Sociology

The concept of sex, the difference in sexes, the sex organs, and the sexual act in itself are just some of the topics concerning sex which have often been considered as forbidden in the earlier times.  This predominant idea -- which is referred to as the repressive hypothesis (Foucault 197810) -- came about in the 17h century, where reference to said concerns was limited to the confines of the bedroom, and strictly for husband-and-wife consumption only.  Foucault, however, counters this hypothesis in that, he claims, that the 18th century saw more of the unfettered and growing interest on the subject of sex, especially when individual confessions were made compulsory.  Because they were exposed to more knowledge on each individuals sexual activities, priests were placed on pedestals.  A correspondingly increased attention to cases of sexual perversion, homosexuality, rape and incest among other things was also immediately noticeable.  The practice of confession became an essential part of studying and analyzing an individual, and it revealed much of the persons character.  For this reason, the 19th century ushered in an increased awareness of sex as essential knowledge, and that somehow, this knowledge was interconnected with power (Foucault 197894). 

Foucault then gave an extensive discussion of power, what it is not, where it comes from, and thereupon proposes four rules relating power to sex (197898).  With the increasing number of cases related to sexual perversions and the belief that these were passed on between generations, the bourgeoisie insisted on practicing more stringent measures to preserve their hereditary nobility.  Initially, greater weight was placed on the exacting of sanctions to those who have transgressed, but later on, the knowledge of sex was given more emphasis due to the indisputable power which came with it.  Foucault avers that the right of death was inevitably replaced by the power over life which in contemporary times meant the concept of sex. 

As an introduction to a 3-volume series, the books main objective is to trace the beginnings of the idea of sexuality from the early times up to the present.  Intended for the collegiate level, this theoretical prologue attempts to uncover the underlying correlation and interplay between sexuality, Christianity and power.  This source is a scholarly, intense and evocative composition which endeavors to shed light on the notion of sexuality and the peculiar interest with which numerous theorists dealt with the subject during a period when supposedly more conservative views were upheld. 

Not much research has been done on the topic of sexuality, per se, because assumptions about the personal motives of sex researchers often result in sexuality research being stigmatized (Wiederman, 20063).  It is worth noting that most often, people assume that when a researcher takes on a certain topic about sex, heshe has a personal motive for doing so, which  more often than not -- is not really the case.  Other references which have been published dealt mostly with the pragmatic aspect of sex, sexual relations and the sexual act, but Foucault tackles more on the theoretical viewpoint and makes an in-depth analyses out of the conclusions arrived at.  This novel is basically a discourse  a compilation of philosophical and sociological thoughts and assumptions based on historical findings.  Reading through the book would make one imagine a setting where scholars were gathered and the author were on a podium making his speech. 

Foucault made use of Historical Research or Historiography as the main qualitative method in presenting this book.  Interspersed in its pages are historical allusions, analyses, answers to questions, statements of implications and rationalizations among other things.  As the novel unfolds, the reader is transported back in time as the settings are described, the atmosphere is depicted, and quotations from historical figures come alive.  Foucault made use of previously published materials by authorities in the field like Freud, Marx and Ligouri, though only sparingly, as his assessments underscored the ease with which he delivered this discourse.  In terms of clarity, the ideas are presented lucidly, systematically and with transitional paragraphs to introduce succeeding chapters.  The approach used by the author in presenting the book is, on the whole, philosophical, and as such, is not easily comprehensible to someone who has not been exposed to such writing style.  Nevertheless, underpinning such approach is material that is substantial, noteworthy and illuminating to the subject of sexualitys history. 

Early Christians used the Bible to repress sexuality, ignoring ways the Bible did not fit such a program (Carr, 200312), meaning, all issues which were directly or indirectly referring to sex had to be downplayed or utterly removed.  This supports Foucaults contention pertaining to the repression hypothesis which the author describes as  modern prudishness was able to ensure that one did not speak of sex (Foucault, 197817) -- an atmosphere which deliberately ignored the controversial topic as taboo or censored.  I think that this notion about sex has already evolved and should no longer be tolerated because these views are part of the old-school beliefs on sex.  Furthermore, in this age of information, censorship is already part of ancient history, due to the availability of knowledge from numerous and varied sources.       

The above mentality was further reinforced by Lewis when he said  Humans can and must control their sexuality in ways that other animals cannot, in order to reach the Divine (2006229), denoting that those who could not be placed under the control of the Christian doctrines were considered as animals or unworthy beings.  Man was thus subjugated to a lowly status of a sub-human when heshe did not conform to the rules.  The manner of manipulating humans in the early times is extremely repulsive since all sorts of ideas were fed to the peoples minds just so the authorities could control the sexual pursuits of the populace.   

Since the 19th century, educators and doctors combated childrens onanism like an epidemic that needed to be eradicated (Foucault, 197842).  Onanism refers to the act of masturbation.  The childs unacceptable behavior can be traced back to hisher family as well as hisher teachers, and such misconduct may be heavily sanctioned.  In the present times, when Freuds theories of childhood sexuality have come to be accepted, this behavior of children is no longer frowned at but can be viewed as a means by which children learn about sexuality and their bodies (Kilmer and Shahinfar, 200648).  Sex and the act of masturbation are now regarded as a normal part of mans daily life. 

With regards to the concept of homosexuality, Carr contends that the Bible condemns all forms of premarital or extramarital sex and all forms of homosexual sex(200349).  Said statement is compatible to what Foucault proposes in his book where he refers to the homosexual as a sodomite, whom he describes as a certain way of inverting the masculine and feminine in oneself (Foucault, 197843).  The rejection of homosexuality, much like onanism, evolved to become accepted in modern times, in terms of attitudes, levels of approval of homosexuality rose notably during 19922000 (Davis et al., 2003 Laumann et al., 1994 Smith, 1994 cited by Smith 2006110).  Homosexuality in the present times is now widely accepted, and although more openness is still possible, it has reached a level where civility among the straight and the homosexual sexes has become unobjectionable.

In conclusion, Michel Foucaults work was able to go beyond what most other contemporary pieces would focus on like the evolution of sexual practices, the biological side of sex or the sensuality of the act itself.  I particularly liked the way Foucault was able to present the subject of sex in a profound, interesting, somewhat complex and certainly enlightening sort of way, where sex is not merely equated with the sexual act, but is seen as a topic which can be studied in-depth and against a specific historical background.  This novel is an indispensable masterpiece which should be considered by anyone who endeavors to delve into the subject of sexuality.

Community sustainability involves ensuring community members well being in all the spheres of economic, environmental, health and social development. This is achievable by ensuring proper use of current resources so as to provide the future generation with an opportunity to benefit from the same resources. Enormous efforts have been directed towards economic development leaving behind equally important aspects of community sustainability. The well being of a community depends on quality of living standards the community members are subjected to in regard to the environment they occupy. However, human actions towards improving such standards have contributed to the destruction of nature which has always provided a suitable environment for their survival. Collaboration and consultations among relevant stakeholders is therefore necessary to bring forth a truly civil Newcastle city whose members live in a safe and healthy environment.

The shared vision of collaboration and consultation between local and international partners is to perceive a better Newcastle city with stronger community that respects the rule of law in its pursuit of economic, social and environmental ambitions. A civil society comprises of individuals who are well informed on the social, economic and environmental assets of their community and therefore try to empower their community members especially those who are disadvantaged in one way or another to better their living standards (Newcastle city council, 2006). Failure accomplish this may lead to enhancement of social clusters that not only divide the community into social classes but also culminates to insecurity. This therefore thwarts the development process of the community.

The city of Newcastle has ensured safety and crime prevention by establishing a safety and crime prevention committee that oversees the improvement of safety in Newcastle through provision of technical advice to the responsible organs Newcastle city. Other partners in crime prevention in Newcastle include among others the  HYPERLINK httpww1.northumbria.police.uk o Northumbria Police t _self Northumbria Police who provide expertise to the advisory committee. Police force is a tool used by the state to enforce law and order in an area of target. The Northumbria police achieve this through their prevention officers who are located in various strategic points such as Clifford Street (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

Other stakeholders in crime prevention include students who also provide the necessary advice on the crime prevention strategies. The students are always involved in campaigns during specific periods of the year and therefore provide the necessary support to the community safety units hence enhancing the security and safety of people of Newcastle. These campaigns target reduction of crimes related to car theft as well as disorders that stem from fireworks. Crime prevention requires partnership of varied stakeholders in order to ensure a safer society to thrive in (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

The government involvement through the local authority is paramount to provide assistance and support to the people of Newcastle who happen to be victims of a crime. Frequently reported crimes in Newcastle include homophobic crimes where individuals become victims of crime simply because the attackers or the offenders hate the sexuality of the victim ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22TanerOc22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Taner   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StevenTiesdell22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Tiesdell, 1997). This type of crime is treated with a lot of caution and its penalties are even stiffer compared to other crimes. It is usually committed by the youths in a society. Racist crimes on the other hand involve crimes committed on the basis of different racial or ethnic background. In such cases the offender disregards, undermines or hates the ethnic orientation of the victim ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22TanerOc22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Taner   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StevenTiesdell22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Tiesdell, 1997). Such types of crimes have become rampant and are therefore a challenge to the Newcastle community. General crimes have however been suppressed by the relevant authorities except minor cases such as arson that was reported on 31st March 2010 by the  HYPERLINK httpww1.northumbria.police.uk o Northumbria Police t _self Northumbria Police on a car in South Tyneside. Car crimes have so far dropped compared to the previous years by about forty percent courtesy of stringent measures installed by the police in addition to community participation in crime prevention activities in Newcastle city (Newcastle city council, 2006).

Criminal activities where the perpetrators are not known send signals of security lapse especially poor detection and deterrence of criminals in the city hence a challenge to the police. Criminal activities derail the development process of a society and therefore should be fought at all cost. This can only be done through proper enforcement of laws as provided in the constitution ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22TanerOc22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Taner   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StevenTiesdell22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Tiesdell, 1997). Besides, a well established justice system should be enacted to provide a framework which will guide the law enforcers to carry out their duties without upheavals. However, a culture that tolerates the social cohesion between the law enforcers and the society should be practiced to precipitate the development process. In other words the police should not be anti-social and the society members should also reciprocate by cooperating with the law enforcers in order to succeed in their quest for peace and establishment crime-free society.

Generally, crime control requires consultation and coordination of all stakeholders in the security docket. Such an initiative has been explored by the home office through organization of events which would bring together society members whose ideas form the basis of such consultations. The home offices main agenda is to combat violence against women and girls in Newcastle. The stakeholders in this initiative include authorities responsible for safe Newcastle and safe Newcastle board as well as the community members.  All these stakeholders contribute towards the enhancement of crime prevention in Newcastle thereby fostering community development. This is inline with the Newcastle citys vision that aims at achieving better life in a safer Newcastle hence stronger community (Newcastle city council, 2006).

An international approach is necessary in combating crimes of advanced level such as terrorism which has in the recent past generated a lot of debate worldwide. The existence of international crime prevention system which is a product of international collaboration provides expertise on how the city authorities can handle such crimes. This treaty explains that combating urban crime requires the collaboration of the police of  HYPERLINK httpww1.northumbria.police.uk o Northumbria Police t _self Northumbria Police and the local authority of Newcastle city. These were discussed in a conference on crime and urban insecurity that was held in Germany. Such initiatives enhance development through incorporation of best practices and experience exchanged between different countries (Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, 2000). Finally, the council of Newcastle city often reviews the performance of various initiatives in the city to evaluate them and make changes if necessary in an attempt to improve the security and safety of the community members in Newcastle city. Evaluation also ensures that the initiatives adopted improve the living standards of the community members in addition to enhancing environmental protection which is usually regarded as one of the pillars of community sustainability (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

The university-community partnership is a prerequisite in community sustainability. Education and training sector is involved to a greater extent in the crime prevention and control in Newcastle city. Through this sector, research and project activities have been initiated to provide direction on strategy to be adopted while tackling crime in Newcastle city. This sector in collaboration with other partners locally and internationally also provides expertise on security matters. Likewise, education sector embarks on researches aimed at solving the modern problems by provision of recommendations on possible solutions to such problems (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000). It is therefore relevant in improving ways in which environment as well as the economy of Newcastle city can be managed. Education also produces experts who turn out to be assets to the community as far as the development of the city is concerned.

To achieve community development, the Newcastle city council has resorted to strategies such as centralizing the management of all initiatives dealing with community consultations in addition to incorporation of standard procedures and processes. The progress of such initiatives is reviewed after a stipulated period of time usually one year to ascertain their feasibility. Furthermore, the council has incorporated environmental management in the development process. This is achieved through making the community green and planting of trees in the city. It will achieve this initiative by consultation with organizations that are involved in the environmental management in the city such as Trees in Newcastle. The evaluation of such a project would thereafter follow to ascertain the progress of the greening initiative. These are important mechanisms in the development of Newcastle city and are contributory to the sustainability of the community (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

Conclusion
Due to rapid population growth, technological advancement has become inevitable given the increased demand by the consumers. However, as human beings try to explore the resources in pursuit of their satisfaction, depletion of natural resources is imminent. It is therefore necessary for all the stakeholders to collaborate in an attempt to strike a balance between exploration of environment for satisfaction of human needs and the nature conservation. This will ensure development in all perspectives at the same time protecting and conserving the natural resources hence sustainable development.

Career assessment are types of tests that are done with the  intention of helping people to identify which career best matches their ability, IQ, personality and interests. They are the first stages that many people engage in while planning for their career. These tests therefore help people in identifying the ability, the experiences, training and education that may be required for a certain career (Dennis, 2002, p.34). The  assessments are not limited to evaluating people  for  their suitability to certain professions but also extends into assessing some aspects of career like salary and wage information, and job satisfaction as well (Brown, 2002, p.21). These makes career assessments valuable tools that aid people in making important career choices at different stages in their lives.

Career assessments identify the ability, education and training that may be required for each career. The clients who take these tests are therefore able to evaluate whether their interests ability and personality matches the requirements of the field they are interested in. Career tests are administered and used by career coaches and counselors, development institutions, job placement companies, human resource firms and employers in evaluating suitability of potential member for specific careers that match their profile (Samuel, Bruce, 1996, p.12).

There are many types of career assessment and some of the categories include satisfaction tests which measure the level of employees satisfaction with their job. Another category are resume tests which evaluates one ability to draft resumes.  IQ tests are tests used to evaluate the level of ones intelligence and ability to reason. Entrepreneurship tests are used in evaluating the suitability of one to run their own businesses (Guerriero, Allen, 1998, p.28). The other category are the  aptitude test which evaluates ones ability to perform specific duties and  education tests  which evaluate  the options of whether one is more likely to enroll for full time or online courses. Another type of test is the test called the salary survey that assesses the salaries and wages of a wide range of jobs which provides valuable information on career choice (Pickman, 1997, p.17).

The qualitative approach relies on psychological tests that evaluate individual differences in psychological aspects like personality and interests. Career assessment through the qualitative approach assesses psychological factors such as ability, personality and interests and the way they relate to the requirements of traits required by the career. The method is the one that has been used traditionally since the 1900 and it gained impetus during the two world wars when the soldiers were being integrated back into local employment (Patton, Peter, 2009, p.7). The use of psychometric differences in individuals such as by the use of psychological test and inventories was critical in development of the qualitative approach that is called trial and factor theory (Patton, Peter, 2009, p.17)
 
The term trait and factor implies the characteristics of the person and the profession respectively. These traits are the individual distinctiveness that can be assessed through various tests while factors are the abilities and personalities required by the career field. This qualitative method of trial and factor method encompass matching of ones traits, personality and ability to the requirements of the career. This method recommends that one is suitable for a certain career only when the traits personality and ability, matches the requirements of the career (Stebleton, 2007, p.89). This qualitative method has the limitation of giving the career guiders the role of an expert who knows everything suitable for the job and cancels the notion of people having the ability to adjust to new situations. The qualitative approaches used today have appreciated this notion and offers great flexibility in their methodology since they are based on theoretical principles rather than statistical principles like the quantitative ones (Stebleton, 2007, 96).

Quantitive career assessment techniques emphasize on the use of statically standard assessments that gauge an individual abilities, personality, aptitude and interests which are then used in the selection of appropriate career. Examples of these tests include developmental tests, personal environmental tests, personality and self assessment tests. The data that is obtained from the qualitative assessments is however not in most of times adequate for career assessment due to the rigid nature of the statistical principles that are followed. This makes it sometimes to be supplemented by data from qualitative measurements (Watkins, Campbell, 2000, p.34). Examples of quantitive methods used in assessment are metrics. In contrast, qualitative assessments are informal, flexible and holistic. Qualitative approaches emphasizes on the client telling the story of their career rather than scores as in the quantative approach. Qualitative approach enhances the counseling relationship because the assessment is founded on the clients experiences (Lowman, 1991, p.25). Quantitative approaches have the limitation of making the career guider to act as a diagnostician or an expert unlike in qualitative assessments where the career guider acts as a listener, inquirer and acts as a respectful observer of the clients career profile rather than the dictator.

Qualitative assessments allow the clients to reconstruct the career related experiences that allow for some of the concerns of the career to be evaluated by the career guiders and the hiring firms. A qualitative approach utilizes mainly the processes of cards, sorts lifelines and genigrams while qualitative assessments rely on metrics and statistical software recently in the assessment process (Gurriero, Allen, 1998, p.45). The process of qualitative assessment is more laborious than quantitative because the career adviser or the employer must be involved directly in the assessment process which leads to more creativity and flexibility in the assessment process unlike in qualitative measurements.

Quantitative approaches employs a  propositional and trial based approach in the assessment process while  qualitative approach utilizes a story telling approach and life experiences  approach in the assessment process. Another major difference in the two approaches is that quanntative approach utilizes statistically based methods to evaluate whether one fits into a specific job while qualitative approach utilizes thematic methods that evaluate whether one is fit into the job out of their life experiences (Young, Bourgen, 1999, p.65). Qualitative measurements are often applied in making assessments where there is diversity in clients because of their flexible nature unlike the qualitative methods which are rigid. Qualitative assessments are based on the subjects of constructivism. This theory proposes that human beings exhibit uniqueness and idiosyncrasy in thought and experience as well as the great versatility that humans exhibit in creating and adapting to new circumstances (Grinell, Unray, 2005, p.41). These characteristics that enable them to exhibit such versatility are difficult to include in some quantative assessment methods.

Qualitative and quantative approaches are used in broadening a clients comprehension and understanding of their career and enable career guiders and employers to handle the requirements of their jobs effectively. They are also used for employment as well in determining the capacity for more development in their clients careers and also predict future job efficiency of their clients (Patton, Peter, 2009, p.13). Although they are valuable resources in career assessment, they do have limitations.

The major limitation of these approaches is their limited and wide varied interpretations of the results of the assessment. There are no widely accepted assessment techniques for each career counselor or hiring firms utilizes their own criteria and scope in the measurements which can confuse potential clients (Dennis, 2002, p.20). Career assessments can also mislead one into careers that do not suit them because they can suggest one is suited for certain careers which may not be the case because there is great variability in the scope of the assessments that are set by different career advisers (Shearer, Luzzo, 2009, p.66). Another limitation for career assessment in both quantative and qualitative approach is the time and investment it takes to develop an ideal and valid test that can be applied in a career guidance setting. Most of the careers assessments techniques both for quantative and qualitative appropriations are developed at a high cost and research that extends to several years in order to accommodate the changing nature of the work place (Samuel, Bruce, 1996, p.98). This also causes some of the assessment techniques to be available at expensive costs.

Another limitation in the career assessment techniques especially the internet based ones is the problem of validation. The internet has thousands of these tests where most of them are not validated by standard career assessments bodies. These tests are available at a cost or free in the internet and due to problem of validation, they may mislead people into wrong careers especially the invalidated ones (Watkins, Campbell, 2000, p.51). There is no one ideal career assessment technique or test and that career counselors and employers must utilize all the methods of both quantative and qualitative techniques in order to develop a career test that best suits the needs of the job requirements and their clients (Bright, Pryor, 2007, p.6). They must combine the finest features of the quantative methods and the best of quantitive techniques in order to evaluate the worth of a client for a specific career.

According to The American heritage Dictionary (2009), Assimilation is defined as the process by which a person or a group becomes integrated into the culture of another. This involves a minority who adopts the culture of the other group who are considered the majority. Culture is an important aspect in the society. Different people, tribes or communities within a nation have their own culture, customs and traditions. These are valued from generation to generation and safeguarded against loss.

The United States (US) has been seen as an assimilationist society in different areas. There has been cultural assimilation in the US. It is whereby the immigrants begin to gradually adopt the American culture. This has led to the sudden loss of identity of the minority groups. For example, the mode of dressing of the Americans has been followed over the years by immigrants. This has led to loss of tradition and customs which define how a person should dress. Every society has a characteristic mode of dressing culture. Most blacks in America have conformed to their culture (Tatum, 1987).

As Le (2007) writes, behavioral assimilation is when all immigrant or new persons adopts the behavioral pattern of the majority group. It includes adopting the language. The Asian Americans have learnt English and culture of the Americans and gradually lost their own customs. Secondly, there has been socio-economic assimilation. The Asian Americans can now take part in politics. They have also been integrated into the social, cultural and economic institutions.

Assimilation has led to either negative or positive effects for the minority and the majority groups. The minority might benefit by exploring new opportunities available, for example, better education and services. However, it has led to loss of ones own identity. It leads to gradually forgetting the cultures and traditions of a person. There might also be an adoption of bad cultures which are not accepted in the society. The US has benefited by acquiring new professionals, for example, doctors and lawyers from other countries.

Concept of Assimilation and Pluralism
Assimilation concept is biased since it regards one concept or idea to be the best and the only one that works out. The concept of pluralism suggests the existence of more than two things or principles in real life. It is an open minded concept which takes into account the ideas of others. In pluralism concept, different cultures or traditions are accommodated.

Assimilation has been achieved in our society, for example, intermarriages have led to an exchange and adoption of different traditions and cultures. The society is made up of multiethnic groups with diverse cultures. For a long time, intermarriages were not acceptable in the society. People used to marry or get married to those they share tribes with. This has gradually changed and it is now accepted in many parts.

The influence culture has on nonverbal as well as verbal behavior is without doubt extensive and therefore the universal base for these behaviors that appear in different cultures cannot be overlooked (Manusov, Manusov and Patterson, 2006). This paper is going to look at the nature of aspects specific to various cultures as well as universal aspects of nonverbal behaviors focusing on various expressions worn on the face because they are important in the process of communication. This paper will begin with providing a definition of the term culture as well as a brief discussion about it so as to develop a base on which culture can be easily understood. The role of culture in the process of communication will also be looked at briefly, highlighting its impacts on both nonverbal and verbal behavior. The main objective of this paper is to is to enable people acquire an understanding on the influence of universal, genetic processes and specific cultural processes in the production and judgments of both verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

In order to understand how culture influences nonverbal behavior, as stated by Manusov, Manusov and Patterson (2006), its essential to first get an insight of what culture is as well as its origin. In this paper culture is clearly defined. A theoretical explanation of where it originates in addition to a description of some of its characteristics is also provided. According to Agliati, Vescovo and Anolli (2006), it is important to look into human nature in order to clearly understand and define culture. The outlook of human nature that offers the vital platform to give an explanation for not only pancultural universals, which are an essential feature of emotional expression, but also specific cultural aspects is that of evolutionally psychology (Wyer, Chiu and Hong, 2009). As Manusov, Manusov and Patterson (2006), states this view indicates that people have developed a set of intentions and determinations that are in the end related to reproductive accomplishment. Survival in the evolutionary context is related to the extent to which people can adapt their environments and also to the situation to which they exist.

People throughout history have had to find solutions to numerous social problems so as to adapt and therefore attain reproductive achievement (Bente, Senokozlieva, Pennig, Al-Issa and Fischer, 2008). Ways of dealing with particular problems can be very specific for a particular group according to the context in which that group lives. These ways have lead to development of cultures (Wolfgang, 1979). Culture therefore is an interaction result between universal biological requirements as well as functions, social problems resulting from those requirements, and the context in which people exist (Siegman, and Feldstein, 1985). All cultures must devise ways of dealing with various social problems thereby resulting to a cultural response that finally corresponds to the universal biological functions (Manusov, Manusov and Patterson, 2006). All aspects of a persons life are greatly influenced by culture. Culture, as illustrated by Poyatos (2002), is used to explain the similarities as well as differences between different groups of people. It provides a base for decision making and lays down the principles for group cooperation and divisions of labor. Psychological processes of human being, as asserted by Wolfgang (1979), are also specific to various cultures. Language is one of the best examples of behaviors specific to a particular culture. The need to have language, as illustrated by Manusov, Manusov and Patterson (2006), is a pancultural universal problem whereas language is a universal aspect that solves this problem. Verbal and nonverbal behaviors, according to Agliati, Vescovo and Anolli (2006), are contents of communication and both of them are influenced by culture. Nonverbal behaviors that are subject to cultural influence are gestures, gaze, interpersonal space, and facial expressions. All these are influenced in different ways according to the context to which people live.

Law enforcement has been faced with several issues and changes over the years. This paper explores these factors that affect the operations of undercover police officers. It discusses the physical and ethical issues they are constantly faced with. It discusses the involvement of ethics in law enforcement and ethical behavior of the officers.

Law enforcement by police officers has faced a number of challenges in many countries over the years. It has also experienced changes both in structure and how they operate. The officers face a lot of temptation as they carry on with their duties. They have to deal with both physical and ethical issues, some of which are risky affairs.

Firstly, the poor organizations of the police and devolved systems have led to poor service delivery by the officers. Corruption has been a major issue especially in dealing with illicit drug traders. Due to the overflowing huge amounts of cash involved in this business, officers may be tempted to accept payments from these dealers. Secondly, decentralized structure of the policed agencies has led to difficulty in accountability. The heads of police have preferred the community based approach in fighting crime. The officers have a direct contact with the people. This model has reduced the level of accountability. It has made monitoring of the officers to be impossible leading to unaccountability. The Community Based policing, therefore, encourages corruption. Thirdly, the working environment is normally violent in nature. This has posed a lot of risks to the officers who are constantly striving to restore law and order in a dangerous community. The poor structure of the police unit has led to loss of morale. This has affected even the most qualified undercover officers who are willing to serve with dedication. The poor structure prefers that officers be loyal to the bosses without paying attention to the integrity of the individual. They are seriously scrutinized and forced to follow tough rules which are complex. The outcomes of a complex structure, constant temptation and community based policing have proved to affect the ethics of undercover officers (OMalley, 1997).

The officers are sometimes forced to apply a lot of force when doing their duties, for example, during demonstrations. The aggression has sometimes been misunderstood and leads to different conflicting recommendations. It is important to determine the reasons for this aggression and use of force before any conclusions are made. The ethical well being of the undercover agents should be given priority. An integrated approach should be designed to improve on the ethical behavior. It should be simple, workable and non rigid (OMalley, 1997). 

The undercover police officers have gone to the extent of not following the laws in order to carry on with their duties. For example, an officer might be forced to pretend to be involved in drug trade in order to arrest the culprits. This, however, might lead to temptations due to the high amounts of cash involved, which might be enticing to the individual. Therefore, breaking the law may lead to loss of trust from the public (OMalley, 1997).

Organized crimes are highly organized enterprises that are operated by criminals where they engage in illegal dealings with highly organized operations with the main aim of making profits. The association and activities of the criminal groups have high level of coordination and discipline. Mafia is used all over the world to describe criminal syndicate.

Like any other society, organized crime has existed in the United States for many decades. This is partly because of the diverse American society with elements from different parts of the world. Organized crime syndicates have involved themselves in various criminal activities for economic gains.

In the modern American society, criminal syndicates have increased their cooperation as opposed to competition between different criminal groups evident in the 1960s and 1970s. The criminal groups do not only cooperate with other syndicates in the region but also international criminal organization. This has increased the rate of international crime with federal security agencies estimating that organized criminal syndicates all over the world make up to a trillion dollars in a year. 
 
Modern organized crime syndicates have very advanced skills and are involved in activities that require high technical and academic knowledge. This includes smuggling of drugs and weapons, illegal trading and disposal of nuclear materials, identity fraud, human trafficking and smuggling of endangered species. They are also involved in racketeering business activities such as monopolizing industries, rigging bids, money laundering, corruption and clamping of ideologies.

The United States government has had several attempts of making laws that deter the activities of organized crime syndicates. One of these laws is the Racketeer Influence and Corrupt Organization Act. This made it a crime for anyone to be associated with a criminal syndicate. However, organized crime syndicates have been a great problem to the law enforcers as a result of their level of organization.