In the examination, and especially in the conduct of the investigation of the case, we should assume that the police followed, even extended, the procedures in conducting the investigation. In Edward de Bonos concept of lateral thinking,  the concept involves the setting aside of the traditional train of logic and looking at the issue using non conventional methods. In de Bonos method, he views the issue using two ways of thinking patterns. One is the vertical thinking method, basing on logic and the attendant train of information, and the other is the method being discussed, lateral thinking (CBS Interactive, 2010).

Creative, or lateral, thinking can be defined as any approach to a problem that does not conform to the established standards of thinking or solving an issue. Lateral thinking is the term for a system of looking at a problem to look for new and radical approaches to a certain issue- looking from the sides of the issue rather than from the front, which is common means of looking and solving problems.  The concept came not as a result of solving crimes, but as a new way of presenting goods at a shop. The shops in the early 20th century were places where the customer would walk in to the premises, and the store assistant would meet the customer at the counter to ask how they can be of assistance (Paul Sloane, 2003).

Then in the 1920s, Michael Cullen took another view of the store set-up. He hypothesized on the effects of turning the store around, meaning the customer, instead of coming to the counter first, would make the customers shop around for the items that they needed and then come to the counter to pay for the items they purchased. With this act of lateral thinking, Cullen created a new method of selling products to the consumers, the supermarket (Sloane, 2003).

With the definition and concept of lateral thinking in place, we can then proceed in the analysis of the study of the pieces of evidence gathered in the case, and were these examples of lateral thinking as put forth earlier. First to be examined was the location of the primary piece of evidence in the case, the corpse of the victim. As earlier stated, the police were alerted by the parents of the victim, then proceeded to scour the area with some cadets led by police sergeants where the victim might have gone to last, Rock Creek Park (Horwitz, Higham, Moreno, 2008).  As the teams combed the area, they eventually missed for a year where the body of the victim was located. By the time that the body of Chandra was finally located, a good ten months after her disappearance, all the probable pieces of incriminating evidence had either been lost or decayed to a degree that they were useless in the resolution of the case (Horwitz, Higham, Moreno, 2008).

From the initial reading, the police did facilitate the search according to the procedures that they were used to. But maybe the reputation of the cases in the park could have an effect on the treatment of the case of the then missing intern. The park, located in the citys quiet 2nd District, are staffed by police officers whose counterparts in the meaner areas of the city call  squirrel chasers . The police at the station mainly serve the small neighborhoods of Cleveland Park and Georgetown, with drunks, burglars and small time thieves as the main source of criminality in the area (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

Another serious misstep in the conduct of the police in the investigation was the failure of the police to secure the tapes from the surveillance system in the apartment complex where the victim lived. In the investigation of the Washington Post, the paper harped on this mistake by the police. The tapes could have aided the investigation on the matter of whether Chandra had left the complex alone or with a companion. As police frantically searched for clues on the possible whereabouts of the victim, they clumsily deleted the history of the sites in the laptop, sending them on a week back in their efforts to find the victim (Horwitz, Higham, 2010).

After the costly blunder was rectified, it was discovered that Chandra clicked on the sites for the maps and routes leading to Klingle Mansion, the three level farmhouse that doubles as the headquarters of the park staff. They then theorized that she might be meeting someone in the area , possible choices were friends she had developed in he stay as an intern at the Bureau of Prisons, or possibly her paramour, Gary Condit (Horwitz, Higham, 2010). The police had been criticized in sticking too much attention on Condit, rather than trying to find leads that would have helped move the investigation along in the right direction. Also, the police did not help in holding press conferences, fanning the media firestorm that destroyed Condit and the creation of the various theories and scenarios in the minds of the American public (Harris, 2009).

IV Preliminary Conclusions
As the case of the murder comes to a close, there are several items that can be noted in the conduct, policy and eventual resolution of the case of Chandra Levy. For one, the police followed steps, true to the training of gathering information, understanding the data as it arrives, and with the processed information, attempt to reconstruct what transpired on that day that led to the death of the victim. That is investigation for the police. But the question posed is in the analysis of the data, whether they used vertical thinking methods, basing their decisions on the logical conclusion of the evidence that they gathered, or did they use creative methods in the analysis, processing and prediction of the desired results in the investigation.

In the opinion of the defense lawyers of Guandique, the investigation of the case of Chandra were marred by flaws in the conduct of the case. In the information released by Santha Sonenberg and Maria Hawilo, Guandiques lead defense counsels, none of the witnesses that will take the stand for the prosecution have names, or are not identified, though the police have given general descriptions as to their identity. One of the witnesses is presumed to be the former girlfriend of the accused, who will testify that she and the accused constantly argued, and that the accused was given to fits of violence towards her, hitting her often and grabbing her, even going to the extent that the suspect bit her (CBS, 2010).

In the action of the witnesses being interviewed, the police even went to the extent of apologizing to one of the witnesses, Shilling, that they had taken too much time before even contacting her to get her statement on the crime that Guandique was convicted of. The police had assured the victim that their efforts are now concentrated on Guandique. Even the lawyers for the initial suspect, Gary Condit, blasted the media for their fixation on the congressman had caused needless delays and irreparable harm and pain to the families involved in the case, both the Condits and the Levys (Horwitz, Higham, 2010)V Recommendations for Further Action

In his speech to mark the 6th anniversary of the brutal September 2001 terrorist attacks  on the United States, President George W. Bush reiterated his call to affirm the resolve of the multi nation against the threat. In the Washington speech, Bush said(Julian Borger, Ian Black, Michael White and Ewen MacAskill, 2002)

Inaction is not an option (p.1)
In the world of business, the need for lateral thinking must be focused on change. The quote of Bush on the need for action and that the option of not doing anything to change is ultimately not even a viable choice (Sloane, 2003). In the case of the murdered Chandra Levy, the polices situation could have been summarized into the answer of the clerk at the front desk of Chandras apartment complex he did not know. The attitude resulted in the case to gather dust for a year, before any concrete steps were taken. The police must therefore try to train itself in looking at crimes in other ways than from straight down, and observe the data and analyze the same in other ways. This could lead to a more creative thinking law enforcement agency, innovative and efficient in the manner that is handles criminality in the future.

The study is important in examining the sociological learning processes, as it will demonstrate that the students academic comprehension can be enhanced through incorporating sociological learning approaches into their studies. If it can be demonstrated that sociologically oriented learning facilitates the students academic performance in the classroom, then it can be shown that the peer feedback learning may have an advantage over the traditional instructor-centered learning with respect to skills and the academic performance of the learners.

The educational processes have evolved over time to incorporate the sociological learning techniques, such as peer feedback in schools and institutions of higher education. Learners receive feedback at the beginning of a course after which the process of feedback decreases during the progress of the course (Graham et al., 2001). Indeed, the feedback component in the instructor-learner communication processes guides learners to what they should or should not do during their education course and without it learners would be frustrated. In the field of sociology, the effects of the lack of feedback on learners are substantial and can be devastating to learners. This fact leads to the belief that there would be major benefits to solving this problem. Ertmer et al. (2007) stated that using peer feedback can reduce the instructors workload and learners will indeed receive the needed feedback that helps them in the progress of their learning. Researchers stated that with peer feedback learners can develop their cognitive skills and at the same time become more independent (McConnell, 2002 Liu, 2001). Furthermore, learners would have different resources of feedback that provide more benefits to their learning and can be used in addition to the instructors feedback (Miao, 2006).

In his study on implementing peer feedback, Robin (2006) found out that both instructors and learners benefit from this process. Learners used the peer feedback to improve their projects and instructors had multiple feedback resources that could give more depth to the process of feedback. Since this study is open to the fact that learners are struggling to receive high quality and immediate feedback from their instructors, the goal will be to provide learners with another way to help them get the needed feedback that assesses their learning and examines its impact and value from learners perception. The impact of instructional strategies on the academic achievements of learners forms the basis of emphasis on the significance of the research study and its relevance to problems experienced within the education system.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the proposed study is to examine the effectiveness of peer feedback and learners perception of giving and receiving peer feedback for graduate learners in institutions of higher education.

Research Question
The following questions will be used to guide this study
Is peer feedback an effective sociological learning strategy for graduate learners in providing them with high quality and immediate feedback

Why is peer feedback process considered to be of sociological value to learners
Why are there significant differences in the learners perceptions on the effectiveness of peer feedback as compared to their perceptions on the effectiveness of instructor-centered curriculum

Problem Statement
The problem addressed in the proposed study is that learners are struggling to receive feedback from their instructors and trying to find another approach to get immediate feedback. Several reasons contribute to this problem, whether the limited time, the number of learners in each class or the instructors busy schedule. Reluctance to implement problem-based learning in the classroom deprives learners of access to an effective teaching strategy that would not only benefit them in their immediate academic performance, but also provide them with the opportunity to master information feedback skills that would be essential to their success in the professional forum .There is no doubt that the use of peer feedback as an instructional strategy greatly impacts the learning and achievement of learners positively. However, learners are struggling to receive feedback from their instructors which in turn influence their learning.

Indeed, some learners may be too shy to speak up, a situation that prevents them from receiving or even offering feedback. Learners are seeking constructive, timely, and high quality feedback and this cannot be done unless the instructors sacrifice other important responsibilities. This reduces the process of feedback and affect learners progress (Robin, 2006). Other factors such as the number of learners in each course not only reduce the process of giving feedback but makes instructors reduce the number of assignments further limiting feedback (Miao, 2006). The extent of this problem goes beyond traditional classes to online learning.

Literature Review
The inquiry into the pedagogical theory suggests that all persons have unique sociological traits that they apply for the acquisition and processing of material (Allen, 2004 Schlemmer  Bratsch, 2007). However, the prevalence of instructor-centered curriculums in schools makes the assumptions set by the pedagogical theory unrealistic. Instructor-centered learning refers to learning that is directed by the instructor, with the instructor as the focus of the classroom. Consequently, instructor-centered curriculum propagates arbitrary determination of lesson plans and learning materials on strict guidelines outlined in school syllabuses without adopting learning improvement strategies that support learner satisfaction in terms of understanding and adopting new concepts (Driscoll, 2005).Thus, instructors effectively employ a theoretical model, whereby learners are simply guided through the recommended formulas and concepts for solving educational problems, with little regard to the final outcome of a teaching session. Such a theoretical model is ineffective because it lacks the flexibility of taking into account the input of learners in the collection, synthesis, and analysis of data and information from multiple sources. Driscoll (2005) was emphatic that theoretical teaching model undermines interaction among learners in the one hand and interaction between instructors and learners on the other, in solving educational problems in class (p.391). The research therefore focuses on the need for instructors to develop collaborative strategies with learners to bolster conceptual understanding through varied viewpoints and approaches to solving educational problems.

An examination of the previous research and literature review was conducted to see if another approach is available to learners when they are seeking immediate feedback. Researchers had addressed this problem in several studies. Meyer (2003) stated that limited time makes learners compete to demonstrate knowledge to their instructor to get their share of air time which does not give them time for reflective feedback or deeper discussion. Hew and Cheung (2003) discussed that time has a major role in the limited feedback because the instructor is controlling most of the class time. Additionally, learners personalities play a role in limited feedback because their reactions may either enhance or slow down learning.

The relevant theoretical concepts addressed by the research problem include Garners theories of multiple intelligence the principles of behaviorist, cognitivist, and constructivist learning, problem-based learning and an assessment of information technologies and problem-based learning (Allen, 2004). The literature review incorporates information from academic publications and peer-reviewed journals. The topics that are addressed in the study include an overview of the current educational environment found within public schools and how instructional strategy functions within this environment. Barells (2006) Problem-based Learning An Inquiry Approach presents a good starting point for familiarizing with the basics of problem-based approaches to learning such as peer feedback instructional strategies. Barell (2006) noted that problem-based learning resolves questions, curiosities, doubts, and uncertainties about complex phenomena and that it is especially relevant for schools as it helps give learners a more comprehensive learning experience (p. 3). Similarly, Allens (2004) Tools for Teaching Content Literacy introduces several important arguments concerning how learners learn and why a one size fits all instructional strategy is inappropriate for schools and institutions of higher learning (p. 5). Allen (2004) noted that different people have different approaches towards information gathering and information acquisition and those learners who do not respond well to instructor-directed instructional strategy have traditionally suffered in terms of academic performance in schools. The acquisition and comprehension of information can be enhanced through initiating feedback mechanisms into the preferred instructional strategy. Indeed, many educational institutions are seeking to improve learner performance through investing in alternative instructional strategies (Allen, 2004). In online leaning and distance education programs, for example, peer feedback strategies have helped learners to develop improved mastery of conceptual relationships and provide practical setting through which learners get to develop comprehensive understanding of the materials that are introduced to them via traditional instructor-directed instructional strategies (Barell, 2006). The literature review confirms that learners respond positively to peer feedback learning strategies, with particular emphasis to interactive instructional strategies.

Findings
Based upon the present research we can draw a conclusion that learners are seeking another approach to get a constructive feedback, and studies have shown that peer feedback is a good instructional strategy that helps both learners and instructors (Ertmer et al., 2007). Instructional strategy is a fundamental component of curriculum development and planning in educational programs. Instructional strategy refers to the approach taken by the educator to impart or communicate information to the learners.

Some types of instructional strategies appear to be well-suited to the curriculum and methods that are used within public schools, especially instructor-directed or instructor-centered learning. In public education, instructor-directed learning refers to the instructor-to-learner relationship that is established within the classroom in which the instructor states information through lectures or lesson plans and learners acquires this information in the same form as it was initially imparted by the instructor. While instructor-directed learning is widely used in educational institutions as the dominant instructional strategy, the reasons for its use are found rather in its feasibility than in its effectiveness (Schlemmer et al., 2007).

The unavailability of adequate resources in institutions of higher learning in particular imposes limitations on the type of teaching strategies that can be applied (Allen, 2004).  Moreover, the prevalence of instructor-directed learning ensures that the instructors themselves receive instruction in this particular type of instructional strategy and that they are prepared to use it in the schools. It is necessary to demonstrate that peer feedback processes have the potential of improving the overall educational experience of graduate learners and that its applications are not limited to the classroom setting. The study will therefore enhance the understanding that peer feedback is a sociologically  oriented learning strategy that enriches learners classroom experiences and improves their comprehension of the subject matter.  

Discussion
The research methodology applied a descriptive research involving observations, surveys and interviews, statistical data collection and sampling without attempts to affect the normal prevailing behavior. The research applied random sampling because the research will be based on a representative sample of a large population  learners and instructors in higher education institutions. Quantitative analyses of peer feedback data was needed for testing the hypothesis and determining the coefficients representing the relative significance of peer feedback instructional strategies.

Research Design
The study used the descriptive survey research design since it seeks to explain a given or particular solution. According to Gall  Borg (2005) the descriptive survey research involves describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting conditions that exist. Further, it involves some type of contrast or comparison and attempts to discover relationships between existing non manipulated variables. The proposed study was conducted in institutions of higher learning as well as in learner online communities educational portals.
 
Target Population
The target population was learners from 11 institutions of higher education and participants in online communities. Out of the 11 targeted institutions, seven were physical institutions of higher learning while four were learner online communities.

Sampling Techniques
The number of institutions of higher education and learners online communities was very high. To be able to get a sample that would be representative, proportion stratified sampling procedure was employed to seven physical institutions of higher learning while four learner online communities. The reason for choosing this method was to guarantee proportional representation of learners from the two sub-groups.

Sample Size
Out of the total target population of 3,100 learners, 310 learners from 11 institutions of higher education and learner online communities were used in the sample. This represented 10 of the target population. According to Gall  Borg (2005) the minimum acceptable sample for a survey is 10. Out of the 310 learners sampled, only 10 was used in the observation sample. Only those who confirmed positive perceptions to peer feedback processes were observed.

Research Instruments
The study will employ two instruments (1) questionnaires and interviews for learners and (2) an observation schedule. Gall  Borg (2005) described a questionnaire as an inquiry tool used to collect factual information. It is a data collecting instrument in which respondents answer a statement in writing. The learner questionnaires as highlighted in appendix 1 will capture the following the learners awareness and responsiveness to peer feedback and learning instruments and material aids preferred by learners. Permission will be sought from the Department of Education to carry out the research. The questionnaires will be self administered through emails by the researcher to the 310 respondents. The instructions will be that the respondent completes the questionnaire within five days and then emails back the completed questionnaire to the researcher.

Observation Schedule
An observation schedule was developed to obtain information on the learners perception on peer feedback as a sociological approach to learning in institutions of higher learning. The researcher was able to observe the major components of the learners perceptions through daily reporting data sheets for a period of 14 days. The assessment of learner perceptions to peer feedback did take into account the subject specific requirements of different learners undertaking different courses. Purposive sampling technique was applied to select 31 learners demonstrating positive perceptions towards peer feedback processes.

Pilot Study
Gall  Borg (2005) define the pilot study as a study conducted prior to the major research study for the purpose of gaining additional information by which the main study can be improved. The research instrument was piloted in one institution of higher learning which will be purposively selected due to cost and time factor. This institution did not from part of the main study. Necessary revisions and modifications were appropriately considered.

Variables
Peer feedback represents the independent variable. The term peer feedback refers to the response that a learners writing, assignment, or inquiry may generate from other learners. Driscoll (2005) defines a peer as a colleague with whom one shares the professional or status platform. Feedback on the other hand refers to response generated by a presentation, inquiry or suggestion (Driscoll, 2005). Peer feedback is generated through sharing assignments or posting inquiries and comments in online communities. Peer feedback is different from instructor-feedback in that the later relies on one channel link between the instructor and the learner while the former is based on multiple response channels among a group of learners.

Learner perception represents the dependent variable. With regards to this research, perception refers to the interpretation and organization of sensation in the production of meaningful experiences in the epistemological environment (Driscoll, 2005). To this end, perception serves as the stimulation and organizing tool for inquiries into the field of knowledge.

Validity and Reliability
According to Gall  Borg (2005), validity is the degree by which the sample of test items measures the content designed to be measured. The instruments were evaluated for their content validity. The questionnaire contents were read and examined to evaluate the clarity items. Gall  Borg (2005) argue that content validity is a matter of judgment by professionals. The researcher established validity by seeking expert judgment from the supervisors while developing and revising research instruments. According to Gall  Borg (2005) the reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures whatever it measures. The more reliable a test is, the more confidence one can have that the scores obtained from the administration of the administration of the test is administered. The test technique was used to asses the reliability of the instruments.

Limitations
The general applicability of the research findings was the main threat to the external validity of the research project because of the existence of wide ranging differences in instructional strategies in different institutions of higher education The internal validity was threatened by the accuracy of the research results. Therefore, a standard margin error of 0.05 was be applied because the research is based on the assumptions that the population is infinitely large and the application of simple random sampling techniques was required to minimized errors and maintain high reliability levels of the research. In addition, the short duration of this study is considered to been the second major limitation. Replication of this study with variations of individuals, settings and with longer period can increase the external validity of this study (Gall et al., 2005). The researcher sought to overcome this limitation through the use of observation schedule as a complimentary to surveys and interviews as well as incorporate extensive research from existing publications. The third limitations in the context of this research were factors which prevented persons from participating or responding accurately to the survey questions. For example, participants may have found the survey questions to have been too personal and therefore declined to participate. The researcher overcame this limitation by requesting the respondents not to write their names on the questionnaire and assuring them of their privacy.

Conclusion
The sociological learning is a concept that holds very important value in the societal fabric. The passing down of knowledge from one generation to another and subsequent sharing of inventions and discoveries over the years is what has shaped the world into what it is today. However, the considerable question is who has been responsible for the transfer of important aspects of knowledge How has the society been able to hold together and pass down knowledge across so many generations Both classical and contemporary theories indicate that both formal and informal teaching has played significant role in knowledge transmission for many years. Research shows that teaching philosophical tradition has increasingly been supplemented by the development of modern educational theories that form the basis for sociological learning behaviors and processes. Notably though, students methods of learning differ dramatically, and these different methods are determined by the students individual backgrounds and educational history.