Sociology

This is a qualitative explanatory research in which verbal views of participants are collected as data and which seeks to get a comprehensive understanding of the participants opinions as well as their background. Unlike the quantitative study, this study has no room for assumptions and generalization of the collected data. In this article, the research question has not been specifically stated but can be identified. The research question though not clearly stated is how time is symbolically and practically used in an organisational context by new members to demonstrate as well as demand commitment (Amanda 1994). The researcher aims at answering this question by studying new recruits of an accountancy firm through a cohort study.
    Any report on social research must start with an abstract which explains briefly but powerfully explains what the study entails and the findings. In this article, the abstract has been well presented explaining the background of the study (research shows symbolism is what is used to manage organizational commitment). The abstract explains that the study aimed at establishing how time is used in organizations symbolically as well as pragmatically by new members to demand and show commitment. The study collected qualitative data from graduate accountants in an international firm. The abstract does not mention the method used to collect the data and the tools used to analyze it. It however briefly states the results attained. In spite of the absence of the methodology, this abstract has been well presented and has the capability of enticing a reader to read the rest of the article. From reading it, one can get a clear overview of what the study was all about. One can actually read the abstract alone and get the information required. It can therefore be argued that the abstract is a brief but clear presentation of the entire article.
    The research question is based on literature review which argues that time is important is several organizations and institutions. Roth (1963) and Zerubavel (1979) as cited in Amanda (1994) argue that time is central to the nature of hospital life. Other authors cited in the journal such as Delamont  Galton 1983 Meighan 1981 Adam 1992 explain that time is a key factor in the life of pupils, staff and the school as a whole (Amanda 1994). Turner (1971) argues that the ritual facets of the management of time are an essential part of the industrial subculture (Amanda 1994). It is on the argument of this author in which it is suggested that it is possible for the management of time to take on ritual properties in an organisational context. Signing of the register or punching of the timecard is examples of how organisations and their employees demonstrate punctuality according to this author. Turner explains that the fact that thousands of women and men arrive at workplaces at the same time in spite of their domestic responsibilities is a clear demonstration of how work organisations use time. Kanter 1968 and Fink 1992 as cited in the journal argue that time can be regarded as a mechanism of ensuring and demonstrating commitment to an organisational setting (Amanda 1994). Other literature in the paper differentiates private time from public time and explains that commitment to ones profession requires them to be flexible in the two categories of time. Prior literature also suggests time management is related to the re-socialisation process and demonstrates commitment to the values of the organisational setting. The studies imply that utilisation and management of time by the socialising agency and newcomers is very significant to occupational socialisation. It is from this argument that the researcher developed their research question.
    It is essential for researchers to either develop theories and modules to guide their studies or use the existing theoretical frameworks as the base of their research. In this article, the specific framework the author used cannot be identified. It is however clear that the study is based on the general theory of time management. Conventional time management refers to the systematic application of sensible strategies and techniques to help one become effective in their personal as well professional lives with the promise of becoming faster and more productive while at the same time decreasing the anxiety and pressure that are characteristic of how we feel about time (Limoncelli 2006). The author should have specifically used the Pickle jar theory mostly about setting priorities particularly in its abstract way of how one should think about the tasks they have to execute each day of their lives (Lawrence 2008).
    In any research, the researcher must develop a hypothesis which explains the expected results and how the various variables before carrying out the actual study. The researcher hypothesises that time is one of the ways through which organisational commitment is managed through symbolism (Amanda 1994). The author states that time is a symbolic and practical aspect of the socialisation of graduates into an accountancy firm. This hypothesis is adequate in answering the research question and correlates well with the literature review as well as the theoretical framework that guides the study.
    The researcher used a cohort study in this research (Amanda 1994). The researcher might have chosen this method because of its applicability to the case and the various advantages it offers. Cohort studies make it possible for the researcher to evaluate several outcomes at a time. This is because it allows the researcher to examine multiple outcomes associated with a specific treatment or exposure. Cohort studies also allow the researcher to collect complete information on what the subject is exposed to (Kelsey et al., 1996). This includes excellent control of data as well as the subjects experience thereafter. The time order is also very clear in these studies.
The methodologies used in cohort studies and the attained results can easily be understood by readers who are not epidemiologists (Kelsey et al., 1996). Cohort studies make possible the study of exposures that are relatively rare. It is possible to calculate incidence rates hence absolute risk and relative risks in cohort studies which is not possible in other kinds of studies (Kelsey et al., 1996). This increases reliability and validity of the collected data which is very crucial in qualitative studies.
The study design in cohort analysis does not require the researcher to strictly randomize the assignment of subjects which is usually unethical and improbable in many cases. Cohort analysis is also very appealing and useful for such a study (the case in context) as it is very flexible (Lilienfeld,  Lilienfeld 1980). It provides the researcher with insight into the affects of social, political, and cultural as well as maturation change. Another advantage of this method is that it can be used with original as well as secondary data. It is also less expensive and less time consuming as compared to other methods such as experiments or surveys (Rothman,  Greenland1998). A cohort study is easy to implement and is accomplished quickly. 
Cohort studies however have limitations that could compromise the reliability of the data. One limitation is that they usually require many subjects in terms of numbers. Since these studies take a long time (years), it can be difficult for the researchers to maintain high rates of subject follow-up. It is also time consuming for high quality studies require the subjects to be studied over a relatively longer period of time before the conditions of interest to researchers can develop (Lilienfeld,  Lilienfeld 1980).  It also is expensive to conduct this kind of study mainly because of the large number of subjects that is usually required.  The large number of subjects also make it impossible for long detailed in-depth interviews to be conducted resulting to sparse baseline data. Cohort studies are also not useful for research that entails rare outcomes. Cohort design also involves observation as the main method of collecting data and as such, it is impossible for it to be free of bias as well as confounding (Rothman,  Greenland 1998).  Cohorts are therefore prone to certain kinds of bias which reduce the reliability of the results. There are certain changes that can be missed in this kind of study because of the methodologies used to collect data, the size of the sample and the length of time they take. Cohort studies also require the analysis to have control for possible confounding. 
Because of the length of time these cohorts take, particularly those that involve studying an occupational population, the status of the subjects can change resulting to an error in the categorization of exposure (Lilienfeld,  Lilienfeld 1980). Other changes that are limiting to the results include subjects dying, moving away or changing jobs. It is also difficult to identify controls in cohorts. Randomisation is absent in cohort studies, a factor  which decreases the validity of the results as it implies that not every member of the studied population has equal chance of being sampled. Lack of randomisation also increases biases in sampling which compromises reliability of the data hence results.
It can be argued that using a cohort design was appropriate for this study based on the aim of the research. However, because of the limitations of cohort design, it is important for the findings from the study to undergo critical scrutiny before a judgement and conclusion can be made. It would also be better to combine it with a longitudinal study in which the study is initiated with various cohorts which are then followed and compared over time as results from one cohort cannot be generalised to the entire population. In longitudinal studies, subjects are their own control, a strategy that economises on subjects. Less number of subjects allows the researcher to carry out comprehensive interviews to get rich in-depth data from the subjects on their experiences as is required by qualitative studies. The researcher in the case study was not able to interview each of the subjects individually and relied more on observation which has its limitations as a data collection method when compared to interviews particularly semi-structured interviews. Longitudinal studies also allow changes that take place over time within the subjects to be changed so that errors are not made particularly in classification of exposure. These studies unlike cohorts give information about any individual changes among the subjects.
In order to collect data, the researcher in this article used observation as the main method as the study used a cohort design. They might have chosen this method because it is the suitable method to employ when one wants to understand the ongoing situation, gather information on individual behaviour as well as interactions between subjects and when it is not realistic to gather data from individuals as it is in this case (Kelsey et al., 1996). This method is advantageous as data is collected at the place and time when the activity is going on. It does not also rely on peoples voluntary willingness to provide information. The researcher is able to see directly what is going on hence no need to rely on information which increases accuracy of the collected data. Direct overt observation was used in this case as the subjects knew that they were being studied.  This has a disadvantage as there is possibility of the subjects faking their behaviour which is not the case in covert observation where they are not aware that they are being observed hence are more likely to behave and act naturally (Kelsey et al., 1996). Observation is also susceptible to the observers bias and can be time consuming as compared to other methods. It does not also increase the researchers understanding of how people behave the way they are. That is why it is important to combine this method with semi-structured interviews which give a detailed understanding of peoples behaviour towards an exposure.
The researcher used semi-structured interviews which have been referred to as qualitative interviews by Leedy  Ormrond (2005). It was appropriate to include this method as it enabled the researcher to understand in details why the subjects behaved as observed. In this type of interviews, the researcher usually has a standard set of questions which are usually followed by other individually tailored questions seeking to probe the respondents reasoning and to get further clarification so as to come up with deep detailed data. Semi-structured interviews are also flexible and allow the researcher to investigate the complexity of the study (King 2004). Using this method to collect data was appropriate as it complements some of the limitations of observation as the main method of collecting data in cohort designs. It increases the accuracy hence reliability of the results.
In this journal, the author does not explain the method used to analyse the collected data so as to come up with the discussed results. Based on the use of interviews, it would be appropriate to use Thematic analysis to analyse the collected responses. This tool categorises the descriptions of the interviewees according to the various themes that emerge from their meanings. The researcher is therefore able to highlight the main issues and themes that come out of the responses (Salkind 2006).  It also enables the researcher to identify the patterns that match in the responses and descriptions hence are able to quantify the data. Thematic analysis analyses the descriptions line by line generating codes which make it possible for rich meaning to be derived from the responses (Saunders, Lewis,  Thornhill 2006).
The study found that the early experiences of graduate accountants at the Western Ridge involved complex processes concerning time management. By emphasising on time, Western Ridge ensured that the new trainees demonstrated a certain amount of commitment to the organisation. The new recruits were able to recognize the organisations goal of securing their public as well private time. Though the recruits resented this, they accepted the perceived importance of demonstrating busyness, commitment and keenness to their work and to the firm (Amanda 1994).
In this article, ways to increase and ensure validity and reliability have not been explained. One way would be triangulation or ion its absence, comparing of the results with those of prior findings. The researcher should also have considered taking the results back to the subjects for their comments based on their experiences. These are strategies that are allowed in qualitative studies that are characterised by validity issues (Leedy,  Ormrod 2005).
The researcher did not also explain any ethical issues and how they were dealt with in spite of this being a study that involved humans. The limitations have also not been stated. The study did not also identify areas that need further research. All in all, no research study is perfect. Apart from the explained limitations, the methodology used was quite appropriate in answering the research question.