Sociology

Behind the possession and consumption of food lies the morals, attitudes, pleasures, and anxieties which have been shaped and developed by different cultural settings. John Coveney  says that the  science of food and eating serves as the basis for many of the judgments we make about ourselves and others as eaters (p.1). It is implied that the moral decisions we make for ourselves, whether they are good or bad, are directly related to the technical and rational wisdom  of science that has taken on a role that was once the province of religion.

Also, science articulates the basis of peoples moral concerns. From food choices to the art of food consumption, it is implied that there are various schools of thoughts which govern and explain the variation of cultures and attitudes toward food. In this paper, four distinct standpoints on the meanings and symbolism of  food are explored. The prisms discussed in this paper aim to shed wisdom on the representations of food and to render knowledge on the perpetual  views of scholars concerning food meanings and symbols.

1. The Culture Behind Hunger
Jane Fitchen says,  hunger is embedded in the larger context of eating, and so to understand hunger, we need to understand eating  (p.389). As eating can be a culturally shaped act and can be influenced by various attitudes, hunger can also be defined by cultural concepts and surrounded with social meanings.

The cultural aspect of hunger is best explained using the crisis in the United States. It is noted that the hunger situation in the country is not the outcome of the insufficient food supply for the total population (Fitchen 385). Fitchen argues that the complexity of the hunger situation in the country is a  matter of some people regularly having inadequate access to sufficient food  (p. 385). Based from several studies, it can be said that the hunger situation in the United States is all about the variation in culture and upbringing of its people. The differences in cultures and beliefs have led to the various attitudes on eating.
 
According to Fitchen, the people who seem poor enough to qualify for government-issued food stamps may be seen in food stores buying not only the basic cheap staples but also the expensive and popular items such as pizza, potato chips, soda pop,steak meals, and prepared desserts (p.387). Fitchen explicates that the  low-income people maybe seeking to satisfy subjective as well as metabolic aspects of eating, perhaps attempting to convert their perceived hunger into a sense of well-being or to affirm that they can live like other Americans  (p.387).

The sociological and cultural ideologies behind hunger suggest that food is an influential indicator of social status and gives people the right to maintain the wealthy stigma that has long been imposed to the to Americans.  Although domestic hunger in the United States has been overlooked by people who believes in the stigma that Americans can have whatever they want in life, hunger and malnutrition are lurking in nation as seen through the eyes of the Americans who do not have the access to the countrys supply of food.

Fitchen explains that even with the food crisis, there are people who may  inadvertently be transforming their hunger into malnutrition and also hiding their hunger  from public awareness  (p.387). In this realization, it can be said that food and eating are grounded in feelings about self, interpersonal relationships, dreams and goals, and these factors are shaped by the dominant culture (Fitchen 394). The dominant culture in the American setting are all about luxury and abundance and poor people are wanting to have them through the purchase of  food meant for rich people in accordance with the established cultural order. The cultural aspect of hunger depicts the hidden desires of the poor to level with the wealthy people and to disturb the widely accepted social concepts such as steak is for rich people while cheese is for the poor.

2. Food as an Ideological State Apparatus
In 1971, Louis Althusser defined that the Ideological State Apparatus is the  conceptualization of power as a force which operates in ways that are subtle, disguised, and accepted as everyday social practice  (Allison 297). According to Anne Allison, the scholarship of Althusser reveals that the obento lunch box can be a dominant ideological apparatus because it is a representation of the domestic role of women and their service to their families.  The obentos or boxed lunches are Japanese meals made by Japanese mothers who were governed by the obento-making principles which include freshness, beauty, nutrition and artistry.

The obentos were made by mothers for their children who would have to consume the obento at school. According to Allison,  the obento as a routine, task, and art form of nursery school culture is endowed with ideological and gendered meanings that the state indirectly manipulates  (p. 297). Allisons thesis means that the Japanese lunch boxes are a part of  how the Japanese government  conditions, molds, and shapes both the mother and the child to obey and follow state power.

The obentos are not just meals, they are elaborate meals crafted systematically by mothers and are carried by their children to school and by adults to work. In this sense, it can be said that the obentos are a visible proof of how the Japanese government manipulates the society according to gender and societal order. The ideological appropriation behind the obento is that there should be an order to the food  a right way of doing things, with everything in its place and each food coordinated with every other and, the one who prepares the food takes on the responsibility of producing food to the standards of perfection and exactness that Japanese cuisine demands (Allison 300). The obento creates a picture of mothers as producers of meals for the family and also establishes the fact that the food is an apparatus utilized by the country to manipulate the society to be able to maintain social order, gender roles, and the nations culture.

3. Food as Part of a Mass Culture
It is an accepted fact that the doughnut is perceived to be the unofficial national food of Canada (Penfold 165). It is believed that doughnuts represent the history, struggle and desire of the nation as it tries to establish itself in the map through the utilization of mass culture. In this information, it can be argued that food can become one of the catalysts in forming a nations distinctive identity because it unifies its people towards a common goal, common taste, common preferences and common ideologies.

Nutritionists claim that the insatiable craving of Canadians for the doughnut is connected to their need for fatty foods to fight off the Canadian cold (Penfold 167). The cold winter is one of the factors that shape Canadas identity because it is in this season that the nation is able to flourish its capabilities. With this information, doughnuts can represent the identity of a certain individual or nation because it symbolizes trends and cultures. The passion of the Canadian society over doughnuts can be attributed to that  sensible, hard-working bunch who are not easily taken in by the latest food fashions  (Penfold 171).

As doughnuts are meant to signify a common belief, it creates an impact and an effect to the society who has been wanting a visible presentation of that belief amid the rising trends in mass culture. Doughnut populism means that food is a part of the mass culture in which all of its devotees are the ones who shape the nation. Food unifies the nation creating a sole image that consumes the totality of its people, geography, society and culture.

4. Food and its Relationship to Gender
According to Jessamyn Neuhaus, meatloaf has long been characterized by cookbook authors and editors as  a meal a woman could easily prepare for her loved ones a simple main dish best suited for the family dinner table  (p. 87). In this notion, food can signify gender roles and responsibilities.

In the given quote, it can be said that cooking is one of the roles of women as they are the ones serving their loved ones such as their husbands. Another idea instigated by the concept of meatloaf is that women  bore the total responsibility for the familys daily meals and meatloaf, believed to be simple family fare, seemed to belong in womens recipe books and magazines  (Neuhaus 88). Meatloaf can represent the stigma to women as the ones who should maintain the budget of the family and its daily survival.

In the context of mens cooking, it can be said that meatloaf can serve as mens tools in which they can exercise their creativity in cooking. It has been encouraged that men cook because it is their hobby and not because they need to stretch the budget and feed their family. The gendering of cookery, as symbolized by the concept of meatfloaf, dulls the conception of feminism and upholds mens status in terms of art and skills. The gendering of cookery indicates how the society has limited the capabilities of women to domestic roles. It also suggests that men are meant for leisure and fun and not for serious roles.

Internet regulation
The internet has existed as an open network in the US working under the net neutrality principle for quite some time. Whether or not the internet needs regulation as it is the case with the other types of media is an issue that is subject to debate since there are both merits and demerits involved.

Currently, there are several laws operating in the country for curbing issues related to child pornography over the internet as well as several other activities that are illegal. However, there are various organizations and individuals who feel that there is need for a complete regulation for the internet. But despite the fact that an absolutely transparent internet has a few demerits, there is much more value in ensuring that the internet is unregulated as much as possible since it is only through such a move that the internet will be more valuable (Hammer, 2005).

A complete internet takeover by either the government or the giants of telecommunication can most likely lead to mass net neutrality violation and will also have the effect of dampening the internets effectiveness. Stringent internet regulation will act against the principle of net neutrality and will permit various websites to restrict their contents to the paid clients. In essence, internet regulation will have the propensity of curbing the expression freedom, which probably is one of the factors that are most conspicuous and instrumental in this mediums popularity and success. For several years, the internet has operated as an information source that is open. Any severe regulation on the internet will imply that there will be restricted access to this source of information that is very extensive (Smith  Boardman, 2007).

A strictly regulated internet in the United States has less value as compared to a free and transparent one. Regulating the internet would have the impact of killing innovation and competition that is crucial in the achievement of more and more, advancements in the internet technology. Most of the great innovations that we celebrate in todays internet started as small and minor tests and experiments but over time, their developers realized that they could be used in achieving certain goals. Should there have been stringent regulation at the initial stages of such innovations, perhaps their developers could have given up and now the country could not be enjoying the numerous benefits that arise from these developments in the internet. At the same time, the well established and wealthy internet providers can take advantage of the regulation rules and procedures to eliminate the much smaller players from the industry. If such practices take place as a result of regulations, eventually competition would also be killed and the internet users in the country would access internet services of a lower quality. It would be more worse if the other nations competing with the United States in terms of internet fail to regulate internet in their countries and thus they will have much more superior internet than that of the United States in the long run since the internet providers will constantly be facing a lot of competition which will make them more innovative and competitive (Hammer, 2005).

Role of time in the cyber world
Civilizing the cyber world is a very important process as it will eventually cover all aspects that are non-technical such as free speech and democracy, universal service, online ethics, encryption and privacy, creating communities, citizen action and intellectual property. However, the cyber world cannot be civilized and expected to achieve all these within one day, some time is required especially due to the fact that cyber world is very dynamic and it changes rather fast. While civilizing the cyber world, a lot of time is needed in achieving a service that is largely universal, which avoids as much as possible creating information differences for the haves and the have nots. It should not be seen to perpetrate discrimination or any other vice among the worlds societies. It is necessary for the cyber world development be given time in order to ensure that it does not develop in a manner that does not protect privacy of individuals and organizations, or avert erosion of civil liberties and free speech (Fischer  Mullins, 2006).

As it is currently evident, the cyber world has in the recent history been very instrumental in creating a telecommunication which has played a great role in strengthening communities and democracy. However, the cyber world has consumed substantial amount of time in order for it to attain these great achievements instead of it just acting as a simple instrument of media manipulation in a new way. It is therefore evident that more time is required for this particular world to be civilized especially because this process is largely continuous and it is greatly affected by the developments taking place in it. Furthermore, civilization of the cyber world will require more time in order for it to be able to protect adequately the standards of living of people particularly in todays multinational economy (Kokswijk, 2007).

Laws have always been enacted by various societies around the world to govern people according to the prevailing circumstances. In the past, there were basically no laws at all which to regulate the cyber world since it did not exist. But over time, it was apparent that laws were required to regulate this world since it became evident that individuals and organizations were deviating from the norm through the use of the internet. As the cyber world continued to change due to its high dynamism, the initial laws had to be amended to cater for the new and emerging dimensions of this world. Time is therefore a very crucial resource in the development of laws to govern this particular world since it is not possible to enact fixed laws for governing and regulating certain dimensions that are currently not known (Fischer  Mullins, 2006).

Copyright infringement
It is not only possible but it also easy for one to infringe the intellectual property rights while performing some analysis on a program that belongs to a competitor. In fact, it is highly risky for a program to be analyzed by ones competitor. The party with the responsibility of analyzing such a program may illegally copy certain aspects of the program with the intention of using them to develop another program. This would amount to infringing the copyrights of the original owner since, there is no consent between the parties allowing the analyzer to copy either all or part of the programs content with the objective of using them later as their own. Despite the fact that it is unethical for the individual or corporation analyzing the program to infringe the copyrights of the owner, there are several factors that would lure such an individual or organization to infringe the rights of the owner (Ross, 2000).

One of the major factors that can lure the party analyzing the program is to use it to harm the original owner since they are both competitors in the same industry. The victim in this case would eventually suffer great losses and loss in terms of competitiveness to other competitors since some of its confidential information is in the wrong hands. It is possible for the party analyzing the program to use the same program or make some slight changes on it to damage the reputation of the copyright owner. The most common factor that would lure a party into infringing the copyrights of the competitor is financial gain. The party is likely to develop another program using the stolen details of the original program to develop another program, which closely resembles the original program. Since the latter program will not have employed a lot of resources in developing the program, it is most likely that the program will be sold at a much lower price than the original one. Because both programs would be capable of performing similar functions, the cheaper one would be sold more than the original one making the copyright owner to lose substantially (Quinto, 2001).

Future and ethics
As more technological advancements are achieved, more complications are experienced in the world ethics. Technology has offered individuals and organizations an extensive platform on which to compromise on ethics. Technology has made unethical behaviors to be carried out with a lot of ease. Since the technology is developing very fast, there will be even more unethical practices that will be conducted in future. Internet ethics is further complicated by the fact that it is possible to perpetrate an unethical act on someone without actually meeting them physically. The internet technology makes it possible for millions of internet users around the world to access intellectual properties of other people which are copyrighted. It is also easy to download some of these properties and use them as your own thus making their owners to lose substantially despite having employed a lot of resources and time in order to come up with such works (Cavalier, 2005 Zittrain, 2009).

Internet filter
Internet filter is the control measure on the internet that is mostly used in controlling the contents that are found in the internet. The internet filter ensures that any software that needs to be installed is actually installed by the use of a web browser. In so doing, the internet filter makes sure that only the software that meets all the required standards are installed and available on the internet. The software has to authenticated and verified by the internet filter thereby implying that it is the only the original owners of such pieces of work with the right of installing them. Furthermore, the internet filter denies unauthorized individuals a chance of downloading the entire software and using them as their own (Deibert, 2008).

Moreover, the internet filter has facilities that deny unqualified individuals the right to access various websites through the internet which contains offensive of unsuitable materials. This particular measure ensures that the right people are able to access the right information over the internet at the right time. The facility is therefore a very important tool in promoting internet ethics as it reduces chances of people accessing and using certain pieces of information to infringe the rights of others (Eyerdam, 2003).

Rupert Murdoch is an Australian-born media mogul who has continuously topped the 100 most influential people list for over three years beating an assortment of politicians, entrepreneurs, sports stars and media personalities from all over Australia (Butler). Murdoch made a fortune developing media ventures into leaders in the sector. He is a leading shareholder and the Managing Director of News Corporation which is one of the most influential and largest media corporations in the entire world (Butler). His interests also include some of the most influential media houses and publications in his country of birth Australia, his adopted country the United States of America and the United Kingdom.

Murdoch inherited his love for the media from his father Sir Keith Murdoch who rose through the ranks to become the most influential print media executive in his time. He was the director of the Herald newspaper and the Weekly Times, both based in Melbourne, Australia (Butler). Rupert, born in the year 1931 in Melbourne was mainly brought up in the United Kingdom even acquiring university education there at Oxford University. He only returned to Melbourne after his fathers death in 1952 to take over his interests. He aggressively established himself and quickly became a force to reckon with in the Australian media, leading the newspapers his father had left to greater heights and acquiring new ventures along the way.

Rupert Murdoch managed to become even more famous after he moved to Britain in the 1960s where he acquired the most affluent media houses there. As one of the most prominent investors in mainstream media, Murdoch was always in the news and he was an inspiration because of his successes in the media sector, as well quite influential in politics (Center for American progress). Being a hard worker, he became the role model of so many people and aspiring entrepreneurs and his affluence grew the more. By the mid 1970s, Rupert Murdoch had acquired most of the leading newspapers in Australia including the famous Sydney Daily Telegraph, effectively establishing himself firmly among the leading three newspaper investors in the whole of Australia.

The single achievement that has pushed Murdoch up the heights of influence is his determination and resoluteness that has seen him transform the News Corporation into a giant media company one of the most influential newsgroups in the entire globe from humble beginnings in the form of a newspaper in Melbourne, Australia (Tuccille, 121). Always jovial and a lover of good things and power, Rupert Murdoch is a friend to most influential sports stars and entertainment celebrities, endearing him even more to people. When Nicole Kidman wedded Keith Urban in one of the most star-studded wedding ceremonies to ever occur in Australia, Rupert Murdoch was seated in the highest table, clearly an indication of his influence and social affluence.

To further enhance his media portfolio and exert his influence in the entertainment industry, Murdoch is successfully replicating the success rates he has had so far in the television and newspaper business in digital multimedia. He transforms media houses into powerhouses when he acquired MySpace for a mere 580 million US Dollars in 2005, very few people could have imagined that 5 years down the line, the site would have over 117 million users throughout the entire world raking in up to almost 1 billion US dollars annually as revenue (Center for American Progress). MySpace has now signed deals with content copyright owners enabling it to become a web portal for all types of digital multimedia entertainment content airing the favorite television shows and other programming.

Rupert Murdoch is renown the world over as being among the people who have done much to significantly mould the media as we know it today- in fact, Murdochs effect and contribution on the media and entertainment industries is hard to measure. Since 1952, Murdoch has managed to create a mammoth of a media organization that seems to advance from strength to strength, acquiring significant shares in the market at home and in many other nations throughout the entire world (Butler). Through innovation, he has managed to do what other media investors have failed to do tap into the lucrative Middle and Far East markets. An example is his News Corporations acquisition of large market shares in the Chinese market where the other big players owned from the west had failed to make an impact (Center for American Progress).

With his personal worth estimated to be to the tune of an impressive 7 billion US dollars, Rupert Murdoch is definitely one of the most outstanding success stories of the new age (Butler). His sheer determination has won him a lot of accolades and public sympathy even when his personal life was in shambles. His first two marriages failed, and in 1998 after divorcing Anna Murdoch who previously worked for him, he met and fell in love with Wendi Deng, also working for him and 40 years younger than he. They married soon afterwards. Critics from Australia have condemned that Rupert Murdoch should be given the title of the most influential Australian ever even after taking up American citizenship, but he pointed out that he took up American citizenship so that he could be better placed to pursue his media interests in the American market. Nevertheless, Murdoch has had much influence in politics showing open support as well as funding the republicans.

Introduction
Smoking is injurious to health  even though this prohibition or warning flares from sleek cigarette packs all over the world, the tobacco abuse rates are consistent, if not on the rise. Today, smoking implies burning and inhalation of more substances than just tobacco. The recreational drug abuse or the intake of drugs, such as cocaine and opium, is included in the meaning of the term smoking. It started to be associated with adolescence and stress. However, the world society is now widely facing the problem of passive smoking and lung cancer. As stated by Warner (1986) in order to work towards the society free of seductive enticements the awareness and the prohibition methods must be applied. Considering the problem of addiction from the perspective of discrimination highlights the pros and cons associated with the vice.

The Pros
According to Scott D. Balun, the vice president and legislative counsel of the American Heart Association, to use the industrys (tobacco) own rhetoric, Enough is enough, is in fact, balancing on the flip side of the coin. The need to address the named problem within the industry also resounds in the society as a whole. Though the fact remains that smoking kills millions of lives each year, another supportive aspect is the free promotion of the vice  on the celluloid, idiot box and even the backstage coverage of the international ramps. The deliberation in support of the vice completely spotlights the statistics that reveal 390,000 deaths annually due to the vice, in the US alone. The easy access and stress related needs of the adolescents the world over makes the advertising themes of the tobacco industry pretty alluring. The widespread coverage via jingles and advertisements in magazines, newspapers and billboards has given the vice such epithets  seductive, successful and even sophisticated. Considering the kind of stress that challenges the youth, the advertising code encourages them to take up the vice in a way. Smoking is also considered a good psychological escape for self-expression and most of the time a conditioned reflex (Dichter 1947). The need to feel rewarded, be accepted by peers and to handle stress are among the many reasons, enumerated by enthusiasts during clinical research.

Cons
Even though tobacco companies are often suited, it is broadly accepted that the governments should take steps to reduce the demand for the product the addiction to which is harmful to the human health through ad restrictions (Arthur B. Spitzer). This comes mainly from the fact that drug, tobacco and other powdered substances abuse results in the development of several life threatening diseases and premature death.  These are life threatening consequences that the society at large does not accept, and rightly so. If you take the cigarette smoking as such, it is evident how addictive smoking is.

Understanding this development it is mandatory for the society to question the availability of the product. It is imperative to regulate the product manufacturing and sales rates to uproot and curb the vice. The prohibition on advertising and promotion of cigarettes is a start with momentum that totally depends on increased public awareness. Today, the youth all around the world is succumbing to the feud between the political and economic paradigms around the cigarette smoking. It is high time that the more aware take a stand and address the related health and welfare issues. The education on statistics and rehab scenarios from within the walls of the medical fraternity screams out facts and figures everyday. According to the WHO, 1.8 million men and 0.3 million women in developing countries and 1.6 and 0.5 million respectively from industrialized nations succumb to the vice each year (httpwww.who.inttobaccoenatlas11.pdf, 17.35-25.2.2010). With researched statistics, such as this there is no doubt that the vice has become a global concern today.

The increased profit at the risk of threatening the public health is an arena the educated people need to question. Gone are the post World War II and Cold War societies where we could blame it all on trances andor spirituality. Irrespective of the pressure or stress that are identified as trigger factors in adopting the vice, health care is a human right and the passivesmokers certainly deserve better.

I think that some gender roles are inborn and some are learned.
 Women tend to be soft, emotional and weak compared to their male counterparts. They also seem to be attracted to men with lower voices. Men  on the other hand are strongly built, less emotional and seem to be attracted to women with higher voices. When a child is still young,  it could be both inborn and learned because a female child seems to or she tends to believe that a girl should play with a doll and a boy should play with a ball. They prefer a doll compared to a male child but on the other hand the environment could be the cause of these preferences. Our parents buy us the toys and we grow up believing that certain things are meant for girls whereas some are meant for boys. Examples of gender roles that are learned are our walking style, dressing style and our general behavior. When growing up, girls learn how to dress in a certain way depending on what they see their elders doing. They also learn to sit in a certain way, walk appropriately and how to behave around men whereas men learn how to behave like a man.

Gender identity refers ones identification with regards to being male or female. There are people who undergo gender role conflicts. For example in the African community, men are the breadwinners hence they should provide for the entire family. Failure to do so leads to resentment by members of the society which may lead to psychological problems on the part of the man or low self-esteem. Women on the hand are expected to reproduce and if they are not able to do so members of the society look down upon them which also leads to problems. There are some jobs which are male oriented while some are female oriented. Men who are found working in female oriented jobs are treated unfairly by members of the society and vice-versa.

Puberty is a stage in life and each one of us has to go through it. When I reached puberty I realized some changes in my body. My hips widened, my bust grew bigger, I experienced my first period and many other signs. Because some people reach puberty earlier than others, it always has a negative impact on the ones who go through this early. Most girls tend to hide their growing breasts from others or they hide the fact that they are having their periods. One seems to be isolating from others because she is embarrassed. Teenagers at this time also seem to be having mood swings which may lead to problems with the people around them and mostly it is the parents who have problems with them because the teenagers do things opposite from what is expected of them. During this period the boys and girls start to develop romantic feelings for each other. They do not play together like they used to when they were younger. They fear each other in a way because of the changes happening in their bodies.

Gender stereo typing is a situation whereby all the top positions are assumed to belong to the men. Even though women are working extra hard to succeed, men are still occupying the best positions be it in a company or the Government. There are women who are ministers, professors or even prime ministers but the number is still low. In a classroom situation, you will find that boys pick the science subjects because it is believed that only boys excel in these subjects. There are some women who excel in Mathematics and sciences but nobody seems to be recognizing them due to the fact that boys do better than girls. I have never experienced this directly but I have heard about it and so I would not say I am a victim of gender stereo typing.

I would say I am a feminist because I always want the women to be seen as important members of the society. In many circumstances women are treated as the weaker sex and so we are only seen as mothers and our office should be in the kitchen. Our opinions are not taken seriously so that no matter what we say it does not matter. I work hard as a woman so that I become an important member of the society but it seems that no matter what I do the men will still look down upon me. I think going through the pain of giving birth and taking care of the children should earn the women respect. It is high time men realized that without women there would be no men.

I think the mens movement is a very good idea because it brings the men together to see how they can improve their livelihood and how to defend themselves in case of anything. They come up with projects to improve their finances. There are situations in the Judicial system which tends to favor the women because people seem to believe that men are the ones who always commit crimes. With this movement, men are able to come up with ways to defend themselves. Men can also teach themselves on how to be good husbands and fathers. For me this movement is more positive than negative.

Abstract
In this paper I am going to discuss the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education and its impact during the 1960s from two different social science perspectives.  First I will look at this social event through the eyes of a political scientist.  Secondly, I will put myself in the shoes of an anthropologist and try to explain the events that occurred as a result of this judgment.  I will then discuss the implications that this case has for life in the 21st century.

The 1960s was a time of major change in American culture.  Old traditions were being broken and new standards for Civil Rights were being established.  People of every color and race were given equal opportunity in regards to schooling with the judgment in the case Brown vs. the Board of Education.  Schools were now to be integrated instead of segregated based on color.  For some, this inspired hope and belief that one day, race would not be barrier for equal opportunity.  For some, this sparked anger and resentment toward those that were thought to be inferior because of the color of their skin.  The 60s represented a clash between culture and belief systems and the decision of Brown vs. Board was right in the middle of it all.

In this paper I will describe this event and its impact on society from the perspective of a political scientist as well as from an anthropologist.  I will also attempt to answer what impact Brown currently has on modern 21st century life.

Political Science
Political science is defined as a social science concerned with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. (Wikipedia)
The plaintiffs contend that segregated public schools are not equal and that hence they are deprived of the equal protection of the laws. (nationalcenter.org)  This was the basis of the argument toward desegregation of public schools.

Many people were fed up with the dilapidated and understaffed schools designated for colored students and felt that they should have an equal opportunity to public education.

The judgment, which dismantled the legal basis for racial segregation in schools and other public facilities was finalized in 1954, however, even though its impact was
felt afterward, it wasnt until the 1960s that real unrest began to happen.  The southern states had a more difficult time in enforcing the new laws than the northern states did.  Racial segregation was so ingrained in the psyche of the southern half of America that it was difficult to change.

By 1961, South Carolina, Alabama and Mississippi still maintained completely segregated school systems. (loc.gov)  This tells me that it was definitely a difficult transition for the South to fully integrate.  

Riots broke out as a result and there was much political unrest.  A lot of people werent willing to change their belief that people of color would be allowed to go to school with their white children.

When James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi in October of 1962, there were riots resulting in the death of two men as well as over 300 people injured. (loc.gov)  People were obviously upset with the enrollment of a black person to an institute of higher learning.

August 28th, 1963 saw a march on Washington led by the Council for United Civil Rights leadership and issued by Folkway Records.  In this protest, leaders were looking to include public accommodation, decent housing, integrated education and the right to vote (loc.gov) in their fight for equal civil rights.  This was featured in Life Magazine in September 6, 1963.

There were signs of social progress in the 60s as well.  College enrollments began to increase rapidly, especially for African Americans. (Harvey)  And this was a good sign.  It meant that racial minorities were taking advantage of the equal opportunity and choosing to try to make a better life for themselves.  The movement also sparked popularity in folk music and folk singers like Bob Dylan.  They sang for a cause and wrote songs about political unrest and social differences.  The Newport Folk Festival showcased the folk revival and was a place that folk singers and bands from around the country could sing and have their voices heard.  The Freedom Singers sang their song Fighting For My Rights at this event.

Brown, however, was not the first challenge to school segregation.  In 1849 African Americans filed suit against an educational system that mandated racial segregation, in the case of Roberts v. City of Boston.  (brownvboard.org).  However, it was the Brown decision that inspired and galvanized human rights struggles across the country and around the world. (brownvboard.org).

The decision by the courts to allow integration in public schools was definitely a major stepping-stone in the fight for equal civil rights for all.  African Americans were now given an opportunity to attend the same schools as their white counterparts, which, in turn, gave them opportunities for achievement in American society.  In theory, this would allow everyone regardless of skin color the opportunity to the same resources and thus equal opportunity to jobs and social acceptance.  This wasnt a change that came easily.

There was much resistance by those with traditional beliefs, especially in the southern states where segregation was so prominent.  However, thanks to Brown most Americans believe that a racially integrated, ethnically diverse society and educational system is a worthy goal. (americanhistory.si.edu).

Moving forth into todays society, Browns impact is still felt.  It can be easy to take for granted all the hard work that went into making desegregation a reality and it is something that should be celebrated for it marks a pivotal moment in American history in regards to civil rights.  Today, many African Americans take advantage of the opportunities theyve been given them and as well they should.  Brown v. Board laid the groundwork for equal opportunity in America and it should never be forgotten.

Anthropology
Anthropology is the study of humanity (Wikipedia).  What significance did the case of Brown v. Board of Education have in human development  Why was it necessary for this event to take place and what role did it have in shaping Americans perception of civil rights and African Americans  And what do we as Americans do today to keep desegregation alive in our culture

To think of the impact this event must have had on humanity in the 60s, one must put themselves in the shoes of both a white person as well an African American person.  When looking at it from the perspective of a white person who would have a child in the public school system, it must have been a scary concept to allow black children to attend the same school that your own child goes to.  On one hand, you couldve felt good about the positive impact that this would have on those African American kids who didnt have all of the resources that your kid has.  Giving them the same opportunities should only help to enrich their lives right  However, what happens if an African American child graduates and gets a better job than your son or daughter  Realistically, Im not so sure that this happened immediately, however, this must have been something that went through the minds of those who only wanted what was best for their own children.

When thinking from this perspective, I can understand why some people felt very threatened by the effects of Brown.  Life was going to be different.  Those that were dubbed inferior for many centuries were now given equal opportunity in regards to education.  A good education is the cornerstone of a productive citizen.  It is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity of an education. (nationalcenter.org).

If I put myself in the shoes of an African American at this time, I think that I would be excited and inspired by the changes being made and the opportunities that I will be given.  However, I think that I would also be a bit afraid for repercussions as a result.  Would I really be given equal opportunities and, by the way, how is my reception to a new white school going to be taken  Maybe I didnt mind the school I was already attending.  Sure the building was small, dilapidated and understaffed and the materials were outdated but, hey, Ive made friends here.  Where would everyone go  Would we all go to the same school together or would we be separated because everyone had to travel many miles from different towns to get to this black school.  What were the stares going to be like when I went to the white school  But none of that really mattered because, in the end, I will be getting a better education and an opportunity for a higher paying job when I graduated, right

There is much political unrest because Im going to a white school now.  There are a lot of people who dont want me and my friends here.  They want us to go back from where we came from and forget about trying to be equal with them.  How was I supposed to concentrate on my studies when this whirlwind of conflicting political views was taking place

If there was one common denominator between whites and blacks it was uncertainty.  Uncertainty about what the future would hold as far as opportunities given or taken away.  Uncertainty about the safety of the children.  Uncertainty of your own beliefs.  The 60s were definitely a time of upheaval and Brown v. Board of Education was first and foremost at the center of it all.

In looking at the human impact of that event in todays society I am grateful for Brown.  I think it opened peoples eyes to the fact that everyone, regardless of color or nationality, truly deserves equal opportunity if we are to have a civil and fully functional society.  The contributions made by African Americans since the judgment are infinite and without Brown, I dont believe that Barrack Obama would be our president.  Im sure that he is truly grateful for the efforts put forth by those that made desegregation possible.

I think that political science and anthropology are closely linked in that both are social sciences that look at human interaction.  It is not possible to talk about political science and not talk about humanity.  Conversely, its not possible to discuss anthropology without discussing political interactions that occur.  Because of this, one could benefit from looking at a particular event in our history from both a political and anthropological stand point to be able to fully understand the what and why.  The case of Brown v. Board of Education is no different in that regard.

Great strides were definitely made because of this event and it would be difficult to imagine life without this case.  The U.S. Supreme Court decision in Brown began a critical chapter in the maturation of our democracy.  It reaffirmed the sovereign power of the people of the United States in the protection of their natural rights from arbitrary limits and restrictions imposed by state and local governments.  In short, it has helped shape the way that American culture is regarded to this day.

Introduction
White privilege is a complex social phenomenon in which racial inequalities are conceptualized. These inequalities are however focused on the advantages associated with the whites as opposed to the other races including the blacks and the coloreds. The theories associated with white privilege assert that the whites usually do not see anything sinister and sees everything as normal as opposed to being advantaged. Such assumptions have elicited discussions focusing on the disadvantages faced by other racial groupings and what needs to be done in order to bring them at par with the whites. This however orchestrates racial inequality as an issue that does not include the whites. In addressing racial inequality, it is important to bring the whites on board as a group that enjoys the related social advantages as opposed to a normal situation. This paper will look at the concept of white privilege from both perspectives in an effort to come out with a winning formula that will see racial parity be restored.

History
Racial preferences have a long history in the US starting from the colonial era. Racism was somehow institutionalized by the state which came up with repugnant laws to perpetuate the practice. In the 17th century America indentured slaves was a common practice as the European indentured servants were brought to the US which was then a British colony to work in the plantations. This was the pioneer source of forced labor as was practiced by the whites. Most of the indentured servants were however fellow whites who were serving their prison terms working for the Lords who owned huge plantations in the US. Towards the end of the 17th century, the indentured servants in Virginia and Maryland protested only to be replaced by the African slaves. The lower class Europeans begun to enjoy new rights, entitlements, and opportunities from the owners of the plantations and in exchange, they were supposed to give support to the plantation owners and also police the increasing number of slave population (California Newsreel, 2003).

The Naturalization Act of 1790 only recognized what was called as free white persons as eligible to be naturalized as US citizens. This only benefited the white Europeans and not the other racial groupings. There are certain privileges that are associated with citizenship which includes voting rights, holding office, and holding property among others. This is the century that saw the passage of Alien Land Laws in California and other states which allowed for the reservation of farm land for white citizens. The Asian immigrants were locked out since they were not eligible citizens due to their status and thus could not own or lease the land. The immigration limitations also hampered any opportunity for the non-whites. The racial limitations on naturalization remained in place until the McCarran-Walter Act of 1952, but the white racial preferences on immigration issues remained intact until 1965 (California Newsreel, 2003).

The white Americas have continued to enjoy privileges in many matters with great assistance from the US army. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 for instance resulted in the forceful relocation of the Cherokee, Creeks, and other Indian groups in the East to the West of Mississippi River in an effort to create space for the white settlers. In 1862, the Homestead Act was enacted and this caused much relocation than the previous one with the acquisition of the Indian territories west of the Mississippi. In a nutshell, 270 million acreage of land was acquired and converted to individual ownership most of who were white (California Newsreel, 2003).

In the South which witnessed racism at its peak, the government never adopted General Shermans plan that would have divided the plantations amongst freed slaves as a matter of reparations. Only monetary compensations were made but again to the slave masters in compensating for the lost property. The end of the slavery marked the beginning of a legacy that seem to last a life-time. The legacy was to be reflected in both the impoverished conditions of the black Americans and the prosperity associated with the white slave masters. For the more than two centuries of free labor, the slave masters are said to have accrued well over 1trillion at the expense of the slaves. In the South, the Jim Crow laws that were rife in the 19th and early 20th century affected the black people much as discrimination in jobs, neighborhoods, school, and hospitals prevailed (California Newsreel, 2003).
Recent trends in Perpetuating white Privilege

Certain legislations have continued to be passed directing wealth to the white race and continuously bringing life opportunities at their doorsteps. The 1935 Social Security Act granted millions of employees some safety net that could guarantee them some income upon retirement. The Act however, did not include domestic and agricultural workers. This category of workers was predominantly African Americans, Mexicans, and Asians. Their income was so low that they could hardly save for retirement. They had no wealth to pass to their children and instead, the children had the responsibility of looking after their folks in old age. In the same year, the Wagner Act granted the Unions the power to collectively bargain that worked to enable millions of white workers to advance to the middle class in a period of 30 years. The same Act allowed the unions to disregard the non-whites denying them accessibility to well paying jobs. They were also denied protection from the unions and associated privileges such as healthcare, job security, and pensions (California Newsreel, 2003).

The New Deal program commonly referred to as the Federal Housing Administration is responsible for the generation of the wealth that most whites enjoy presently. This program made it possible for the average white Americans to own homes. A national neighborhood appraisal was set by the government that tied eligibility to mortgage on racial connotations. Those communities that had been integrated in the US were seen as a financial risk and thus did not qualify for the home loans. This happened in the 1934 to 62 when the federal government supported the 120 billion for home loans. The program benefited the whites in their majority as it is estimated that 98 of the money went to the whites. Such programs resulted in the new racially segregated white suburbs coming up around the country in the years after the WWII. Subsidies from the government to support the municipalities helped in the development and enhancement of these suburbs that in turn fuelled commercially oriented investments. Suburbs were tied to the Central Business Districts of the cities by freeways that often passed over destroying the vigor of the non white neighborhoods. Nowadays, mortgage applications for the blacks and Latinos is still low with studies showing that these people are 60 more likely to be turned down when they apply for the mortgages (California Newsreel, 2003).

White Privilege
White privilege is a very complex aspect of social phenomenon. All the people that belong to the white race have white privilege of some sort. White privilege is usually takes certain general patterns depending on the context and other aspects regarding an individuals identity (Jensen, 1998). Most whites however are not conscious of the existence of the white privilege and it looks normal in regard to the preferential treatment they get. According to Jensen

Perhaps most importantly, when I seek admission to a university, apply for a job, or hunt for an apartment, I dont look threatening. Almost all of the people evaluating me for those things look like me--they are white. They see in me a reflection of themselves, and in a racist world that is an advantage (Jensen, 1998, Para 10).

Jensen is not alone in this as most white people thinks that they are living in a colorblind era where there are no racial connotations. The white privilege can be attributed to the unconscious mind knowing that the whites are brought up to think of their lives as morally neutral, normative, and average, and also ideal, so that we work to benefit others, this is seen as work that will allow them to be more like us (McIntosh, 2010, Para 8). McIntosh goes further to liken the white privilege thing to an invisible package of yet to be earned assets that the whites are presented with. A situation presented in a sociological class with mixed race under the guidance of their tutor had a white student claiming that the black Americans do not maximize on the opportunities that they are presented with as she claimed to know a black American who was doing pretty well (Pjazzypar, 2009).

To understand the existence of the white privilege we need to reflect on the little this that happen unnoticed that in reality shows reflects on the existence of racial privileges. What the current white population is doing is but just reaping the rewards of racial preferences that were accorded to their parents who are long gone. Christine Sleeter gives her expelling example drawing from her grandfather who was a painter and a wallpaper hanger but was able to buy property, renovate, and then sell at a profit. Despite the grandfather having only second grade education, he was able to acquire property and do well in life, thanks to the New Deal programs. She recognizes the presence of white privilege and roots for multicultural education as the only best way of solving the problem. To her multiculturalism should go further than knowing and appreciating of the other races culture but should address the issue of accessibility to the opportunities presented by the society in which case quality education should be made available to everyone in spite of the racial differences (Rethinking Schools, 2010).

White privilege can be traced in trivial things that we usually let pass without a second thought. Tim Wise gives a good insight of what can be referred to as white privilege. He elaborates that white privilege is to be found in such matters as careless use of vulgar language that is common to the whites and generally defending actions that are an eyesore to the public. He uses the Palins example to put across his facts by drawing from the events that hit the family during the 2008 Elections. He points out to actions like Bristol Palin getting pregnant at a tender age of 17 can be viewed as a private issue that should not bother anyone outside the family. Wise continues to point out to several incidences that the Palins were engaged in without raising controversy (Wise, 2008).

Conclusion
Living in denial that white privilege does not exist is a fallacy. Preferential racial treatment for the whites has resulted in typical white families basking in wealth believed to be more than eight folds in comparison to the any typical African American family. The familys net-worth provides a base for the succeeding generation and therefore those privileged will have access to good opportunities in life as the cycle is perpetuated. The privileges that were enjoyed by the whites have been able to be passed out to their generations resulting in the existence of the well gap between the races that seem never to be ending. Many whites have always denied that racial preferences have never affected the American society. They even accuse the non-whites of using the race card in advancing themselves. There should be color-blind policies aimed at uplifting the minority groups that were disadvantaged by the racial preferences accorded to the whites of yester-years. It is unfortunate that color-blinded ness is used to bolster the unjust advantages that color-coded practices enable the whites to long for accrual.