Sociology

Argument of the study
The study under review, Can Men Mother Life as a Single Father by Barbara J. Risman, takes  issue of the effectiveness of single fathers as it announces in the very first line that the present study addresses the question of focus on single fathers (Risman, 1986, p.95). It argues that mothering is not an exclusively female task (Risman, 1986, p.95) and states the  argument for conducting the study because more children than ever before are living- at least part of the time- with divorced fathers (Risman, 1986, p.95).
   
Previous Research
The study includes previous research to help support the importance of the study as the research on the roles of single fathers had started in 1960s and, as Risman states, in Canada, Australia, England and the United States researches were conducted but the limitation of the previous studies was that they were descriptive owing to the reason that the methods, samples and therefore results differ dramatically by geographical region (Risman, 1986, p.96).

Researcher Bias
The study contains researcher bias as it becomes evident when the participants selected for the study are mainly white while the population of the U.S or even in the states, where the study was mainly conducted, is comprised of people from diverse community. The sample does not represent the population to whom the study may have some importance. The reason for researcher bias is neither reflected in the discussion in the study nor does the researcher herself state the reason as what makes her to select white majority as participants to study the single fathers population.

Important Concepts
The study revisits the important concepts of individualist and structuralist theories which are important to identify whether single fathers can be viable primary caretakers for young children (Risman, 1986, p.95). The individualist theory is defined as a predictor of a single fathers lack of motivation and expressive skills in the provision of intense intimacy necessary for young children (Risman, 1986, p.96). While the researcher defines structuralist theory as it suggests that social context mainly determines the role of a single father.

Staement of Purpose
The study does not include a clearly written statement of purpose where the researcher would have ushered the purpose of the study. In addition the researcher does not identify the type of study but it becomes evident when the result section is analyzed that the research is quantitative in its very nature. As the mean response of the fathers rating of childs self disclosure evinces that the results of the survey were quantified that makes the study a quantitative one (Risman, 1986, p.99). In the study the population that is being studied is discussed in detail in methodology section (Risman, 1986, p.97-98).

Technical Terms
It does not use any technical terms as the only key terms are child custody, gender roles, single fathers and single parents (Risman, 1986, p.95).

Argument
The research is based on the argument that is developed in the literature review but she goes on to discuss theories in such a diverse way that the reader is detached from the main argument. She admits that she would commence her study with the discussion of previously held theories regarding the research objective as she sides with the conclusion that if the previous literature is analyzed, it comes to light that structuralist theory provides a better explanation than individualist theory for the experiences of single fathers (Risman, 1986, p.95).

Methods
Sampling and issues involved in sampling
The sample used for the study is large and diverse so that to disentangle the independent effects of economic status from reasons for father custody on fathers perception of their role in life as single parents (Risman, 1986, p.97). One hundred and forteen single fathers were selected as a sample. The researcher announces in the discussion of methodology that she has avoided sampling and therefore only the respondents who were identifiable via social serice agencies or parenting associations were included as the target to whom the questionnaire were distributed (Risman, 1986, p.97). The questionnaire was distributed among two hundred eighty one single fathers and one hundred forty one returned the survey. The criteria for sample selection is not stated by the researcher but she reports that ninty per cent of the single fathers in the study were white (Risman, 1986, p.98).

The researcher first discusses the data collection techniques and then the resultant sample characteristics (Risman, 1986, p.97). The researcher announces that the sampling was avoided as only the respondents who were identifiable through social service agencies or parenting associations were used as the participants.The press releases were distributed to Washington state and national media. Among the 281only 141 returned the questionnaires of the survey.

When the researcher reports that 90 of the participants were white, the authenticity of the sampling tends to undermine. The reason for dissatisfaction over the sampling is that the black and brown community is not a minority any more and when their large population is ignored in the study the findings become vulnerable to criticism.

Results
Analysis of the Data
The analysis of the data is related to the techniques of data collection in the way that the data was collected by receiving responses in the form of questionnaire from the respondents, so it was analyzed through obtaining the mean, average, rating of the responses. For example, to gain the average rating about fathers rating of childs self disclosure, mean response on sadness, anger at father, loneliness, etc., were analyzed (Risman, 1986, p.99). In the discussion of the impact of social class the researches analyzes the data as she states that over half of the most wealthy men (57.6) hire outside help for housekeeping, in cooking dinner they are likely to hire help (tau b  .15, p .05) (Risman, 1986, p.100).

Findings
The major finding of the study is single fathers prove to be effective in mothering their children and that most men felt comfortable and competent as single parents (Risman, 1986, p.95). Moreover Rasmins study correlates with the findings of the previous researches as well suggesting that at least in their own perceptions, costudial fathers are competent as primary parents (Risman, 1986, p.101). In addition the study suggests that childhood experiences and sex roles do not create inflexible gender typed behavorial patterns (Risman, 1986, p. 101).

Limitations
The researcher does not state the limitations of the study neither she leaves any space for the critics to identify the limitations as she states the implications of her results as well (Risman, 1986, p.101-102). Rather the researcher ends the study with an optimist note that the research presented here should reassure single fathers that mothering is not an exclusively female skill (Risman, 1986, p.102).

Personal Opinion
By reviewing the article a very interesting point comes to light, which is one of the findings of the researcher as well, that the role of single fathers is as important as that of single mothers. The government of the U.S has often announced various programs to support the single mothers but single fathers are subsided in the discussion of the parenthood although single fathers can perform the dual role of a father and of a mother while nourishing the child.

Strengths and Weaknesses
Although the researcher attempts successfully to address the issues raised in the beginning of the research, the study is not complete in its entirety as the sampling criterion is ambiguous. Moreover the analysis of data does not cover all the concerns. If the completeness of the study is analyzed in terms of the research concepts, it comes to light that the few concepts discussed in the study, e.g. individualist theory and structuralist theory, are defined comprehensively. The researcher identifies a major weakness in the past research as most researches have been exploratory with small and homogenous samples (Risman, 1986, p.97). She identifies further that the previous American study lacks a large and diverse sample which she used in her study (Risman, 1986, p.97).

The researcher postpones the sampling strategies by referring to some other article as she states that a detailed discussion of sampling strategies is available elsewhere (Risman, 1986, p.97) which would have been helpful to the readers. Another important point about the review is that the journal article chosen for the review was published many years ago, in 1986, but this must not imply that the study lacks authenticity. The study focuses on the issues which were later researched by other researchers, thus it opened the road for new researches. The central limitation identified in the research is regarding the sampling criterion as the sample does not represent the population therefore it becomes difficult to trust the results and to generalize the results. But the researcher gives the theoretical and practical implications in her conclusion that is the strength of the study.

Deviance is defined as the recognized violation of cultural norms (Lecture Deviance).  In a certain society, one is considered a deviant if he  she goes against what is dictated as normal or customary.
Deviance does not necessarily connote acquiring a negative attitude or habit.  Its just that during the adolescent or the teen years, when hormones are raging, and rebelliousness is an unknown term, trying everything seems to be fun and exciting.  Add to this the concepts of peer pressure and influence, and the formula is complete  a deviant is made.

I have been a good daughter all my life.  I am 16 years old, a college freshman, and a diligent student.  I have a balanced lifestyle, and I assist in the family business during my free time.  I come from a conservative family and am focused on what I want to do with my life.  I love to read, and Im interested to learn new things.  Last year, I chanced upon a book on how to do wine mixes.  I saved up for the things I needed, and I got to prepare the cocktails I wanted Tequila Sunrise, Margarita, Rhum Cola, Zombie and Vodka Tonic.  I intended to be a bartender someday.  My father saw what I was doing and it gets him fuming mad.  He throws away everything I had so conscientiously saved up for.  He thinks that I am starting to be a rebel, blamed my friends for influencing me, and he forbids me from doing this any further.  In terms of Social Interaction Analysis, I was being labeled a rebel, and unjustly accused that my peers were an influencing factor for my actions (Lecture  Deviance) 
I then start to be a rebel from then on.  I was prejudged as a rebel, so I became a rebel (Lecture  Deviance).  I went out to meet new friends, started drinking, smoking, going to bars, and going home late.  Later, I got my ear pierced, and a tattoo done on my arms and legs.  Luckily, nothing else happened to me, and I have realized it just in time.
    
Was I being a deviant  It depends on the point of view.  For my family, I may have been a deviant, but for me, the deed was anything but sinful.  The initial wine drinking may have been wrong because I was still a minor, but it was done on the context of learning, and not just for the sake of drinking alcohol.  The actual deviant behavior was manifested when I started to smoke, drink, hang out with friends, stay up late, the ear-piercing and the tattoo procedures.  My peers did not influence me to do this, it was a self-made decision.  I also thought that I didnt want to disappoint my mom (Control Theory, Lecture  Deviance) but I wanted to rebel against my dad so I went on with it.

At this time, however, I have realized my lesson and I want to put direction in my life.  I no longer want to be a deviant because I believe that I have already matured and I feel I can already handle bigger responsibilities.             

Glen Clark on equality and sexuality
I agree on the British Columbia premiers thoughts on homosexuality specifically his take
on same-sex marriage. Relating this idea, I believe that it is now time to set aside non-humanitarian factors that cause ongoing homosexual battles, instead grant the heart of laws of U.S. and Canada. The emphasis in Constitution and Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms pertains to liberty and equal rights. The governments of these countries are therefore obliged to give the same civil rights and acknowledge legal benefits of heterosexual couples to homosexual couples such as inheritance, taxes and health pension. A common marriage regardless of sexuality should be highly considered because law applies to all, regardless of sexuality, too.

The U.S., one of the countries which do not completely legalize same-sex marriage, is
afraid to endorse gay marriage for religious reasons and historical roots (Mazzuca, 2004). The seemingly conservative attitude of U.S. gradually loses when starting in 2000, Vermont and six other states recognized gay civil unions and same-sex marriages. When I was having an in-depth research of the countrys legality constraints, I read that in 2003, a gay man became a bishop in an American church (Homosexuality, 2008). This means, to my understanding, the country can neglect the conventional way of society which contributes to an impression that it can then regard gay marriage given officials especially religious figures have began revealing its trend.

Is the timeline in legalizing gay marriages an example of cultural lag
I dont think the delay in legalizing gay marriages in some countries is an example of
cultural lag. Coined by sociologist William Ogburn, cultural lag is defined as a period of maladjustment that occurs when the non-material culture is struggling to adapt to a new material conditions. The gap in timeline in the issue of permitting same-sex marriage has no association with any form of innovation that fuels societal discussions and conflicts. However, it is true and evident that the legality of same-sex marriage, that is until now is not fully established in leading countries U.S. and Canada, has been creating debates in our society.

The new health care reform bill provides a new national approach to health care and initiates some important changes worth taking note of. The new bill is a good piece of health care legislation for a few very important reasons. For one, it provides health coverage for millions more people, whether they want it or not. This is good for society at large, and helps to improve the quality of life for everyone. Additionally, the bill is a good one because it is estimated to cut the national deficit by cleaning up some of the fraud and misappropriation that has been rampant in the health care industry. Additionally, the bill seeks to provide a higher standard of care and will include more people who might have been precluded because of pre-existing conditions. All of these factors combine to make the new health care reform bill one that will be positive for society over the next decade and beyond.

According to the New York Times, The landmark bill signed by Mr. Obama will provide coverage to an estimated 30 million people who currently lack it (New York Times, 2010). Additionally, the bill works because it provides a way for people without the means to purchase insurance to get a piece of the pie. Because requiring these people to get health care on their own accord would be an unrealistic request, the government has taken steps to establish credits for people who need them. The Times wrote that the bill would subsidize private coverage for low- and middle-income people (New York Times, 2010). This is an important consideration, and had been one of the primary concerns of many as they approached this new bill with a sense of pessimism. By providing these people with a legitimate way to get health care insurance without having to break the bank, the new bill succeeds on a number of different levels.

Additionally, one cannot look at the health care bill without also looking at the impact that it might have on the economy. With the deficit soaring, this is a bill that is expected to cut more than one hundred fifty billion dollars off of the national deficit. That is a significant amount of money and it will help the government move forward with other initiatives. An article from the University of Pennsylvanias Wharton School of Business indicates that there is still some dissension over the bill and that the cost cutting measures are still somewhat uncertain (Wharton, 2010). Though many of the realities of the bill will not be known for many years to come, it is clear that this reform takes steps in the right direction, and at the very least begins a meaningful dialogue on the future of the nations medical system.

One final reason why this health care initiative is a good one has to do with the level of care provided. One of the chief considerations for Obama and company was making sure that people could still get affordable coverage, regardless of pre-existing conditions. That has been written into the law and will be required of private insurance companies. Additionally, the bill establishes a minimum level of care that must be provided by these insurers, though it does not cap the amount of medical service provided. Increasing the level and proficiency of care is always a good thing and should prove to be meaningful in the not so distant future.

In all, the bill makes strides toward a solid destination. Though it is not perfect, the fact that it provides health insurance for more than thirty million Americans who did not have it is a definite plus. The cutting of health industry waste is another important step, as is the bills insistence on a higher medical standard. All of these changes may be shocking in the beginning, but they will prove to be beneficial as time goes by.

Hip-Hop is generally defined by its internal contradictions. These contradictions keep a culture alive, pushing it forward in reaction to multiple social stimuli. The contradicting elements in hip-hop give a culture the distinct mark of idealism and to some extent deviance. In general, the contradictions in hip-hop are as follows the group vs. the individual, the society vs. the group, life vs. death, indifference vs. social action, variety vs. uniformity, and obedience vs. freedom of action.

In the song, My Chick Bad, two contemporary issues are discussed the whiteblack women divide and social preference. The song starts with the words my chick bad, my chick hood, my chick do stuff dat ya chick wish she could. This refers to the stereotype African American woman. The African-American woman has a nasty but strong stereotype. According to Gilels (2003), the African-American woman is always depicted in movies as a sexual appendage of a black gangster  a part of the whole melodrama of black inferiority. Gilels (200324) noted that the African-American woman has a strong-self ordeal (stereotype), in contrast to the white woman who is vivacious but weak.

In the song, this stereotype is reinforced. Note the following words from the song she always bring the racket like Venus and Serena all white top, all white belt and all white jeans, body looking like milk  now your girl might be sick but my girl be sicker (My Chick Bad). The African-American woman is a strong-willed individual, in contrast to the white woman who is sublime and condescending. 

The song is generally popular with African-Americans because it defines their history, identity, and social preference. The song is, from a narrow perspective, a history of social differentiation. It is a narrative of the blackwhite divide. Moreover, the song is a reference to an established identity  an identity which cherishes social equality and creativity. Perhaps more than history and identity, the song is an expression of social preference. Because the artist is an African-American, then his choice will also be an African-American. As such, the artist tends to focus on the positivegood characteristics of the African-American woman. The song is not necessarily biased against the white woman.

Social differentiation has deep roots in American culture. It defines both history and identity. The artist was well aware of the social implications of the song. A careful reading of the song reveals 1) a general reference to black culture, 2) the relative dominance of white values in American society, and the 3) loose differentiation between the African-American woman and the white woman.

As discussed above, the issues in the song are the preponderance of the blackwhite woman divide and social preference. A sociological analysis would look like this. We make a preemptive analysis of the song, based on three criteria (issue urgency, complexity, and relevance). Next, we will examine other hip-hop songs composed by the same artist. The idea is to find similarities and differences among the songs. A good sociological analysis utilizes across-the-object studies. We will examine other hip-hop songs not necessarily composed by the same artist. The purpose is to determine whether there is a continuous mood or theme in black songs. The resulting sociological analysis is complete and continuous because it is general and non-contradictory.

The song does speak to contemporary issues in the United States. However, the so-called blackwhite woman divide is a deemphasized topic primarily because the current focus is on the ethnic group rather than the subgroup. Note that only a handful of academic literature which discuss the blackwhite woman divide.

My heart is sorrowful since I have an aunt that I never got to know.  She lost a battle to cancer before she even hit her twenties.  I will never fully understand what my grandparents went through when they lost their youngest child. I believe that the experience is a pain only a grieving parent can know.  When someone loses a loved one, it is usually an emotionally trying experience for him or her.  However, the death of a child is unique in that it was a life that was never fully realized because truly, they did go before their time.  My grandparents, like many parents, expected to see their child to grow and mature.  They expected to one day pass on and leave her behind.  When they buried their child, I can only imagine how it must have felt to lose all their hopes and dreams for her have a full, happy life. The grieving was intense with the constant feeling that they did not do enough to save her.  One thing is for sure they deeply miss her every day.  Through this paper, I hope to gain a limited understanding of what they might have experienced and how they learned to cope and move on.

Hypothesis
The research study tries to find out how people react to death of their loved ones, specifically when a parent loses a child. The experiences parents go through and the way they cope with bereavement, mourning and letting go. The research study wishes to answer the following questions
How do family members react to death
How does the society deal with death
How do parents deal with the loss of a child
How does the society help the bereaved deal with grief
What are the experiences parents go through after the death of a child
What is the societal and family role in case of death of a child

Literature Review
Death is something that is inevitable since every person had to deal with it in life. Death is a sorrowful event that claims loved ones such as our family members, friends or neighbors. Once a person dies the bereaved go through a normal process of grieving. Although, grieving is a hard process, it helps the bereaved deal with the loss by accepting it and moving on with life (Murray, 2001). Failure to go through the grieving process can lead to depression, physical illness and even emotional problems.
There are various concepts associated with grieving, even though everyone grieves differently. These concepts include numbness, mourning and letting go (Black, 2008). During the grieving process, the bereaved suffers from swift mood changes and intense emotions. The initial stage of grieving is numbness. The numbness stage is also known as the stage of depression whereby the bereaved is in shock, angry, emotional and feels angry at the world and sometimes to God. Immediately a person hears of a loved ones death, the news shocks them. The numbness stage includes being emotionally tormented and angry, a feeling that can last for days or weeks. The numbness sometimes can be helpful as it helps through family pressures and practical arrangements associated with funeral.

The numbness stage is followed by mourning, where the news of death sinks. Sadness and pictures of the dead person clouds the bereaved memory. During mourning, it is difficult to concentrate on everyday tasks due to nostalgic thoughts. During the mourning stage, some people lose interest in things like food and life they also feel de-motivated and sometimes find it hard to sleep or relax (Black, 2008). If the deceased died in the hospital, some people get angry and irritable at the medical staff and all those taking care of the deceased. They sometimes blame them for their loved ones death. The mourning process normally is helped by a funeral and memorial service (Rosenblatt, 2005).The outburst of tears and emotions is a common scene during mourning. The third stage of grieving involve letting go. Over a period, the intense pain felt during mourning lessens. The bereaved comes back to reality and learns that despite the loss life has to go on. During the letting go phase, the sadness, the appetite, the energy levels and sleeping patterns slowly get back to normal.

The symbolic interaction theory and feminist theory can be applied incase of bereavement and grieving. Symbolic interaction theory suggests ways in which families interact with other personalities in the society. The theory looks at the everyday behavior of individuals and explores ways in which people communicate using symbols to get a subjective and interpersonal meaning of a situation. In case of grieving, where a parent loses a child, the way the family interacts with the other family members determines which role the society will take in situation. The theory also suggests that situations get meaning depending on the social interaction with others. For example, people regard death as something painful, which requires co-operation from the family members, friends and the society.
Feminist theory suggests that women should work together to improve their position in life (Roy, 2009). Therefore, incase of bereavement women should work together to help each other through the grieving process. Women regard grieving as a normal process and incase a woman loses a child all other women should mourn with her and give her emotional support.

Methodology and Results
The research study tries to find out how people react to death of their loved ones, specifically when a parent loses a child. The research study wishes to study how family members react to death of their loved one, how the society helps bereaved family deal with grief and the support given to such a family. The research study also wishes to find out which concepts and theories are most applicable when a parent loses a child.

A random sample of 100 families was taken from one neighborhood. The sample consisted of families with 1to 10 kids. The Parents in the families were interviewed face-to-face one at a time. A preset questionnaire containing ten questions was presented to the others members of the family. The random sample consisted of families where they have lost childchildren and the ones who have not. The parents who had lost a child or children were supposed to express the feeling they left due to the loss. They were also supposed to describe the support they received from the other family members and the neighbors. The parents from the non-bereaved families were tested for the reaction to death matters, the support they gave and the general perception they have regarding bereavement.

The results from the study show that women were more susceptible to grief than men were. Although men grieved as well, they preferred not to show emotions such as crying, numbness and depression. Of the statistics taken 5of the families had at least lost one child.60 of those bereaved grieved for their loved ones,70 felt emotionally numb,73 mourned while 75 were able to let go after a period of one month and above. The study showed that women were more co-operative during mourning as the 60 of the bereaved families said they got consolation, self-help and company from women. Some family said that men offered financial help and funeral arrangement preparation but did not console them. Eighty percent of the whole population interviewed agreed that grieving was a healthy process as it helps people overcome the loss.

Conclusion and Results
The results of the study were consistent with the views I had regarding bereavement. According to my view, death of a child is a sad event that brings many emotional reactions to both parents. Losing a child is most painful for a parent because it means a lost future. People mourn differently for their loved ones. For example, women are more emotional if they lost a child than men. Women tend to cry, break down emotionally and even get depressed (Zaiger, 2005). In case of my Aunt, my grandmother and my mother were very emotional. My grandmother fainted on hearing of my aunts death. My mother did not eat for three days and hardly slept. During the mourning stage and even funeral, my grandmother could not stop crying. Both the symbolic interaction theory and feminist theory are right when they state that people react differently to situations because of social interaction (Murray, 2001). Since my grandmother was a very social person who participated in the community activities, many people turned up to help her during the grieving period. Women turned in big numbers to console her, help in housework and even funeral arrangements.

The research study was successful in finding out how a parent deals with a childs death. Some of the unanswered questions regarding the study were why men reacted differently in case of bereavement. In a society where patriarchy was practiced how comes men did not participate as much during bereavement as women The other question was why the death of a child was more painful than death of an old person and how comes the society took death more seriously than other events.

In further research regarding bereavement of a child, the study should focus on the perception of other family members except parents, such as brothers and sisters. The research should also concentrate of mens emotions regarding bereavement. In a society where men are not supposed to cry or show emotions, a further research should be established on the ways men mourn and grieve. However, the research would have been more successful if focused on several different neighborhoods. Taking diversified religious family would also have given us different concepts regarding grieving.

In the past, international leaders from developed countries delegated their business work to India since it had a strong leadership (Messner, 2008).This is so because, Indians business people enjoy working in an authority ranking as it fosters cohesion. Authority ranking has since then influenced the trend of programs in these companies such as performance appraisal systems, which serves as motivators.
In India, education plays a very critical role in ranking someone. The struggle for being ranked higher by educational status criterion has helped in creating opportunity for globalization for many Indian companies (Desai, 2009).This has led to an emergence of many computers software development technologies, which play a vital role in business globalization.

The Indian workforce seeks commitment from top management in the process initiatives. The authority ranking enables employees to comply with the quality methodologies as long its leadership is motivating and it is consistence (Desai, 2009). This motivation helps in confronting the uncertainties together. This is achieved through strategic thinking, customer orientation, aggression, commitment to global thinking, commitment to excellence, working in teams, and building future leaders (Desai, 2009).

Since getting to a point of higher authority is based on being a successful performer, the authority ranking encourages a business team to update themselves constantly in matters relating to global issues and trends (Messner, 2008).Behaviors relating to high performance describe competence as this serves as a competency indicator. This calls for an effort of identifying a successful role behavior that will take you to a higher rank for the business. In an attempt of perfecting this, the Indians have actively attempted to understand and respect cultural values of host countries of the customers, trying to build an understanding, as this will create an ease while dealing with clients and business partners globally. More so, they try identifying best practices that suit the team needs for improvement through bench marking with the world practices (Locke, 2008).

The concept of sex, the difference in sexes, the sex organs, and the sexual act in itself are just some of the topics concerning sex which have often been considered as forbidden in the earlier times.  This predominant idea -- which is referred to as the repressive hypothesis (Foucault 197810) -- came about in the 17h century, where reference to said concerns was limited to the confines of the bedroom, and strictly for husband-and-wife consumption only.  Foucault, however, counters this hypothesis in that, he claims, that the 18th century saw more of the unfettered and growing interest on the subject of sex, especially when individual confessions were made compulsory.  Because they were exposed to more knowledge on each individuals sexual activities, priests were placed on pedestals.  A correspondingly increased attention to cases of sexual perversion, homosexuality, rape and incest among other things was also immediately noticeable.  The practice of confession became an essential part of studying and analyzing an individual, and it revealed much of the persons character.  For this reason, the 19th century ushered in an increased awareness of sex as essential knowledge, and that somehow, this knowledge was interconnected with power (Foucault 197894). 

Foucault then gave an extensive discussion of power, what it is not, where it comes from, and thereupon proposes four rules relating power to sex (197898).  With the increasing number of cases related to sexual perversions and the belief that these were passed on between generations, the bourgeoisie insisted on practicing more stringent measures to preserve their hereditary nobility.  Initially, greater weight was placed on the exacting of sanctions to those who have transgressed, but later on, the knowledge of sex was given more emphasis due to the indisputable power which came with it.  Foucault avers that the right of death was inevitably replaced by the power over life which in contemporary times meant the concept of sex. 

As an introduction to a 3-volume series, the books main objective is to trace the beginnings of the idea of sexuality from the early times up to the present.  Intended for the collegiate level, this theoretical prologue attempts to uncover the underlying correlation and interplay between sexuality, Christianity and power.  This source is a scholarly, intense and evocative composition which endeavors to shed light on the notion of sexuality and the peculiar interest with which numerous theorists dealt with the subject during a period when supposedly more conservative views were upheld. 

Not much research has been done on the topic of sexuality, per se, because assumptions about the personal motives of sex researchers often result in sexuality research being stigmatized (Wiederman, 20063).  It is worth noting that most often, people assume that when a researcher takes on a certain topic about sex, heshe has a personal motive for doing so, which  more often than not -- is not really the case.  Other references which have been published dealt mostly with the pragmatic aspect of sex, sexual relations and the sexual act, but Foucault tackles more on the theoretical viewpoint and makes an in-depth analyses out of the conclusions arrived at.  This novel is basically a discourse  a compilation of philosophical and sociological thoughts and assumptions based on historical findings.  Reading through the book would make one imagine a setting where scholars were gathered and the author were on a podium making his speech. 

Foucault made use of Historical Research or Historiography as the main qualitative method in presenting this book.  Interspersed in its pages are historical allusions, analyses, answers to questions, statements of implications and rationalizations among other things.  As the novel unfolds, the reader is transported back in time as the settings are described, the atmosphere is depicted, and quotations from historical figures come alive.  Foucault made use of previously published materials by authorities in the field like Freud, Marx and Ligouri, though only sparingly, as his assessments underscored the ease with which he delivered this discourse.  In terms of clarity, the ideas are presented lucidly, systematically and with transitional paragraphs to introduce succeeding chapters.  The approach used by the author in presenting the book is, on the whole, philosophical, and as such, is not easily comprehensible to someone who has not been exposed to such writing style.  Nevertheless, underpinning such approach is material that is substantial, noteworthy and illuminating to the subject of sexualitys history. 

Early Christians used the Bible to repress sexuality, ignoring ways the Bible did not fit such a program (Carr, 200312), meaning, all issues which were directly or indirectly referring to sex had to be downplayed or utterly removed.  This supports Foucaults contention pertaining to the repression hypothesis which the author describes as  modern prudishness was able to ensure that one did not speak of sex (Foucault, 197817) -- an atmosphere which deliberately ignored the controversial topic as taboo or censored.  I think that this notion about sex has already evolved and should no longer be tolerated because these views are part of the old-school beliefs on sex.  Furthermore, in this age of information, censorship is already part of ancient history, due to the availability of knowledge from numerous and varied sources.       

The above mentality was further reinforced by Lewis when he said  Humans can and must control their sexuality in ways that other animals cannot, in order to reach the Divine (2006229), denoting that those who could not be placed under the control of the Christian doctrines were considered as animals or unworthy beings.  Man was thus subjugated to a lowly status of a sub-human when heshe did not conform to the rules.  The manner of manipulating humans in the early times is extremely repulsive since all sorts of ideas were fed to the peoples minds just so the authorities could control the sexual pursuits of the populace.   

Since the 19th century, educators and doctors combated childrens onanism like an epidemic that needed to be eradicated (Foucault, 197842).  Onanism refers to the act of masturbation.  The childs unacceptable behavior can be traced back to hisher family as well as hisher teachers, and such misconduct may be heavily sanctioned.  In the present times, when Freuds theories of childhood sexuality have come to be accepted, this behavior of children is no longer frowned at but can be viewed as a means by which children learn about sexuality and their bodies (Kilmer and Shahinfar, 200648).  Sex and the act of masturbation are now regarded as a normal part of mans daily life. 

With regards to the concept of homosexuality, Carr contends that the Bible condemns all forms of premarital or extramarital sex and all forms of homosexual sex(200349).  Said statement is compatible to what Foucault proposes in his book where he refers to the homosexual as a sodomite, whom he describes as a certain way of inverting the masculine and feminine in oneself (Foucault, 197843).  The rejection of homosexuality, much like onanism, evolved to become accepted in modern times, in terms of attitudes, levels of approval of homosexuality rose notably during 19922000 (Davis et al., 2003 Laumann et al., 1994 Smith, 1994 cited by Smith 2006110).  Homosexuality in the present times is now widely accepted, and although more openness is still possible, it has reached a level where civility among the straight and the homosexual sexes has become unobjectionable.

In conclusion, Michel Foucaults work was able to go beyond what most other contemporary pieces would focus on like the evolution of sexual practices, the biological side of sex or the sensuality of the act itself.  I particularly liked the way Foucault was able to present the subject of sex in a profound, interesting, somewhat complex and certainly enlightening sort of way, where sex is not merely equated with the sexual act, but is seen as a topic which can be studied in-depth and against a specific historical background.  This novel is an indispensable masterpiece which should be considered by anyone who endeavors to delve into the subject of sexuality.

Community sustainability involves ensuring community members well being in all the spheres of economic, environmental, health and social development. This is achievable by ensuring proper use of current resources so as to provide the future generation with an opportunity to benefit from the same resources. Enormous efforts have been directed towards economic development leaving behind equally important aspects of community sustainability. The well being of a community depends on quality of living standards the community members are subjected to in regard to the environment they occupy. However, human actions towards improving such standards have contributed to the destruction of nature which has always provided a suitable environment for their survival. Collaboration and consultations among relevant stakeholders is therefore necessary to bring forth a truly civil Newcastle city whose members live in a safe and healthy environment.

The shared vision of collaboration and consultation between local and international partners is to perceive a better Newcastle city with stronger community that respects the rule of law in its pursuit of economic, social and environmental ambitions. A civil society comprises of individuals who are well informed on the social, economic and environmental assets of their community and therefore try to empower their community members especially those who are disadvantaged in one way or another to better their living standards (Newcastle city council, 2006). Failure accomplish this may lead to enhancement of social clusters that not only divide the community into social classes but also culminates to insecurity. This therefore thwarts the development process of the community.

The city of Newcastle has ensured safety and crime prevention by establishing a safety and crime prevention committee that oversees the improvement of safety in Newcastle through provision of technical advice to the responsible organs Newcastle city. Other partners in crime prevention in Newcastle include among others the  HYPERLINK httpww1.northumbria.police.uk o Northumbria Police t _self Northumbria Police who provide expertise to the advisory committee. Police force is a tool used by the state to enforce law and order in an area of target. The Northumbria police achieve this through their prevention officers who are located in various strategic points such as Clifford Street (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

Other stakeholders in crime prevention include students who also provide the necessary advice on the crime prevention strategies. The students are always involved in campaigns during specific periods of the year and therefore provide the necessary support to the community safety units hence enhancing the security and safety of people of Newcastle. These campaigns target reduction of crimes related to car theft as well as disorders that stem from fireworks. Crime prevention requires partnership of varied stakeholders in order to ensure a safer society to thrive in (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

The government involvement through the local authority is paramount to provide assistance and support to the people of Newcastle who happen to be victims of a crime. Frequently reported crimes in Newcastle include homophobic crimes where individuals become victims of crime simply because the attackers or the offenders hate the sexuality of the victim ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22TanerOc22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Taner   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StevenTiesdell22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Tiesdell, 1997). This type of crime is treated with a lot of caution and its penalties are even stiffer compared to other crimes. It is usually committed by the youths in a society. Racist crimes on the other hand involve crimes committed on the basis of different racial or ethnic background. In such cases the offender disregards, undermines or hates the ethnic orientation of the victim ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22TanerOc22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Taner   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StevenTiesdell22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Tiesdell, 1997). Such types of crimes have become rampant and are therefore a challenge to the Newcastle community. General crimes have however been suppressed by the relevant authorities except minor cases such as arson that was reported on 31st March 2010 by the  HYPERLINK httpww1.northumbria.police.uk o Northumbria Police t _self Northumbria Police on a car in South Tyneside. Car crimes have so far dropped compared to the previous years by about forty percent courtesy of stringent measures installed by the police in addition to community participation in crime prevention activities in Newcastle city (Newcastle city council, 2006).

Criminal activities where the perpetrators are not known send signals of security lapse especially poor detection and deterrence of criminals in the city hence a challenge to the police. Criminal activities derail the development process of a society and therefore should be fought at all cost. This can only be done through proper enforcement of laws as provided in the constitution ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22TanerOc22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Taner   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22StevenTiesdell22sourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Tiesdell, 1997). Besides, a well established justice system should be enacted to provide a framework which will guide the law enforcers to carry out their duties without upheavals. However, a culture that tolerates the social cohesion between the law enforcers and the society should be practiced to precipitate the development process. In other words the police should not be anti-social and the society members should also reciprocate by cooperating with the law enforcers in order to succeed in their quest for peace and establishment crime-free society.

Generally, crime control requires consultation and coordination of all stakeholders in the security docket. Such an initiative has been explored by the home office through organization of events which would bring together society members whose ideas form the basis of such consultations. The home offices main agenda is to combat violence against women and girls in Newcastle. The stakeholders in this initiative include authorities responsible for safe Newcastle and safe Newcastle board as well as the community members.  All these stakeholders contribute towards the enhancement of crime prevention in Newcastle thereby fostering community development. This is inline with the Newcastle citys vision that aims at achieving better life in a safer Newcastle hence stronger community (Newcastle city council, 2006).

An international approach is necessary in combating crimes of advanced level such as terrorism which has in the recent past generated a lot of debate worldwide. The existence of international crime prevention system which is a product of international collaboration provides expertise on how the city authorities can handle such crimes. This treaty explains that combating urban crime requires the collaboration of the police of  HYPERLINK httpww1.northumbria.police.uk o Northumbria Police t _self Northumbria Police and the local authority of Newcastle city. These were discussed in a conference on crime and urban insecurity that was held in Germany. Such initiatives enhance development through incorporation of best practices and experience exchanged between different countries (Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe, 2000). Finally, the council of Newcastle city often reviews the performance of various initiatives in the city to evaluate them and make changes if necessary in an attempt to improve the security and safety of the community members in Newcastle city. Evaluation also ensures that the initiatives adopted improve the living standards of the community members in addition to enhancing environmental protection which is usually regarded as one of the pillars of community sustainability (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

The university-community partnership is a prerequisite in community sustainability. Education and training sector is involved to a greater extent in the crime prevention and control in Newcastle city. Through this sector, research and project activities have been initiated to provide direction on strategy to be adopted while tackling crime in Newcastle city. This sector in collaboration with other partners locally and internationally also provides expertise on security matters. Likewise, education sector embarks on researches aimed at solving the modern problems by provision of recommendations on possible solutions to such problems (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000). It is therefore relevant in improving ways in which environment as well as the economy of Newcastle city can be managed. Education also produces experts who turn out to be assets to the community as far as the development of the city is concerned.

To achieve community development, the Newcastle city council has resorted to strategies such as centralizing the management of all initiatives dealing with community consultations in addition to incorporation of standard procedures and processes. The progress of such initiatives is reviewed after a stipulated period of time usually one year to ascertain their feasibility. Furthermore, the council has incorporated environmental management in the development process. This is achieved through making the community green and planting of trees in the city. It will achieve this initiative by consultation with organizations that are involved in the environmental management in the city such as Trees in Newcastle. The evaluation of such a project would thereafter follow to ascertain the progress of the greening initiative. These are important mechanisms in the development of Newcastle city and are contributory to the sustainability of the community (The Australia Institute and Newcastle City Council, 2000).

Conclusion
Due to rapid population growth, technological advancement has become inevitable given the increased demand by the consumers. However, as human beings try to explore the resources in pursuit of their satisfaction, depletion of natural resources is imminent. It is therefore necessary for all the stakeholders to collaborate in an attempt to strike a balance between exploration of environment for satisfaction of human needs and the nature conservation. This will ensure development in all perspectives at the same time protecting and conserving the natural resources hence sustainable development.

Career assessment are types of tests that are done with the  intention of helping people to identify which career best matches their ability, IQ, personality and interests. They are the first stages that many people engage in while planning for their career. These tests therefore help people in identifying the ability, the experiences, training and education that may be required for a certain career (Dennis, 2002, p.34). The  assessments are not limited to evaluating people  for  their suitability to certain professions but also extends into assessing some aspects of career like salary and wage information, and job satisfaction as well (Brown, 2002, p.21). These makes career assessments valuable tools that aid people in making important career choices at different stages in their lives.

Career assessments identify the ability, education and training that may be required for each career. The clients who take these tests are therefore able to evaluate whether their interests ability and personality matches the requirements of the field they are interested in. Career tests are administered and used by career coaches and counselors, development institutions, job placement companies, human resource firms and employers in evaluating suitability of potential member for specific careers that match their profile (Samuel, Bruce, 1996, p.12).

There are many types of career assessment and some of the categories include satisfaction tests which measure the level of employees satisfaction with their job. Another category are resume tests which evaluates one ability to draft resumes.  IQ tests are tests used to evaluate the level of ones intelligence and ability to reason. Entrepreneurship tests are used in evaluating the suitability of one to run their own businesses (Guerriero, Allen, 1998, p.28). The other category are the  aptitude test which evaluates ones ability to perform specific duties and  education tests  which evaluate  the options of whether one is more likely to enroll for full time or online courses. Another type of test is the test called the salary survey that assesses the salaries and wages of a wide range of jobs which provides valuable information on career choice (Pickman, 1997, p.17).

The qualitative approach relies on psychological tests that evaluate individual differences in psychological aspects like personality and interests. Career assessment through the qualitative approach assesses psychological factors such as ability, personality and interests and the way they relate to the requirements of traits required by the career. The method is the one that has been used traditionally since the 1900 and it gained impetus during the two world wars when the soldiers were being integrated back into local employment (Patton, Peter, 2009, p.7). The use of psychometric differences in individuals such as by the use of psychological test and inventories was critical in development of the qualitative approach that is called trial and factor theory (Patton, Peter, 2009, p.17)
 
The term trait and factor implies the characteristics of the person and the profession respectively. These traits are the individual distinctiveness that can be assessed through various tests while factors are the abilities and personalities required by the career field. This qualitative method of trial and factor method encompass matching of ones traits, personality and ability to the requirements of the career. This method recommends that one is suitable for a certain career only when the traits personality and ability, matches the requirements of the career (Stebleton, 2007, p.89). This qualitative method has the limitation of giving the career guiders the role of an expert who knows everything suitable for the job and cancels the notion of people having the ability to adjust to new situations. The qualitative approaches used today have appreciated this notion and offers great flexibility in their methodology since they are based on theoretical principles rather than statistical principles like the quantitative ones (Stebleton, 2007, 96).

Quantitive career assessment techniques emphasize on the use of statically standard assessments that gauge an individual abilities, personality, aptitude and interests which are then used in the selection of appropriate career. Examples of these tests include developmental tests, personal environmental tests, personality and self assessment tests. The data that is obtained from the qualitative assessments is however not in most of times adequate for career assessment due to the rigid nature of the statistical principles that are followed. This makes it sometimes to be supplemented by data from qualitative measurements (Watkins, Campbell, 2000, p.34). Examples of quantitive methods used in assessment are metrics. In contrast, qualitative assessments are informal, flexible and holistic. Qualitative approaches emphasizes on the client telling the story of their career rather than scores as in the quantative approach. Qualitative approach enhances the counseling relationship because the assessment is founded on the clients experiences (Lowman, 1991, p.25). Quantitative approaches have the limitation of making the career guider to act as a diagnostician or an expert unlike in qualitative assessments where the career guider acts as a listener, inquirer and acts as a respectful observer of the clients career profile rather than the dictator.

Qualitative assessments allow the clients to reconstruct the career related experiences that allow for some of the concerns of the career to be evaluated by the career guiders and the hiring firms. A qualitative approach utilizes mainly the processes of cards, sorts lifelines and genigrams while qualitative assessments rely on metrics and statistical software recently in the assessment process (Gurriero, Allen, 1998, p.45). The process of qualitative assessment is more laborious than quantitative because the career adviser or the employer must be involved directly in the assessment process which leads to more creativity and flexibility in the assessment process unlike in qualitative measurements.

Quantitative approaches employs a  propositional and trial based approach in the assessment process while  qualitative approach utilizes a story telling approach and life experiences  approach in the assessment process. Another major difference in the two approaches is that quanntative approach utilizes statistically based methods to evaluate whether one fits into a specific job while qualitative approach utilizes thematic methods that evaluate whether one is fit into the job out of their life experiences (Young, Bourgen, 1999, p.65). Qualitative measurements are often applied in making assessments where there is diversity in clients because of their flexible nature unlike the qualitative methods which are rigid. Qualitative assessments are based on the subjects of constructivism. This theory proposes that human beings exhibit uniqueness and idiosyncrasy in thought and experience as well as the great versatility that humans exhibit in creating and adapting to new circumstances (Grinell, Unray, 2005, p.41). These characteristics that enable them to exhibit such versatility are difficult to include in some quantative assessment methods.

Qualitative and quantative approaches are used in broadening a clients comprehension and understanding of their career and enable career guiders and employers to handle the requirements of their jobs effectively. They are also used for employment as well in determining the capacity for more development in their clients careers and also predict future job efficiency of their clients (Patton, Peter, 2009, p.13). Although they are valuable resources in career assessment, they do have limitations.

The major limitation of these approaches is their limited and wide varied interpretations of the results of the assessment. There are no widely accepted assessment techniques for each career counselor or hiring firms utilizes their own criteria and scope in the measurements which can confuse potential clients (Dennis, 2002, p.20). Career assessments can also mislead one into careers that do not suit them because they can suggest one is suited for certain careers which may not be the case because there is great variability in the scope of the assessments that are set by different career advisers (Shearer, Luzzo, 2009, p.66). Another limitation for career assessment in both quantative and qualitative approach is the time and investment it takes to develop an ideal and valid test that can be applied in a career guidance setting. Most of the careers assessments techniques both for quantative and qualitative appropriations are developed at a high cost and research that extends to several years in order to accommodate the changing nature of the work place (Samuel, Bruce, 1996, p.98). This also causes some of the assessment techniques to be available at expensive costs.

Another limitation in the career assessment techniques especially the internet based ones is the problem of validation. The internet has thousands of these tests where most of them are not validated by standard career assessments bodies. These tests are available at a cost or free in the internet and due to problem of validation, they may mislead people into wrong careers especially the invalidated ones (Watkins, Campbell, 2000, p.51). There is no one ideal career assessment technique or test and that career counselors and employers must utilize all the methods of both quantative and qualitative techniques in order to develop a career test that best suits the needs of the job requirements and their clients (Bright, Pryor, 2007, p.6). They must combine the finest features of the quantative methods and the best of quantitive techniques in order to evaluate the worth of a client for a specific career.

According to The American heritage Dictionary (2009), Assimilation is defined as the process by which a person or a group becomes integrated into the culture of another. This involves a minority who adopts the culture of the other group who are considered the majority. Culture is an important aspect in the society. Different people, tribes or communities within a nation have their own culture, customs and traditions. These are valued from generation to generation and safeguarded against loss.

The United States (US) has been seen as an assimilationist society in different areas. There has been cultural assimilation in the US. It is whereby the immigrants begin to gradually adopt the American culture. This has led to the sudden loss of identity of the minority groups. For example, the mode of dressing of the Americans has been followed over the years by immigrants. This has led to loss of tradition and customs which define how a person should dress. Every society has a characteristic mode of dressing culture. Most blacks in America have conformed to their culture (Tatum, 1987).

As Le (2007) writes, behavioral assimilation is when all immigrant or new persons adopts the behavioral pattern of the majority group. It includes adopting the language. The Asian Americans have learnt English and culture of the Americans and gradually lost their own customs. Secondly, there has been socio-economic assimilation. The Asian Americans can now take part in politics. They have also been integrated into the social, cultural and economic institutions.

Assimilation has led to either negative or positive effects for the minority and the majority groups. The minority might benefit by exploring new opportunities available, for example, better education and services. However, it has led to loss of ones own identity. It leads to gradually forgetting the cultures and traditions of a person. There might also be an adoption of bad cultures which are not accepted in the society. The US has benefited by acquiring new professionals, for example, doctors and lawyers from other countries.

Concept of Assimilation and Pluralism
Assimilation concept is biased since it regards one concept or idea to be the best and the only one that works out. The concept of pluralism suggests the existence of more than two things or principles in real life. It is an open minded concept which takes into account the ideas of others. In pluralism concept, different cultures or traditions are accommodated.

Assimilation has been achieved in our society, for example, intermarriages have led to an exchange and adoption of different traditions and cultures. The society is made up of multiethnic groups with diverse cultures. For a long time, intermarriages were not acceptable in the society. People used to marry or get married to those they share tribes with. This has gradually changed and it is now accepted in many parts.

The influence culture has on nonverbal as well as verbal behavior is without doubt extensive and therefore the universal base for these behaviors that appear in different cultures cannot be overlooked (Manusov, Manusov and Patterson, 2006). This paper is going to look at the nature of aspects specific to various cultures as well as universal aspects of nonverbal behaviors focusing on various expressions worn on the face because they are important in the process of communication. This paper will begin with providing a definition of the term culture as well as a brief discussion about it so as to develop a base on which culture can be easily understood. The role of culture in the process of communication will also be looked at briefly, highlighting its impacts on both nonverbal and verbal behavior. The main objective of this paper is to is to enable people acquire an understanding on the influence of universal, genetic processes and specific cultural processes in the production and judgments of both verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

In order to understand how culture influences nonverbal behavior, as stated by Manusov, Manusov and Patterson (2006), its essential to first get an insight of what culture is as well as its origin. In this paper culture is clearly defined. A theoretical explanation of where it originates in addition to a description of some of its characteristics is also provided. According to Agliati, Vescovo and Anolli (2006), it is important to look into human nature in order to clearly understand and define culture. The outlook of human nature that offers the vital platform to give an explanation for not only pancultural universals, which are an essential feature of emotional expression, but also specific cultural aspects is that of evolutionally psychology (Wyer, Chiu and Hong, 2009). As Manusov, Manusov and Patterson (2006), states this view indicates that people have developed a set of intentions and determinations that are in the end related to reproductive accomplishment. Survival in the evolutionary context is related to the extent to which people can adapt their environments and also to the situation to which they exist.

People throughout history have had to find solutions to numerous social problems so as to adapt and therefore attain reproductive achievement (Bente, Senokozlieva, Pennig, Al-Issa and Fischer, 2008). Ways of dealing with particular problems can be very specific for a particular group according to the context in which that group lives. These ways have lead to development of cultures (Wolfgang, 1979). Culture therefore is an interaction result between universal biological requirements as well as functions, social problems resulting from those requirements, and the context in which people exist (Siegman, and Feldstein, 1985). All cultures must devise ways of dealing with various social problems thereby resulting to a cultural response that finally corresponds to the universal biological functions (Manusov, Manusov and Patterson, 2006). All aspects of a persons life are greatly influenced by culture. Culture, as illustrated by Poyatos (2002), is used to explain the similarities as well as differences between different groups of people. It provides a base for decision making and lays down the principles for group cooperation and divisions of labor. Psychological processes of human being, as asserted by Wolfgang (1979), are also specific to various cultures. Language is one of the best examples of behaviors specific to a particular culture. The need to have language, as illustrated by Manusov, Manusov and Patterson (2006), is a pancultural universal problem whereas language is a universal aspect that solves this problem. Verbal and nonverbal behaviors, according to Agliati, Vescovo and Anolli (2006), are contents of communication and both of them are influenced by culture. Nonverbal behaviors that are subject to cultural influence are gestures, gaze, interpersonal space, and facial expressions. All these are influenced in different ways according to the context to which people live.

Law enforcement has been faced with several issues and changes over the years. This paper explores these factors that affect the operations of undercover police officers. It discusses the physical and ethical issues they are constantly faced with. It discusses the involvement of ethics in law enforcement and ethical behavior of the officers.

Law enforcement by police officers has faced a number of challenges in many countries over the years. It has also experienced changes both in structure and how they operate. The officers face a lot of temptation as they carry on with their duties. They have to deal with both physical and ethical issues, some of which are risky affairs.

Firstly, the poor organizations of the police and devolved systems have led to poor service delivery by the officers. Corruption has been a major issue especially in dealing with illicit drug traders. Due to the overflowing huge amounts of cash involved in this business, officers may be tempted to accept payments from these dealers. Secondly, decentralized structure of the policed agencies has led to difficulty in accountability. The heads of police have preferred the community based approach in fighting crime. The officers have a direct contact with the people. This model has reduced the level of accountability. It has made monitoring of the officers to be impossible leading to unaccountability. The Community Based policing, therefore, encourages corruption. Thirdly, the working environment is normally violent in nature. This has posed a lot of risks to the officers who are constantly striving to restore law and order in a dangerous community. The poor structure of the police unit has led to loss of morale. This has affected even the most qualified undercover officers who are willing to serve with dedication. The poor structure prefers that officers be loyal to the bosses without paying attention to the integrity of the individual. They are seriously scrutinized and forced to follow tough rules which are complex. The outcomes of a complex structure, constant temptation and community based policing have proved to affect the ethics of undercover officers (OMalley, 1997).

The officers are sometimes forced to apply a lot of force when doing their duties, for example, during demonstrations. The aggression has sometimes been misunderstood and leads to different conflicting recommendations. It is important to determine the reasons for this aggression and use of force before any conclusions are made. The ethical well being of the undercover agents should be given priority. An integrated approach should be designed to improve on the ethical behavior. It should be simple, workable and non rigid (OMalley, 1997). 

The undercover police officers have gone to the extent of not following the laws in order to carry on with their duties. For example, an officer might be forced to pretend to be involved in drug trade in order to arrest the culprits. This, however, might lead to temptations due to the high amounts of cash involved, which might be enticing to the individual. Therefore, breaking the law may lead to loss of trust from the public (OMalley, 1997).

Organized crimes are highly organized enterprises that are operated by criminals where they engage in illegal dealings with highly organized operations with the main aim of making profits. The association and activities of the criminal groups have high level of coordination and discipline. Mafia is used all over the world to describe criminal syndicate.

Like any other society, organized crime has existed in the United States for many decades. This is partly because of the diverse American society with elements from different parts of the world. Organized crime syndicates have involved themselves in various criminal activities for economic gains.

In the modern American society, criminal syndicates have increased their cooperation as opposed to competition between different criminal groups evident in the 1960s and 1970s. The criminal groups do not only cooperate with other syndicates in the region but also international criminal organization. This has increased the rate of international crime with federal security agencies estimating that organized criminal syndicates all over the world make up to a trillion dollars in a year. 
 
Modern organized crime syndicates have very advanced skills and are involved in activities that require high technical and academic knowledge. This includes smuggling of drugs and weapons, illegal trading and disposal of nuclear materials, identity fraud, human trafficking and smuggling of endangered species. They are also involved in racketeering business activities such as monopolizing industries, rigging bids, money laundering, corruption and clamping of ideologies.

The United States government has had several attempts of making laws that deter the activities of organized crime syndicates. One of these laws is the Racketeer Influence and Corrupt Organization Act. This made it a crime for anyone to be associated with a criminal syndicate. However, organized crime syndicates have been a great problem to the law enforcers as a result of their level of organization.

In 375 B.C., an elite army of special forces--the Sacred Band of Thebes--fought the Spartans, three times their size, at Tegyra.  Inspired by the ideas set forth in Platos Symposium, the ancient Greeks developed an invincible gay army that was only defeated by the forces of Alexander the Great Gay and his father Philip II.  Who would have ever guessed that the most ideal army is a gay army  Today, in the U.S. Senate, another battle is being fought.  Homosexuals in the American military are fighting for their right to be openly gay in the armed forces, demanding that the current Dont-Ask-Dont-Tell policy be repealed.  President Obama is on their side, and why shouldnt he  For gays in the military would indeed create a passionate fighting force, it would uphold human rights, it would enable able-bodied volunteers to fight for their country, and it would end the imperialist policies of America around the world that has embedded negative images of the United States on every world citizens mind, drained the National Treasury, increased the deficit and raised the national debt.

Platos Symposium is clear in its stand for a gay army.  In his book, Phaedrus asserts
And if there were only some way of contriving that a state or an army should be made up of lovers and their loves, they would be the very best governors of their own city, abstaining from all dishonour, and emulating one another in honour and when fighting at each others side, although a mere handful, they would overcome the world. For what lover would not choose rather to be seen by all mankind than by his beloved, either when abandoning his post or throwing away his arms He would be ready to die a thousand deaths rather than endure this. Or who would desert his beloved or fail him in the hour of danger

Thus, according to Plutarchs Life of Pelopidas, the idea of developing an invincible gay army came to be.  And the Sacred Band of Thebes, 300 gay soldiers, couples who could fight more cohesively and fiercely than relative strangers, was born.  Pelopidas was a moral Greek general whose city was attacked by Spartans in 383 B.C.  So in 375 B.C. his Sacred Band fought the Spartans in the battle of Tegyra and defeated an army three times its size.  They also won in the battle of Leuctra in 371 B.C., thereby establishing their military superiority in Greece, and Thebes became the strongest city among the Greeks while the Spartans declined.

It was only after another gay leader, Alexander the Great Gay, attacked the Sacred Band that the elite force disintegrated.  Alexanders love for boys and his childhood friend Hephaestion was the flaming passion for his fighting spirit.  The Roman historian Curtius and a contemporary biographer, Eumenes, also recorded Alexanders abnormal sexual appetite.  He also fell in love with the eunuch Bagoas and one of his generals, Nabarzenes, offered him a boy as a gift.  Alexanders own father, Philip II, had multiple male lovers, and it was actually in the hands of an ex-lover, Pausanias, that he died. 

Furthermore, Rodney St. Michael in Sync My World Thiefs Honor GA SK, corresponds the five genders with the five classes, and the military class is gay.  Each of the Five Elements, Air, Water, Earth, Fire and Ether are abstract representations of everything in world.  Air or Wood, for instance is male, the Scholars, the Yellows, etc.  Water is female, Shamans, Small Browns, etc.  Earth is lesbian, the Ubuntu or Social Business Class, Blacks, etc.  Fire is gay, the military, the Militant Business Class, Whites, etc.  And Ether or Metal is bisexual, the Working Class, the Bi-Military, Big Browns, etc.  The Five Elements form a five-pointed star which is used in many political symbols in government worldwide.  And the military is classified as either gay or bisexual.

People who are very much against gays are usually bisexual in various degreesmany subconscious, but some conscious.  For how could real men volunteer to sleep all together in the same quarters, shower together in the same shower room and express esprit de corps unless they were openly gay, knowingly bisexual, or subconsciously bisexual  Republican Senator Larry Craig is an example of a person who vehemently opposed gays and created many policies that discriminated against them, only to involuntarily reveal later that he was a closeted bisexual, after an undercover police officer caught him in the act and arrested him for soliciting gay sex in a St. Paul restroom.

Moreover, allowing openly gay soldiers in the military would uphold human rights. Roughly 1,000 men and women, says Time magazine, including some with critical skills like the ability to speak and translate Arabic  are booted from the military each year for being gay.  The Dont-Ask-Dont-Tell (DADT) policy is a law that prohibits closeted gays, lesbians and bisexuals in the military from disclosing their sexual orientation or becoming openly gay.  It also prohibits openly gay military applicants from being recruited.  Anyone violating this policy will be discharged.  This is a clear violation of human rights.  People have the right to work in an environment regardless of their race, religion, ethnicity and gender or sexual orientation.  This is what America is made of.  This is why it exists.  And the DADT policy is a clear desecration of what America stands for.

Instead, America needs to replace it with the Military Readiness Enhancement Act (HR 1283).  There is currently a petition sponsored by the Human Rights Campaign and targeted at the U.S. House of Representatives to support HR 1283.  This act prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation, allowing all able-bodied Americans to serve the country and to strengthen all military branches.
Furthermore, the DADT policy is a hole in the pockets of the American government and U.S. taxpayers.  Representative Jim Moran (Democrat) says that more 13,500 service members have been discharged since the implementation of DADT.  He noticed that the number of discharges fell during times of war and increased during peacetime.  This shows that during wartime, Moran says, DADT is not being pursued aggressively because ones orientation has nothing to do with their ability to fight (CNN).  Instead, much needed multi-lingual servicemen, doctors, mechanics and other important members of the armed forces are being ejected without any truly valid reasons, costing taxpayers millions of dollars in recruitment, training, operations and other expenses.  In February 2006, a University of California Blue Ribbon Commission concluded that it cost taxpayers at least 363 million dollars from 1994 to 2003.  And it will certainly cost more as long as it continues throughout the years.

President Obama also pledged that he will repeal DADT.  Last month, Senator Joseph I. Lieberman introduced a bill to repeal the ban in behalf of Obama. 60 votes are needed to repeal DADT and just like the newly-passed health-care bill, Republicans are on the attack.  Representative Joe Wilson of South Carolina, a Republican on the House Armed Services Subcommittee on Military Personnel, objected to the repeal of DADT, but the battle continues.  Defense Secretary Robert Gates, on the other hand, supports Obamas promise.  He has appointed a committee to brainstorm on how to implement the repeal.  The proposed plan is scheduled to be finished by the end of the year.  Adm. Mike Mullen, chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, agrees with Gates and said that it is the right thing to doI cannot escape being troubled by the fact that we have in place a policy that forces young men and women to lie about who they are in order to defend their fellow citizens.  For me, personally, it comes down to integrity -- theirs as individuals and ours as an institution(Fox News).  But Gates admitted that in the end, no matter how much the Pentagon studies it, Congress will have the final say and approval of any new policy.  While Republican Sen. John McCain was disappointed with Gates remarks, Democrats will still fight this issue in Congress just as they did with health-care reform.

In the end, America cant survive without repealing DADT.  The American economy is in shambles because of too much waste.  Congressmen also have to waste their time tackling issues such as these that shouldve been solved easily in the past had they been less prejudiced.  By repealing DADT, America will win.  Most of the EU have already eliminated forms of it, and many other countries are following suit.  Its the right thing to do.

After studying and researching Goffmans dramaturgical theory, I found there is a direct correlation between the standards of society and between the societal pressures it has beneath the surface to hide their unacceptable backstage behavior. This creates the acceptance to embellish a dramatic role play for their frontstage character in society, leaving behind the responsibility to uphold any sense of moral character for ones true self. It is easier to face society with a masked appearance then it is for confronting the pressures standing alone.

The contradictory of behavior in my childhood friends profile picture of holding an alcoholic beverage up in acceptance at a party scene shows her desire to be accepted in the community. She also appears to be watching old favorite shows and popular stay at home movies, which convey the innocent, light hearted drama taken from the teenage years. Her books give the appearance of a smart, innocent and non experienced youth, while suggestive pictures of my friend, surrounded by her friends, gives the shady appearance that she is standing by in observance. The display of a make out session with her boyfriend gives a sweet and romantic impression. She is not as innocent as she portrays. She actually partied quite a bit and was caught in school with alcohol, which she stole from her parents cabinet. Party life was consistent to her lifestyle and she was quite easy with the boys.

My friend and I have been around each other since we were in the nursery. At one time we were close in friendship, but because our values on life and friends have slowly changed, we have slowly parted our ways. She has a cattier personality than most of my friends and I have seen her social behavior that lies behind the frontstage details on her Facebook profile. It disturbs me how her profile reflects a sincere individual in the community who shows willingness to support others in the nurturing groups she has joined. She does not actually do anything to promote the goodness of others. It is all about self-gratification and what she can achieve from their friendships.

The suggestive photos and poses, however, do portray a little bit about her backstage behavior and her inept decision making to cause her social problems. Most people would think it was a precious picture of the new freshman. Her learned behavior to befriend others successful in order to achieve a higher status carries a lack of respect for their feelings. There is no appreciation of a true friendship with my friend. The stomping on friendships whenever possible for a higher status causes a lack of trust with broken boundaries in any given relationship, especially to those who know her. Even her boyfriend will eventually find out the truth.

I am not a goody too shoes either. I enjoy my freshman college social life too but I try to be more discreet with my pictures. When others see my Facebook profile, I want them to see the same person backstage with the same character values in life as the frontstage driven individual with self respect.

The displaying of my friends frontstage as being this sweet, smart and loving person on Facebook page is not what she plays out on her backstage life. Her catty personality is not at all caring and loving like the field she has chosen for her college degree either. This false viewing of her backstage prevents her from having a true friendship and realizing her worth as an individual. Her safety net of her frontstage character has built a pattern of using others. 

Unfortunately, dramaturgical play in society occurs everyday. It is a form of survival in the community. Some people feel they have to falsely portray themselves in order to be successful. No one should have to compromise their values for the sake of achieving a higher status of success like my friend feels she must do. I understand that her backstage behavior would be a complete embarrassment for her new and upcoming field of study in college. She wants to portray a passionate and loving person but I know the truth and unfortunately, true colors must come out sometime.

Using Goffmans Dramaturgical Theory, I discovered this theory is a form of survival for coping with societal pressures. It is much easier to determine peoples frontstage from their backstage life through dramatic events. Profile pictures speak a lot of words and outward actions speak for itself. My friends Facebook behavior and attitude does not portray the person I know. In reality, her deceptive personality has not changed and her true colors will slowly come out whenever others get to befriend her on a personal level. Until she changes her backstage behavior, unfortunately, the false character will flourish and so will the rumors with her Facebook friends and eventually, people will drift away.  You can not judge a book by its cover

Economist discussion on economic development now has focused on geography and institution in addition to policies as factors influencing economic development. These factors have a share in ensuring economic development. These paper discuses the economist views on this matter of concern

Summary and ideas.
The article discusses the contribution of institutions, trade and the geography as factors that determine income distribution in the world. The article asserts that, it is the quality of the institutions that triumph over everything i.e. geography and policies encompassing trade. According to this article, geography has weak effects on income but has great indirect effect on institution quality. On the other hand, the article asserts that, institutions have great influence on policies encompassing trade and other economic activities. To add on this, this article claims that policies affects institution quality.

The ideas and summary of the article on root of development
This article postulates that, some economists claim that, it is through the long lived institutions which are conducive for growth such as property rights political stability, legal stability and so on, that economic development will be achieved.

To other economists, more weight is emphasized on geography especially the climate which greatly determines incidence of diseases, agricultural opportunities and applicability of some technologies. The access to the sea which affects the international integration scope is also emphasized as part of geography.

The relationship of two articles
The emphasis of institution as a factor influencing economic development is discussed in both articles. The interdependence of three factors influencing economic development i.e. geography, institutions and policies is also discussed in both articles.

The postulation that, the institutions maters a lot as compared with the geography and policies is apparent in both articles. A country with good institutions may certainly do well even amidst unfavorable geography and bad policies while a country with bad institutions tend to do badly regardless of good geography and policies.

The societies in which we live in have got institutions and organizations where people have different ranks through which they offer services to others. The ranking of people in any organization brings the idea of leadership where somebody has to direct and support one another in the way to manage and handle tasks leading to sound decisions, and achievement of goals set for the particular task. Generally, the task of leading others to attain a given goal is not an easy task as many people think. There is complexity in leadership and several associated challenges which have led to have leaders with different leadership styles, so as to succeed in their profession (Burns, 1985). Leaders portray autocratic or democratic transformational or even laissez-faire leadership style depending on the qualities of the leader. It is believed that transformational leadership is the best style to be embraced in organizations that want to be among the top competitors in any particular industry. Thus, the understanding of its key features qualities that led to its effectiveness in the operation and management are thus of paramount importance, especially when operation environments are seen to fluctuate forcing a change in organizations.

Normally, a good leader should be honest, loyal and committed to the goals of the organization he intends to lead. A good leader should not have a desire for wrongful gains or hidden agendas. Some leaders have a self plan and pursue them rather than acting in the interests of the organization. National leaders and particularly the freedom fighters of several nations had steadfast qualities and determination in them, which helped them carry on and ultimately succeed. A good leader is perhaps a good follower. Similarly a good leader should also emphasize such qualities among his followers and make them accountable too. Simplicity is a mark of identity for any leader and projecting himself as a role model. A leader indeed should have uncommon qualities to successfully lead his organization (Palmer, 2004).

Change is a permanent reality across time. The world is changing at an unprecedented pace, as never before witnessed. This has posed a great challenge to the leaders in the managing change in organizations (Peters, 2000). Change in an organization, group or any set up involves altering its structure, processes, the behaviour of its management and staff, its strategy, environment etc. The structure of an organization is one of the most common targets of change. Some processes which are altered as a result of change implementation are communication processes, management processes and learning process. Periodic reviews of its goals and progress are vital for any organization or team to stay aligned with its objectives and expectations. This means the application of the power to manipulate the objects knowledge rather than augmentation of the self-interest knowledge (Palmer, 2004). I understand the need and consequences of change, which an organization undertakes according to the demands placed on it. Ongoing communication can motivate managers and employees and help them to overcome resistance to an initiative, keep them prepared for the ups and downs of change
Organizations are managed by several forms of leadership based on the exertion of authority within the organization. Two main, but interconnected types of leadership in organizations are the transformational leadership and the transactional leadership, both having strong philosophical and ethical foundations Transformational leadership gives followers the opportunity to assess the leaders view, to seek explanations and provide solutions, while transactional leadership is more based on imposition, where followers are driven by the praise, promise or reward of the leader. Transformational leadership has become more popular in the last three decades primarily due to the changing global economy.

Transformational leadership promotes equality, justice and human rights through loyalty and fairness. Recent findings suggest that team performance and communication are improved under transformational leadership (Palmer, 2004). Authentic transformational leaders are sometimes transactional too. The leader may present his opinion, plans and exhort agreement on them, which however may be in the mutual interest of all involved.

The embracing of the transformational leadership entails the mutual interaction between the leaders and the followers for the good of the individuals and the organizations. The key focus is on implementation of organizations projects that have motivational impacts to the employees. It thus integrates the vision and goals of the organization to those of the workers. Consequently, there is an overall realization of growth of individuals and the organization as whole. It works parallel to the practices of engaging an organization vision to the works without consideration of the workers visions. According to Burn (1985) leaders have an array of responsibilities which include empowering, elevating and leading the junior group in times of crises and conflicts. They have to trigger their consciousness and make rise above personal interest for the sake group success.

Being a transformational leader means that, one has to find the motivating factors of the others, as they are vital component associated with productivity at the workplace. The key gist of adapting to the transformational leadership is not to tame the power of leadership, but its aimed at making each individual transcend the barriers being experienced at the present position held. Burn (1985) argues that people unite together in transformational leadership such that they have motivation and moral uplifting to the higher levels. Subsequently, this eliminates most of the impediments which might be encountered in times of instilling a change in an organization. It is through the empowering and elevation of followers that leaders set the way right of winning the hearts and minds of the followers with ease. In reality, productivity at work places is reduced when injustices, unfairness, and suchlike other practices are made habitual in an organization. The effect of the practices is disuniting the workers soul with the work, and thus a decrease in production is realized (Palmer, 2004). 

Suitable theories and principles of individual motivation are applied with basic logic to address the psyche of people who are to be motivated. Each transformational leader must be in tune with their respective organizations and prevailing circumstances. It would be surprising to know that things like job security, money etc. cannot help in motivating people. A transformational leader sometimes can easily motivate by setting an example and not forcing people to follow them. By so doing, the leaders epitomizes to be a servant leader rather than an oppressor and subsequently this remove the doubts and thoughts of tyranny in the followers (Burn, 1985).     
                   
Finally, the practice of transformational leadership in an organization has significance impact to the individuals and the organization as whole. First and foremost, it may used as strategy of augmenting the unity among workers in the leadership level and the subordinate employees at all levels work. The main Transformational leadership approach is to embrace of the fusion of the organization needs with the needs of the employees. This, it endeavors to diffuse the boundary lines between the leadership positions and those of the subordinates. This eradication the possible existence of separation of the organization management goals and sets straight the favorable working environment where the main body and the souls are incorporation. This drives to the conclusion that transformational leadership encompasses the employment of virtues as key to winning the souls of workers and healing the negative effects that results from change initiation and implementation.