Sociology

A tight bond between mother and child is very vital in the development of the child both physically and cognitively. The emotional well being of the child is also largely determined by the relationship that exists between the two and especially at the tender age of the child. It is also pertinent to note that the way the child perceives and values themselves is built upon the relationship that is built between the child and the parents more so the mother. In the current world, most of the mothers are not constantly available for their children as many women have joined the workforce with some pursuing their careers such that they get very little time with their children. Moreover, it is possible to have the mother be separated from her child due to death, mothers incarceration, divorce as well as institutionalization of the child say while attending school. These factors lead to the after effects of maternal deprivation and more so they affect the childs self-concept.
   
This paper looks into the concept of self-concept in children who have been deprived of their mother. The first part of this work explores the subject of self-concept with the aim of understanding how self-concept forms and develops. In the second section, the concept of maternal deprivation is focused with the role of the mother in the childs life being central. Finally the paper discusses some of the factors that affect deprivation of the mother and childs response.  

The Self-Concept
To gain a clear understanding of the link between maternal deprivation and the childs self concept, it is important to understand what constitutes self-concept. Essentially, self-concept constitutes of viewpoint, mind-set as well as opinions that every person has and stands with as true concerning their existence. These aspects of every person come in a system that is organized and complex and are usually learnt. The knowledge of self accumulates with time and this self entails the beliefs that one has as far as physical traits, personality characteristics as well as values and roles are concerned. Self-concept is ones understanding of their social characteristics, physical traits and psychological disposition. Some of the physical traits that one may consider himself to have include viewing oneself as either tall, plump or beautiful. Socially, one may consider themselves as sociable, confident or shy whereas psychologically, it is possible to perceive oneself as optimistic, a good decision maker or pessimistic.
   
 Self-concept develops from as early as early childhood and progresses with age. Immediately an infant is capable of getting information from social interactions and organizing it such that it becomes possible to understand the social world around him it is at this point that one can say that the self-concept starts developing. The interactions between cognitive skills in the child and relationships with either the family or the childs peers form the basis for development of a self-concept in the child.

It has been proposed that self-concept develops following two aspects i.e. the existential self and the categorical self with the existential self being the most fundamental element of self concept. The self existential helps a child to become conscious that they exist separately from others and that their existence is constant. The existential self starts from when the child is barely four months old with the childs interaction with the world partly contributing to this. The categorical self comes later after the child recognizes hisher existential self. It entails the childs awareness that he or she is part of the many objects that exist in the world and therefore has properties thereof. Such properties as describes other objects in the world include color, texture as well as size. It therefore becomes part of the child to refer to themselves as for instance two years old, as a girl or a boy or as tall or short.
   
Important to note is that the stage of the child determines their level of understanding of the self. In early childhood, the child uses the physical features or certain skills to describe himself whereas at middle childhood, the child becomes more socially comparative thus shifting his views to those of internal psychology. As the child enters adolescence, his views of self-concept emerge to be more conceptual and multifaceted with its organization being more orderly.

There are assumptions that are taken when describing self-concept. It is for instance assumed that one learns self-concept. This is because there is no one who is born already having certain self-concept. Instead, the early days of life see the self-concept emerge and gradually develop depending on daily experiences. The implication of the fact that self-concept is learnt is that there lies much potential in everyone to develop and bring into being the self-concept. In addition, experiences of the past as well as current view of things shapes a persons view of themselves. It is also assumed that self-concept has to be organized in an orderly and consistent way. Altering the self-concept abruptly may therefore lead inconsistency in personality. This stability in self perception may persist for long even with attempts to change it. The dynamism of self-concept is also an important assumption thus helping the individual to face challenges and changes in the universe. In other words, self-concept acts as the guide in a persons life and it leaves room for adapting to prevailing conditions.
   
Self-concept goes hand in hand with self image, self esteem and the ideal self. These aspects are fundamental to selfconcept particularly in evaluating an individuals self concept. Self esteem is also known as self worth and it entails ones extent of self approval or self value. This evaluation therefore ends up being said as either a negativelow self worth or a positivehigh self worth. An individual with a high self-esteem ends up having greater confidence in hisher abilities and a high level of self acceptance. In addition, a positive esteem person is usually optimistic and has a strong sense of self without regard of what those around them may be thinking. An individual with low self esteem on the other hand has no confidence in himself and has a tendency to always want to appear like someone else. Pessimism also characterizes the life of a low esteemed person. From the view of self esteem, it is doubtless that the state of self esteem, which is determined largely by the environment which the child is brought up, determines the self awareness of an individual either positively or negatively. Although self esteem changes with the prevailing circumstances, its effect on self-concept are usually far reaching.
   
Self image is also central to self-concept and this describes what an individual sees in themselves. An important aspect about self image is that it is not a must that it represents the reality. Nevertheless, it affects ones self-concept as the individual believes and behaves in the manner in which they see themselves. Parental control is a central determinant of a persons image and therefore the lack of such influence definitely affects the persons self image and concept. Friends and the media are also known to influence an individuals self image. The media for instance may give praise to leanness and this may make a quite plump person to view themselves as a social misfit. Self image touches on aspects such as ones physical portrayal, social roles, personal traits as well as existential proclamations. All these are important factors when considering an individuals self-concept more so in children.
   
A third important component of self-concept is the ideal self which essentially describes a persons wish. The way a person views themselves has to be in tandem with what one would like to be i.e. ones ideal self. Without this, the self-concept or self value is definitely affected. It is however recognized that ones wishes must not always turn out to be the reality and this is allowed for when evaluating self-concept along this factor. The congruency between self image and ideal self is determined by virtually all the determinants of self-concept which include social roles, our ability to interact with the social world as well as our self regard in the presence of others.
   
It is conclusively right to say that self-concept is best if a person knows themselves, are able to love as well accept the way they are and they are honest with themselves having the ability to make sound choices and be responsible of the outcomes thereof.
   
Once self-concept has been built upon the above pillars, it is necessary to maintain and enhance this self awareness otherwise it can easily erode with unfavourable environmental experiences. A positive self-concept can be enhanced by constant self-affirmation about self. This aspect however is restricted to grown-ups who have concrete understanding of the self but not in children whose self-concept is mainly understood as personal attributes. The self-serving attribution bias has also been proposed as an effective self enhancement strategy. Again this bias can only be effectively expressed by persons who have a clear understanding of themselves. These two self enhancement theories act as an eye opener that the best and solid self-concept can only be built as from childhood and therefore persons who are responsible for the well being of a child have a vital role to play in determining the self-concept of the children. The mother who is in most circumstances closely attached to the child is of particular significance in attaining a positive self-concept in the child and so is the absence of the same.

Maternal deprivation
When talking of deprivation of the mother, it is generally referred to as the discontinuity of the mother-child relationship or otherwise the loss of the mother. This is as opposed to privation which although it refers to lack of this relationship, the mother is absent but not necessarily lost. According to Lebovici, the failed mother-child relationship may be encountered where the child totally no relationship with mother or if the relationship is discontinuous. Maternal deprivation can be classified in several forms. One instance is deprivation that happens even before the two have formed a stable relationship full of security and dependency. It can happen that the child may not even get a chance to establish a concrete relationship afterwards such as it happens in the case of institutionalisation. On the other hand, the child may be presently deprived of a maternal figure but then gets the same opportunity later in life. An extreme case of mother deprivation occurs in case the child gets separated from the mother after a solid relationship has already been established. It even becomes worse if there stands no chance of going back to the same secure relationship. Some children may happen to get back into a stable relationship later with the same mother or a person with the role of the mother. The deprivation of mother may also be temporary whereby reunion follows soon after cessation of the initial relationship.
   
Maternal deprivation occurs under different circumstances. The father of the child for instance may do all that it takes to get the children away from their mother. This may mean murdering the mother, accusing the mother falsely so that the mother is incarcerated or denied custody of the child. Fathers have for instance been found to accuse the mother of having syndromes such as Parental Alienation Syndrome or Hostile Aggressive Parenting thus depriving the mother the right to have custody of the child. Though maternal deprivation is done as a punishment to the mother, little is it realized that the long term consequences are left with the child who becomes socially scared due to poor self-concept.

Importance of the role of the mother in the childs life
According to Bowlby et al (1956), maternal deprivation encompasses being separated from the mother by way of losing the mother or by failing to establish an attachment with the mother. Maternal deprivation is usually more severe during the early years of the child since this is the stage at which the child gets programmed and this is mainly accomplished by the mother. It therefore implies that lack of the mother figure has dire consequences as shall be seen later. The deprivation of mother may occur for instance when the mother dies, if the mother is incarcerated, if the children are institutionalized in juveniles or care centres among other causes. To better comprehend the seriousness of mother-child separation, it is of importance to review the importance of the role of the mother in the childs life. In his work on imprinting, Lorenz identified the importance of attachment in survival and also concluded that attachment was intrinsic.

This implies that when children are born, they already have an attachment to their closest beings who most of the times happen to be the mother. For the attachment to remain a baby tends to send social releaser signal such as crying and these help to mend the bond of separation as attention is restored. Bowlby suggested that the attachment that the child had had to be with one main figure, a condition known as monotropy. Again the mother qualifies to be this main figure of attachment and that this initial attachment bears more benefit qualitatively compared to any kind of attachment that may come thereafter. Noteworthy is the fact that even if the child would get another close attachment, it would never equal that initial attachment offered by the mother at the tender age. The importance of having the motherly attachment at an age less than five years and particularly so in the first twelve months was stressed by Bowlby, et al citing that mother-child separation at this critical stage leads to severe long-lasting and irreversible outcomes. Equally, interruptions in the relationship between the baby and the mother at this tender age have long lasting social, cognitive and emotional challenges on the childs life. Some of the consequences resulting from broken mother-child attachment include depression, lack of concern and fondness for others, low intelligence, tendency to end up a law breaker and heightened aggressiveness. 
   
A close attachment between a child and the mother is very essential in ensuring a wholesome development in later years of the child. For the child to be socially developed he or she must have had a close relationship with a special personality and preferably the mother, otherwise the attachment becomes too poor for the child to cope socially later in life. This is demonstrated by the distress caused on a child after being separated from the mother. The attachment theory suggested by Bowlby stresses the need for the mother in the first years of development if the child is to be saved from depression, emotional distraught as well as relationship difficulties. It is of emphasis that if a child gets a good attachment with their mother, then there are high chances that the child will possess a high self esteem which is a vital component of a persons self-concept. With the positive self-concept, such a child is able to attract and form solid relationships with others in the social world. In addition, the self-concept of such a person is always enhanced by the positive attitude such a person develops making them excel socially.
   
Maternal deprivation has potential not only to affect the cognitive and social development life of the child but also to impact on the health of the child. The health of the child more so in the development of the brain consequently affects the behaviour of the child. It has for instance been identified that maternal deprivation has adverse effects on brain development in infant monkeys. The result of poor brain development is behavioural dysfunctions such as depression, and aggression. A good example of the effect of maternal deprivation is the development of the maternal deprivation syndrome that is usually evident in children under the age of two years. Absence of the mother in this syndrome leads to the child not attaining the right weight, abnormal physical growth among other consequences. All these characteristics are indicators of failure to blossom.
   
If a child lacks close attachment with the mother at the early years of development, then it becomes common phenomenon to see the child grow with impaired relationship making capabilities. This is especially if the mother deprivation was complete. On the other hand, the child also has high chances of developing anxiety, and uncontrollable emotions all of which show impaired self-concept. These may have been some of the reasons why Bowlby may have equated the necessity of motherly love in ensuring a good mental health status at the tender age with essential nutrients such as proteins and vitamins that are important for physical integrity. As earlier noted, the development of self-concept begins in the first few months after a child is born. This time period correlates with the period proposed by Bowlby as the most critical period for a mother to form a meaningful attachment with the child. This means that if it happens that the child lacks the mother figure at this age, then the positive impacts of the mother to the child are ignored and so a poor or negative self-concept begins to take root in the child.
   
Studies on maternal deprivation in animals stress the importance of the role of the mother in the development of the child, even so the development of cognitive and behavioural skills.  Harry Harlows experiments where he separated infant monkeys from their mothers have come under severe criticism due to the negative effects that were found out from his work. The monkeys were cited to have had serious problems in their emotions and behavior. They particularly become autistic and socially withdrawn due to this separation.  Considering that monkeys are very close to human beings evolutionary, there is no doubt that a child also stand a chance of developing such adverse consequences. Hormonal changes in children as studied by Carlson indicate the importance of having motherly contact in children. In her study on the consequences of maternal attachment and hormonal changes, Carlson found out that children whose mothers held them during vaccination had only a slight increase in cortisol hormone levels as compared to children who were not held by their mothers. Harlows experiments further proved that maternal deprivation leads to mental development whereas the social and behavioural aspects of such monkeys came to be affected by this separation.
   
The importance of the mother-child relationship can also be established by looking at other consequence of maternal deprivation. Depression is at the root of maternal deprivation as found out by Munro. He identified that among the depression patients he studied most of them had lost their mothers during youthful stage to cancer. This was contrary to the control group who had their fathers die from cancer at the same age group. Depression is a mental illness and therefore falls under the classification of Bowlbys (1953) mental illnesses that develop after mother deprivation and these impair a childs ability to love objects in the environment. It is to be remembered that self-concept develops with a child having the ability to realize that he or she is an object and therefore he can perceive himself as having those characteristics.

Factors affecting the deprivation of the mother and childs response
There are several factors that have an effect on the way the relationship turns out after the child is deprived of the mother. Most of these are primarily based on what led to the deprivation and the stage at which deprivation occurs. As such, whether the deprivation is temporary or long lasting is a very essential aspect to consider. The time period in which the child is deprived of the mother is a determinant of the outcomes of the deprivation on the child. If the child stays away from the mother for quite a lengthy period, such as it happens with children in day care, it is then possible to have the child suffer more developmental problems. Such a child lacks the sense of security and has no chance of acquiring values which can only be best instilled by the mother. It has been shown that if infants are reared in institutions where they are deprived of their mothers for up to ten months, then they have a tendency to have slow growth as well as experience behavioural retardation. 
   
The age at which the deprivation occurs is very crucial in determining how the child will turn out to be, both emotionally and mentally. At a very tender age below the age of one year, deprivation results to severe emotional and mental damage. It is therefore likely to see signs of poor self-concept in such a child as displayed by the childs withdrawal, sense of insecurity and intellectual underdevelopment. Separation at this stage brings anxiety that causes depression and immune system compromise. Physical illnesses are therefore a common phenomenon in a child deprived of the mother at a very early age.

Now and again, it has been stressed that the first three to five years of the child are very important if mother-child relationship were to be maintained constant otherwise the child ends up being impaired in thought system, intellectual ability, social life and love life. This is mainly because the child is not in a position to engage in any peer activity until he or she is more than two years when separation from the mother may be substituted to an extent by the peers. It has been established through research that maternal deprivation before two years has significant mental and social consequences as opposed to deprivation at a later age. Nonetheless, the children still suffer mild consequences of deprivation and still it is not very clear whether such individuals fully recover from the damage caused by the early childhood maternal deprivation.
   
A childs response after maternal deprivation is also determined by the presence or absence of a significant other. Children who are deprived of their mothers, say after divorce and they are left under the care of the father have higher chances of regaining normal life as compared to those who are not left under the care of a significant figure, the age at which deprivation occurs being constant. Guttman suggests that although children deprived of their mother and are living with their father experience some behavioural difficulties, the children usually become stable soon after. It has been established that if a child gets deprived of the mother but then another person comes in and plays the role of the mother, even if it is not the father, the child is able to heal from the adverse effects of deprivation but if this role is not supplemented, then there is no doubt that the self concept of the child will be negatively affected by social and emotional damages encountered by this child.    

Other than deprivation per se, the environment in which the child is brought up after deprivation matters significantly. If the child remains at home as opposed to being institutionalised, then the effects of separation are not as adverse as in the alternative case. In fact the children who stay home with affectionate persons around them are able to cope easily whereas those who live away from home get low self esteem and socially withdrawn and may end up falling victims of habits such as having nightmares. It is therefore justifiable to conclude that institutionalisation of children affects their self-concept severely as opposed to non-institutionalisation.

The presence of the mother figure in a childs life more so in the first few months is vital to the development of a sound self-concept in the child. Self awareness is initiated once a child is born and mainly depends on the presence of a significant figure particularly the mother. A strong bond between the mother and the child is healthy to the emotional and social well being of the child and therefore it is supposed to be provided. Failure to establish such an attachment due to deprivation of the mother as happens during divorce or institutionalization or even death of the mother makes the child lack an opportunity to build a solid self-concept that enhances his or her relationship with the social world around him. The situation is made worse if the child experiences complete deprivation and there is no person to intervene in the role of the mother. Delinquency, aggression, and other socially unhealthy behaviours are always evident in children who had maternal deprivation at a tender age. This work is an eye opener into the need to always ensure the active presence of the mother in the tender age of a child if the child is to be saved from the consequences of poor self-concept later in life.

In the world there are unfortunately many countries that are poor. Some of these countries experience poverty due to wars as is the case with Bosnia and Herzegovina. The 1992-1995 war transformed Bosnia-Herzegovina from a medium-income country within the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to a poor country (Rural Poverty in Bosnia and Herzegovina, para.1). Bosnia and Herzegovina gained its independency in 1992 which was followed up with the blooded civil war. Still, 17 years after the war, Bosnia remains poor country and unsafe area for foreign investments. There have been only 222 direct investments in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the past year. 

Bosnia has been actively using credits provided by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and other institutions trying to recover its economy. For more than 17 years the Bosnian government is being granted with loans with high interest covering the past ones that have been taken. The trouble lies in the ineffective Bosnian economy that has been doing it for too long and this is why it has become a repeated cycle.

Theories of Global Inequality
According to the Dependency theory, Bosnia is perpetually in the situation in which the import from developed countries is enormously higher than the export. For example, in the year 2008 merchandise export was 5 064 (million US) and import was 12 282 (million US) (Economic information about Bosnia and Herzegovina Investment, Population, GDP, Household income, Economie, Economia, n.d.)  and that is what makes Bosnia a weak player in a regional market. 
         
Other theory such as the State-centered theory stresses the role that governments can play in the improvement of the economic development. The trouble with Bosnia is associated with the government that is excessively involved in its economy not letting a free market to take place without any intervention and regulation by the government.

After the secession and the war, Bosnia did not have enough of resources to progress independently, thus the government fostered trade with foreign Yugoslav countries. Croatia, as one the former member that has suffered less and with the best economy in the region, has been the most important trade partner for Bosnia. This lead to erasing the state borders under the influence of economic agreements between the countries. As World System Theory claims, Croatia soon became core and welfare state, while Bosnia remained peripheral poor neighbor. 

According to these facts, Bosnian situation is best explained by the Market  oriented Theory of global inequality.  The biggest challenges that Bosnia and Herzegovina is facing today are cost-ineffective, self-unsustainable institutional frameworks and the lack of co-operation between the institutions that are bringing the economy of this region down. .Bosnia fits perfectly in the explanation of why countrys poverty is possible. Consistently with the theory claims, the institutional barriers can do more harm than good to a small country.

The modernization theory mentions also how cultural barriers influence country which is the case with Bosnia and Herzegovina as well. The state in which the social evolution is hardly possible, as well as the inner cultural barriers combined with the traditionally accepted governmental corrupted behavior, brought Bosnia face to face with the status quo.

Politicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina have been intentionally making ethnicity the main political cleavage in the country for more than 20 years which has led to the complete blurring of social reality and inequality within the region.The manipulation of Bosnian leadership has strengthened and secured the position of corrupt politicians who continue to exploit the situation up to the present day.     If Bosnia is to overcome the semi-protectorate status and to become a democratic state within Europe, with an economic status similar to the rest of the Balkan countries, its citizens and politicians need to have the same vision. Bosnia and Herzegovina is not only in a ransitional period, but is still struggling with the post-war consequences and this is obvious through the ineffective and entity-divided institutons. Institutions have to be efficient stakeholders, but on the other side, civil society has to secure internal coordination and synergy, avoid overleaping, and empower Bosnia and Herzegovina in general.

Continued economic prosperity for the United States cannot be assured in the absence of prosperity, freedom and economic opportunity worldwide. As the war against terrorism has become central for U.S. foreign policy, focus on increasing U.S. economic security is crucial. This is done by supporting front-line states, tightening the noose around terrorist financing, increasing energy security and improving the security of transport and information networks. Market-expanding agreements, international cooperation, fighting bribery and corruption, and assisting developing countries to govern wisely, and create favorable climate for trade and investment can also help the U.S. achieve a better economic platform. Official development assistance to developing countries can help them achieve economic prosperity and political stability. This includes reconstruction in post-conflict or post-disaster situations, serving the vital role of coordinating the relevant agencies and donors etc. The U.S is deeply and comprehensively engaged in economic activities with developing countries through trade, investment, assistance, and debt relief, which enhances the prosperity and security of those countries, and therefore that of the U.S. The U.S. should also ensure that its resources and those in developing countries are utilized well and also ensure international cooperation, and see that developing countries make their policies having considered that the U.S. is willing to invest in them. One of the most sensitive sectors in the economy of the U.S is the gas and automobile industry.

Gas has been one of the greatest economic problems the United States has had for years. Rising price of Saudi Arabian oil, dependence on foreign oil and the high number of gas-consuming automobiles in the United States have always worked together to ensure that the U.S. government does not succeed in containing the gas crisis. The U.S.  President, Barrack Obama, during campaigns, suggested use of ethanol and replacement of gas-consuming automobiles with hybrids. The use of ethanol as a solution would lead to another crisis as well since ethanol is a multipurpose product the pragmatic solution here lies in the development of hybrid automobiles. The hybrid-electric Chevrolet volt coming out in 2010 may be the solution to the gas crisis the U.S. has suffered for ages. For once we actually have viable alternatives and exiting technology that are game changers in the effort to wean transportation from petroleum. However, if the price of petroleum goes downit undercuts the viability of new technology.  This statement was made by Americas leading salesman, Mike Jackson. It seems odd that Americas leading car salesman would want gasoline prices to stay high, given how much damage the recent surge in pump prices has done to demand for the big sport-utility vehicles and pickups that once powered sales at many AutoNation stores. Mr. Jackson says he sees a widespread consensus that, for a combination of environmental and national security reasons, Americans should consume less oil. To that end, Americans want the auto industry to speed production of electric vehicles and high-mileage, gasoline-electric hybrids, while substantially improving the mileage of conventional oil-powered cars. Its entirely possible that a decade from now, well realize that this was a pivotal moment in the auto industry history. This could be the moment when a century of relying almost exclusively on petroleum to power personal mobility gives way to a new model, in which electricity powers our transportation. The question remains why the U.S. remains dependent on oil imports from Saudi Arabia while it has better oil reserves in Alaska.
   
The future car has become the subject of much debate. It seems likely that most large gas-guzzlers will be out of production within a year or so. Nearly all automobile manufacturers around the world are working on all-electric or plug-in hybrid electric cars that are due to start coming on the market in two or three years. For many observers, the notion of replacing the current fleet of cars with some of the electric ones is absurd. Their argument is that there will simply not be enough resources to make the transition. There will not be enough lithium for batteries global warming and carbon caps will limit industrial production and consumers impoverished by the continuing financial meltdown will not be able to afford what are likely to be expensive replacements for our current cars. If as seems likely, much of the worlds capacity to produce automobiles is going to be shut down in the next couple of years, the likelihood of gearing up and replacing hundreds of millions of cars before sizeable declines in the worlds oil production sets in is remote. Plug in electric cars of various stripes, of course, will come onto the market and it is likely that millions will be produced and sold in coming decades, but this will only make a minor dent in the U.S. fleet of 250 million passenger vehicles, not to mention the 900 million or more that will be running around the world. So what is likely to happen
   
With increasing gasoline prices and falling family incomes, unlimited use of private cars that nearly all in America now enjoy will start moving back up the socio-economic tree. The fortunate, who can afford the new generations of ultra high-mileage plug-in cars, will not have to worry about increasing gasoline prices, shortages or rationing. For the rest, use of the aging fleet of our current car inventory will gradually be reduced. Car pools and public transit are likely to become far more prevalent. Efficient cars will become more desirable as gasoline approaches unaffordable prices.

Statements concerning the capability of particular foods to cut down on the dangers of diseases, such as cancer and to enhance lives of individuals continue to mesmerize and thus polarizing opinions. Interests in these essential foods together with their active constituents are currently being propelled by escalating medical care cost, mounting scientific proof, and recent legislative events. Increasingly, scientific researchers are being persuaded to clarify the specific role which certain foods encompass in promoting and maintaining the health. Additionally, the correlation between cancer and diet is properly established, and novel genomic bioengineering has made it possible the exploration of nutritional intonation of carcinogenesis conduit with micronutrients, phytochemicals, and nutrients . The present research of nutrient modulated carcinogenesis engrosses investigating the consequences of nutrients on DNA repair and damage mechanism. Therefore, with nutritional proteomics, genomics, and metabolomics, scientific researchers can simultaneously explicate the pharmacological impacts of dietary components on cancerous cells.
A number of studies have been carried out on effects of diet on women diagnosed with breast cancer. Women who were subjected to eat large amount of total protein, as well as omega fatty acids were established to contain significant chances of survive for a longer time than those women who consumed least quantity of these types of foods. Furthermore, those women who ate large quantities of fish, fiber and vegetables as well had a lower risk of death than women who consumed less of such nutrients and foods. Currently, it is not yet known if the aspects of diet prior to diagnosis influence breast cancer continued existence. However, several researches carried out indicate that intake of large quantities of fats is highly associated with a substantial increase in the danger of breast cancer deaths. Though, the effect of fat consumption on the danger of breast cancer deaths as well as risk of being exposed to breast cancer are both areas of debate and thus additional researches are required to arrive at a pragmatic conclusion
Respectable proof continues to surface which indicate that consumption of certain foods and their correlated components can contain reflective physiologic impacts. Nevertheless, is very important that these essential diets be considered as significant in health care, especially in management of cancer. It is as well very substantial that extra energy be dedicated to the recognition of factors which may perhaps augment the benefits linked to these functional foods or their components. Evaluation and identification of aspects which might be debilitated by overzealous intakes need to be carried out in order to known the potent amount of such foods possible to elicit activity. Finally, the benefits emanating from these cancerous management foods will only be realized following provision of significantly clear and sound information that do not misinform the population.

This is a qualitative explanatory research in which verbal views of participants are collected as data and which seeks to get a comprehensive understanding of the participants opinions as well as their background. Unlike the quantitative study, this study has no room for assumptions and generalization of the collected data. In this article, the research question has not been specifically stated but can be identified. The research question though not clearly stated is how time is symbolically and practically used in an organisational context by new members to demonstrate as well as demand commitment (Amanda 1994). The researcher aims at answering this question by studying new recruits of an accountancy firm through a cohort study.
    Any report on social research must start with an abstract which explains briefly but powerfully explains what the study entails and the findings. In this article, the abstract has been well presented explaining the background of the study (research shows symbolism is what is used to manage organizational commitment). The abstract explains that the study aimed at establishing how time is used in organizations symbolically as well as pragmatically by new members to demand and show commitment. The study collected qualitative data from graduate accountants in an international firm. The abstract does not mention the method used to collect the data and the tools used to analyze it. It however briefly states the results attained. In spite of the absence of the methodology, this abstract has been well presented and has the capability of enticing a reader to read the rest of the article. From reading it, one can get a clear overview of what the study was all about. One can actually read the abstract alone and get the information required. It can therefore be argued that the abstract is a brief but clear presentation of the entire article.
    The research question is based on literature review which argues that time is important is several organizations and institutions. Roth (1963) and Zerubavel (1979) as cited in Amanda (1994) argue that time is central to the nature of hospital life. Other authors cited in the journal such as Delamont  Galton 1983 Meighan 1981 Adam 1992 explain that time is a key factor in the life of pupils, staff and the school as a whole (Amanda 1994). Turner (1971) argues that the ritual facets of the management of time are an essential part of the industrial subculture (Amanda 1994). It is on the argument of this author in which it is suggested that it is possible for the management of time to take on ritual properties in an organisational context. Signing of the register or punching of the timecard is examples of how organisations and their employees demonstrate punctuality according to this author. Turner explains that the fact that thousands of women and men arrive at workplaces at the same time in spite of their domestic responsibilities is a clear demonstration of how work organisations use time. Kanter 1968 and Fink 1992 as cited in the journal argue that time can be regarded as a mechanism of ensuring and demonstrating commitment to an organisational setting (Amanda 1994). Other literature in the paper differentiates private time from public time and explains that commitment to ones profession requires them to be flexible in the two categories of time. Prior literature also suggests time management is related to the re-socialisation process and demonstrates commitment to the values of the organisational setting. The studies imply that utilisation and management of time by the socialising agency and newcomers is very significant to occupational socialisation. It is from this argument that the researcher developed their research question.
    It is essential for researchers to either develop theories and modules to guide their studies or use the existing theoretical frameworks as the base of their research. In this article, the specific framework the author used cannot be identified. It is however clear that the study is based on the general theory of time management. Conventional time management refers to the systematic application of sensible strategies and techniques to help one become effective in their personal as well professional lives with the promise of becoming faster and more productive while at the same time decreasing the anxiety and pressure that are characteristic of how we feel about time (Limoncelli 2006). The author should have specifically used the Pickle jar theory mostly about setting priorities particularly in its abstract way of how one should think about the tasks they have to execute each day of their lives (Lawrence 2008).
    In any research, the researcher must develop a hypothesis which explains the expected results and how the various variables before carrying out the actual study. The researcher hypothesises that time is one of the ways through which organisational commitment is managed through symbolism (Amanda 1994). The author states that time is a symbolic and practical aspect of the socialisation of graduates into an accountancy firm. This hypothesis is adequate in answering the research question and correlates well with the literature review as well as the theoretical framework that guides the study.
    The researcher used a cohort study in this research (Amanda 1994). The researcher might have chosen this method because of its applicability to the case and the various advantages it offers. Cohort studies make it possible for the researcher to evaluate several outcomes at a time. This is because it allows the researcher to examine multiple outcomes associated with a specific treatment or exposure. Cohort studies also allow the researcher to collect complete information on what the subject is exposed to (Kelsey et al., 1996). This includes excellent control of data as well as the subjects experience thereafter. The time order is also very clear in these studies.
The methodologies used in cohort studies and the attained results can easily be understood by readers who are not epidemiologists (Kelsey et al., 1996). Cohort studies make possible the study of exposures that are relatively rare. It is possible to calculate incidence rates hence absolute risk and relative risks in cohort studies which is not possible in other kinds of studies (Kelsey et al., 1996). This increases reliability and validity of the collected data which is very crucial in qualitative studies.
The study design in cohort analysis does not require the researcher to strictly randomize the assignment of subjects which is usually unethical and improbable in many cases. Cohort analysis is also very appealing and useful for such a study (the case in context) as it is very flexible (Lilienfeld,  Lilienfeld 1980). It provides the researcher with insight into the affects of social, political, and cultural as well as maturation change. Another advantage of this method is that it can be used with original as well as secondary data. It is also less expensive and less time consuming as compared to other methods such as experiments or surveys (Rothman,  Greenland1998). A cohort study is easy to implement and is accomplished quickly. 
Cohort studies however have limitations that could compromise the reliability of the data. One limitation is that they usually require many subjects in terms of numbers. Since these studies take a long time (years), it can be difficult for the researchers to maintain high rates of subject follow-up. It is also time consuming for high quality studies require the subjects to be studied over a relatively longer period of time before the conditions of interest to researchers can develop (Lilienfeld,  Lilienfeld 1980).  It also is expensive to conduct this kind of study mainly because of the large number of subjects that is usually required.  The large number of subjects also make it impossible for long detailed in-depth interviews to be conducted resulting to sparse baseline data. Cohort studies are also not useful for research that entails rare outcomes. Cohort design also involves observation as the main method of collecting data and as such, it is impossible for it to be free of bias as well as confounding (Rothman,  Greenland 1998).  Cohorts are therefore prone to certain kinds of bias which reduce the reliability of the results. There are certain changes that can be missed in this kind of study because of the methodologies used to collect data, the size of the sample and the length of time they take. Cohort studies also require the analysis to have control for possible confounding. 
Because of the length of time these cohorts take, particularly those that involve studying an occupational population, the status of the subjects can change resulting to an error in the categorization of exposure (Lilienfeld,  Lilienfeld 1980). Other changes that are limiting to the results include subjects dying, moving away or changing jobs. It is also difficult to identify controls in cohorts. Randomisation is absent in cohort studies, a factor  which decreases the validity of the results as it implies that not every member of the studied population has equal chance of being sampled. Lack of randomisation also increases biases in sampling which compromises reliability of the data hence results.
It can be argued that using a cohort design was appropriate for this study based on the aim of the research. However, because of the limitations of cohort design, it is important for the findings from the study to undergo critical scrutiny before a judgement and conclusion can be made. It would also be better to combine it with a longitudinal study in which the study is initiated with various cohorts which are then followed and compared over time as results from one cohort cannot be generalised to the entire population. In longitudinal studies, subjects are their own control, a strategy that economises on subjects. Less number of subjects allows the researcher to carry out comprehensive interviews to get rich in-depth data from the subjects on their experiences as is required by qualitative studies. The researcher in the case study was not able to interview each of the subjects individually and relied more on observation which has its limitations as a data collection method when compared to interviews particularly semi-structured interviews. Longitudinal studies also allow changes that take place over time within the subjects to be changed so that errors are not made particularly in classification of exposure. These studies unlike cohorts give information about any individual changes among the subjects.
In order to collect data, the researcher in this article used observation as the main method as the study used a cohort design. They might have chosen this method because it is the suitable method to employ when one wants to understand the ongoing situation, gather information on individual behaviour as well as interactions between subjects and when it is not realistic to gather data from individuals as it is in this case (Kelsey et al., 1996). This method is advantageous as data is collected at the place and time when the activity is going on. It does not also rely on peoples voluntary willingness to provide information. The researcher is able to see directly what is going on hence no need to rely on information which increases accuracy of the collected data. Direct overt observation was used in this case as the subjects knew that they were being studied.  This has a disadvantage as there is possibility of the subjects faking their behaviour which is not the case in covert observation where they are not aware that they are being observed hence are more likely to behave and act naturally (Kelsey et al., 1996). Observation is also susceptible to the observers bias and can be time consuming as compared to other methods. It does not also increase the researchers understanding of how people behave the way they are. That is why it is important to combine this method with semi-structured interviews which give a detailed understanding of peoples behaviour towards an exposure.
The researcher used semi-structured interviews which have been referred to as qualitative interviews by Leedy  Ormrond (2005). It was appropriate to include this method as it enabled the researcher to understand in details why the subjects behaved as observed. In this type of interviews, the researcher usually has a standard set of questions which are usually followed by other individually tailored questions seeking to probe the respondents reasoning and to get further clarification so as to come up with deep detailed data. Semi-structured interviews are also flexible and allow the researcher to investigate the complexity of the study (King 2004). Using this method to collect data was appropriate as it complements some of the limitations of observation as the main method of collecting data in cohort designs. It increases the accuracy hence reliability of the results.
In this journal, the author does not explain the method used to analyse the collected data so as to come up with the discussed results. Based on the use of interviews, it would be appropriate to use Thematic analysis to analyse the collected responses. This tool categorises the descriptions of the interviewees according to the various themes that emerge from their meanings. The researcher is therefore able to highlight the main issues and themes that come out of the responses (Salkind 2006).  It also enables the researcher to identify the patterns that match in the responses and descriptions hence are able to quantify the data. Thematic analysis analyses the descriptions line by line generating codes which make it possible for rich meaning to be derived from the responses (Saunders, Lewis,  Thornhill 2006).
The study found that the early experiences of graduate accountants at the Western Ridge involved complex processes concerning time management. By emphasising on time, Western Ridge ensured that the new trainees demonstrated a certain amount of commitment to the organisation. The new recruits were able to recognize the organisations goal of securing their public as well private time. Though the recruits resented this, they accepted the perceived importance of demonstrating busyness, commitment and keenness to their work and to the firm (Amanda 1994).
In this article, ways to increase and ensure validity and reliability have not been explained. One way would be triangulation or ion its absence, comparing of the results with those of prior findings. The researcher should also have considered taking the results back to the subjects for their comments based on their experiences. These are strategies that are allowed in qualitative studies that are characterised by validity issues (Leedy,  Ormrod 2005).
The researcher did not also explain any ethical issues and how they were dealt with in spite of this being a study that involved humans. The limitations have also not been stated. The study did not also identify areas that need further research. All in all, no research study is perfect. Apart from the explained limitations, the methodology used was quite appropriate in answering the research question.

The cases of HIV became rampant since its discovery in 1985. Though there is no treatment for this deadly disease which in time will develop into full blown AIDS ( ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME, Many sexually active individuals in both men and  women engage in unprotecti8ve sexual  intercourse  Although some people are aware of the dangerous consequences of HIV, they do not seem to mind after all. All that matters to them is the sexual pleasure and the gratification that they get out of their  sex escapades.
    A case study about John who was infected with an HIV virus was conducted which had revealed that despite of the fact that he had been diagnosed with this dreading disease, Still, he continues to engage in an unprotected sexual activity to escape from depression and the anxieties in his life. This  indecent immoral practice according to him was his  coping mechanism. Also, he rationalizes that not everyone that he had sex with, will not contract HIV.  In other words, it is but a product of the mind. After all, having this is like a  death sentence  according to him. 
    This particular case study will include the following sections
Section 1   Weighing the Ethical Dilemma
Synopsis of State Laws ( Section 2
Resolution of the Ethical Dilemma
Discussion of the Case Study ( Summary)
Ethical Dilemma Decision Making Model
At the end of this case study the readers will be able to know the definition of an ethical dilemma
as well as the resolution of this  Eventually, this case study will enable the people afflicted with HIV to make the necessary adjustments not only physically but most importantly, emotionally, socially  and spiritually to live a  normal and happy life.
                       


 Weighing The Ethical Dilemma
Before going on any further with the case study, let us first take a closer look of the word  ethical dilemma  What is it in the first place An ethical dilemma according to  Answers.com.   is a complex situation that involves a mental conflict between the so called  moral imperatives . Moral imperatives are principles which emanates from a person s mind that compels an individual to act. As Emmanuel Kant had put it, An imperative is a dictate within a person based on pure reason. Moreover, it is based on practical reason too. In the later studies, it is termed as  conscience or a voice that originates from within the human spirit .  Its dictates are often morally right, thus often resisting further justification.
    This is also referred to as an  ethical paradox. However ,individuals differ in their social relationships that cannot be ignored   these relationships for example with your neighbor, will be interpreted as a result of mental disorder because despite of the above mentioned ethical social relationship, your neighbor in turn, threatens to rape you Therefore, the ethical decision of whether or not to love your neighbor remains to rely on an ethical decision that the aggrieved party has to make after weighing the circumstances that are present in a given dilemma.  On the contrary, ethical dilemmas are meant to be refuted in different ways by means of developing a mind set that a particular given ethical dilemma does not seem to exist.
    In this particular case study, the ethical dilemma here is about a patient named John who was inflicted with a deadly disease known as HIV. Having an HIV, according to him is not a major issue to deal with, because after all, his life was already sentenced the very day, he contracted the disease. Likewise, not all people can have it though he was already a  carrier  of the dreaded disease. He even manifested a rationalizing kind of behavior by saying that having sex with multiple sex partners is his  coping mechanism  with his more serious problems of anxiety and depression.  The dilemma here is not s question of ethical standards but also, of moral grounds.  Morally speaking, to have multiple sex partners is not accepted or should I say, it is not accepted by the society.  The norms of the society only provides one sex partner to every given gender either male or female, same sex or not. On the bounds of religion, sex is sacred to be shared by opposite sex bind by the sacrament of marriage meant to last for a lifetime. Ethical systems provide a frame work in the decision making process of an individual. These decisions in turn will tend to influence his behavior or predispositions in life sometime in the near future and how he will behave in the society as a citizen as a whole. 
In weighing an ethical dilemma, one has to consider also the way a society will accept the person who is in the middle of that psychological conflict. The acceptance of the society depends on various factors
The moral values of the society
The social perspective with regards to the ethical dilemma being presented,
Health issues with regards to dealing with patients having the HIV virus.
The viewpoint of the society in terms of the social and moral implications of sex especially multiple sex activities
The implications of the ethical dilemma in terms of personality growth and development of the individual concerned.
The given or presented ethical dilemma must not be viewed as a threat in relation to his adjustment with the environment where he belongs.
The role of the family is very essential in the formation of more optimistic attitudes and values that may lead to a better and positive attitude and lifestyle.
The presented ethical dilemma must be looked at with a wide and mature
perspective in order to provide the victims of HIV to realize that they can be more productive
despite of having the deadly disease.
The ethical dilemma on HIV must be able to foster unity among its victims in order to create a movement to disseminate information s with respect to this disease.
It depends also on the kind of religious upbringing of the individual. The stronger his spiritual values are the greater is his chance of winning the battle against this ethical conflict.
As a whole, weighing the ethical conflict also depends on the ability of the counselor to carry out his or her duties based on the ethical standards that go in consonance with his or her profession.  He must be able to establish rapport with his client in order to elicit a response favorable or unfavorable to be able to come up with a decision that can greatly influence the behavior of the client in relation to his environment and the people around him and most importantly to himself. Further, the proper therapeutic approach or treatment must be applied, so as to ensure the effectiveness of the psychological treatment to heal his depression and anxiety. The counselor must be able to inculcate in his mind that sex is not the solution to his more complex which decays his human nature not only physically and spiritually. Lastly, the counselor and the patient must be able to understand if not accept their own personal views to come up with a solution that will make the client to rise above the ethical dilemma and eventually become a better and productive individual.



Florida State Laws - The Synopsis
The State of Florida has several state laws in connection with sexual offenders or predators. These state laws contain the following legislative intent that the state has a compelling interest in protecting the public against sexual offenders in protecting the children first and foremost against sexual predatory sexual offenders and there is the presence of sufficient justification thus the state mandatory requires sexual predators to be registered so that their presence in the community where they belong Further, it is the purpose of their legislation to have a written court order therefore to inform the public regarding the presence of these immoral carnal predators in order to protect and safeguard the interest of the public as a whole.  However the designation,  sexual offender is not considered to be a punishment but a status resulting from the past crimes committed by the offender.
    According to their laws their criteria in classifying an individual as a sex offender, the offense was committed on or before or after October 1, 1993 and upon his conviction the offender therefore, can be called a  sexual predator . Second, the felony or offender has not received any pardon. Also, the offender must be convicted and sentenced separately, prior to the current offense regardless of the date of the offense. On the other hand they are deemed to be registered on the following grounds
If a sexual offender has been registered by the Department of Corrections or any similar agencies.
If the court has written a decision that a person is a asexual offender based on the kind of crime that he had committed under this particular offense.
The Florida State Laws also states that the State must have a verification scheme so as to properly identify the presence of these offenders in the community. Likewise, the manner by which they are being identified is according to the provisions of the federal Jacob Wetterling, as amended and any other federal verification processes These must be met in order to receive funds from the State. In addition, The Department of Corrections must be able to verify the address of these offenders who are not incarcerated, thus living in a community with ordinary people.
On the sexual predator s part, he or she must report each year during his birthday, and on the sixth month following his birthday, In connection with the sexual predator s report, it must also be the duty of the offender to inform the sheriff about the changes in his personal information if there are any, as clearly provided for by the Florida State Laws.  The Florida State Laws also states that if any offender is pursuing a higher degree of education, the State must be provided an address of this institution including the name of the campus as well as the enrolment status of the offender.   Speaking of conviction the term connotes the determination of guilt as a result of trial  A conviction can be that of a court marshal, federal tribunal and the like.
Sexual offender s mean while denote a person who has committed a crime especially against minors even after their release from personal incarceration. These offenders have often robbed of their privacy because they have been considered as threats to public safety and interests.  Moreover the release of their personal information to the people who are requesting for it, is a dangerous thing to do according to their laws since this might endanger public safety.

Euthanasia or mercy killing refers to the practice where a person with a painful, distressing or an incurable handicap or disease is painlessly assisted to die (Gormally, 1997). It can be of many forms since voluntary euthanasia occurs when the person consents to have their life terminated, while involuntary euthanasia is when a person life is taken according to a surrogate decision and in the absence of their approval. Passive euthanasia is when a patient is allowed to die by denying them treatment or taking them off the life support machines and feeding tubes (Gormally, 1997). Active euthanasia is when a direct intervention is made to assist the patient to die so as to end their suffering.
The issue of euthanasia is very controversial since they are those who favor it and those who are against it. There have been several calls to legalize euthanasia in America dividing the country into two distinct groups of those who vehemently appose this move and those who support it. The pro-euthanasia argue that every human being has the right to die decently and avoid the excruciating pain that is associated with terminal illnesses. People with a devastating mental illness or who suffer from extreme physical disability making them to rely on other people are likely to lead an undignified life and burden the society. Such people have a right to chose whether to live or end their lives instead of being restricted severely by illness. 
Those against euthanasia argue that the sanctity of life should be preserved. Human life should be protected against all odds and no one has a right to end another human beings life prematurely. Legalizing of euthanasia is seen as a sure way of pressurizing people to take their own lives as they are made to feel guilty of burdening the society and their families (Gormally, 1997). There is a high possibility that patients may be offered euthanasia as an option despite not thinking about it prior to this. People experiencing immense pain and depression may be influenced by their conditions to make hasty decisions on ending their lives, whereas such conditions can be adequately treated and prolong their lives. It is very difficult to ascertain that an individual is making a competent decision, when they are experiencing excruciating pain and suffering (Gormally, 1997).  Some people with ulterior motives such as inheriting property may use euthanasia to decide that a helpless person should be put to death so that they can end up being the sole beneficiaries.
The Impacts of Health System on Euthanasia Decisions
The health care system plays a very vital role in the debate of allowing or denying the legalization of euthanasia in America. The cost of providing health care has greatly increased over the years and there are no signs this trend dying any time soon. The scarcity of resources in health care provision has called for prioritization in medical settings (Burke et al., 2008).  There is a perception that using costly medical procedures and high technology to bring out positive outcomes which will prolong life temporary, without any hopes of improving the quality or achieving full recovery is unnecessary. The fact that more people are in dire need of accessing advanced treatment to fully recover, justifies legalization of euthanasia since the scarce health resources will be put into better use.
On the other hand, doctors can make the wrong diagnosis giving the wrong prediction on the outcomes of a given health and medical condition. The rapid expansion of knowledge has led to the introduction of new drugs, technologies and procedures. Some conditions that are considered to be terminal in certain countries can be adequately treated in other places at another time. Legalizing and accepting euthanasia would deny patients the probability of continuing with life. Misdiagnosing people would lead to premature termination of life and cause a lot of distress to the patients family.
If euthanasia is made available, there will be a reduction in the efforts geared towards provision and improvement of care, treatment and diagnosis. If people who are suffering are given the choice of making a decision to die, their removal will lead to a reduction in motivating financial resources to be allocated to research, training of careers , providing caring facilities and maintaining the support systems (Burke et al., 2008).   The economic considerations can motivate the authorities in charge of medical facilities to support euthanasia.  The pressure of improving symptomatic and curative treatment will be reduced if euthanasia is allowed. If legalization of euthanasia had been done 40 years ago, hospice movements would be non-existent today.
There have been tremendous improvements to the terminal care in an attempt to directly reduce the level of suffering among terminally ill patients. There is a possibility that if patients lives had been taken away, no discoveries would have been made on advanced methods of breathlessness, pain and nausea control in addition to other terminal symptoms. There are some diseases that were considered terminal some few decades ago, but they can now be adequately cured through the utilization of the new treatments that have been developed (Burke et al., 2008).  If euthanasia had been accepted earlier on, the urgency of carrying out research efforts to discover the treatments for these diseases would have been undercut prematurely. The acceptance of euthanasia now may lead to a delay in discovering effective treatment for diseases that are currently considered to be terminal.
Consequently, there are numerous stories of patients who have been expected to die making extraordinary recoveries. Doctors have made pessimistic prognosis but have been proven wrong by patients making abrupt recoveries (Burke et al., 2008).   The legitimization of euthanasia would zero-rate such extraordinary recoveries since patients would not be given a chance. The fear of seeking treatment for terminal illnesses is already entrenched in peoples minds. Legalization of euthanasia would prevent patients from seeking early treatment since they would be afraid of being given the option of dying. In some terminal illnesses such as cancer, early intervention is the key to preventable deaths. Institutionalizing euthanasia would lead more patients to shy away from seeking treatment, thus increasing the mortality rate.
Several religions have an impact on euthanasia since they hold the belief that life is sacred and human beings commit a sin by taking away life. There is a general belief that punishment of sin is done by a divine power and the perpetrator who takes away life will be unduly punished. Such beliefs are quite incompatible with the legalization of euthanasia (Burke et al., 2008).  Declining or allowing euthanasia to be legalized cannot be based on religious beliefs since not everyone belongs to a religious movement. The hospices that provide palliative care to terminally ill patients will also oppose the move of legalizing euthanasia since they have helped patients in coping with their conditions, thus prolonging their lives.
The best practices that can help in implementing euthanasia would be allowing the patient to state clearly that they wish to hasten their death since it is quite clear that it is imminent and inevitable (Scherer, 1999).The patients should also give a consent that they cannot bear the physical or mental pain that they are going through, after it is clear that no other treatment is available to alleviate their suffering. The doctors should clearly stipulate to the patients that they have exhausted all the treatment options without pressurizing them to choose the euthanasia option.
The patients should also be allowed to seek second opinions from other doctors prior to making a decision so as to avoid misdiagnosis. Doctors should carefully scrutinize the patient and family members prior to carrying out euthanasia to ascertain that there are no ulterior motives behind this move and patient has made the decision independently without being pressurized. In conclusion, the decision to legalize euthanasia is quite difficult since they are numerous vital factors to be considered.

There are a variety of factors that contribute to the high divorce rate that has taken the globe by surprise.  No one single factor can be blamed, but a fundamental change in society that has progressed in the modern age has certainly instigated much of the rising divorce rates.  The evolution of society still clashes with older generations that are accustomed to the older ways of marriage.  This can and will only hold a magnitude of influence over the worlds divorce rate.
    In the Russian Federation, for instance, many parents are uncomfortable with a sex lifestyle that is outside of marriage.  This provokes young adults to marry at a young age in order to avoid the shame and embarrassment that accompanies promiscuous behavior.  Many of these young adults are also economically dependent on their parents for shelter as well, making the encouragement of marriage more persistent than individuals living on their own.  Unfortunately, it also pushes immature individuals into such unions that they are perhaps not ready to accept.  So when a problem or lack of communication begins to take over, it is only natural that divorce becomes an easy out. 
    A level of immaturity is also surveyed among other nations as well.  In the case of the United Arab Emirates, there is often a severe absence of communication by both men and women.  Many children are raised to suppress free expression so they never fully develop proper communication skills.  This mentality would persist into adulthood and leave a marriage barren of any sort of resolve when a problem comes into existence.  Unfortunately the motives for divorce are often concealed behind stereotypical lies.  These lies often include being reckless or hysterical.  In most cases, no one discovers why a woman may get a divorce from her husband.        
    Such divorce rates coming from immature behavior is reason for societies to be concerned.  It is not just the fact that divorce is more and more prevalent, but the reasons behind such divorce can worry a nation.  In the case of Russia, there appears to be a generational gap between old traditions and modern society.  If these two matters are not mended there is only reason for the divorce rate to go up.  To coincide with this, a higher divorce rate will inevitably lead to a higher rate of single parents and orphans. 
    Parents who bestow too much pressure on a child to stave off sexual relations in place of marriage will lead to people marrying too young.  If a couple does not have the maturity level to properly communicate through problems then they are more likely to separate.  At such a divorce, any offspring born from the brief union will live in a less secure habitat.  The parental pressure also exists in the United Arab Emirates.
    There is a severe disapproval of free expression in the United Arab Emirates, which gives cause for alarming concern.  If people are so afraid to express themselves that they are unwilling to communicate effectively with their spouse, then there may be oppressive elements at work.  Whether it is traditional culture or instigated by some governmental body, some form of tyranny exists within society.  People should not have to risk divorce in order to ward off traditional embarrassment.  The divorce rates for both Russia and the UAE, and much of the world, are certainly in need of concern.  Not just for the divorce rate, but for the cultural and generational repression that seems to often nurture the motives behind divorce.   

Work place standards are formulated to ensure that employees and employers feel satisfied physically, psychologically and socially in their places of work. Its the responsibility of all organizations and businesses to ensure that their places of work meet fair standards that will make their workers feel motivated to work productively. Standards set should put into consideration the legal requirements. (Grogan, 2007) Before recommending standard, one should carry out a risk assessment of the workplace so as to check out the necessary precautions to be considered. This is done through identifying the possible risks, who is prone, what to be done to avoid the occurrence, reviews and updates of the risk assessment plan if any.

Establishing workplace standards provides certainty for the staff, management, volunteers and the end users a code and conduct that will guide them appropriately in the work environment. (Grogan, 2007) Goods standards can reduce costs of management and prevent conflicts in the workplace. Considering the latter, I recommend the following standards

Freedom of Association
Employees shall have freedom of association to collectively come together and promote pursue and shield their common interests. Formation of unions that will organize and pool together employees with a purpose of addressing issues that affect them is a human right. (Covey et al, 2000). This collective bargaining will ensure that no employee is a victim of intimidation, harassment or reprisal for their efforts to willingly associate or bargain collectively. Freedom association organizers should ensure that employees access their rights and recognize the union of the employees choice.

Health and safety
Employees should be provided with a safe and healthy working environment that puts into consideration all the aspects of legal acts. Supplementary safety standards may be summed up as negotiated by the workers to ensure that every one is sound and safe. Suitable health and safety equipments and facilities for all workers should be put in place to ensure a risk free environment for workers.

Women rights
All employees should be treated fairly despite the gender. There should be no discrimination against the salary scale, benefits, or even other conditions and terms of employment. As long as the work performed is similar in as regards the skill, effort, responsibility and conditions same as those of men. Women undertaking maternity leave should not be subjected to threat of dismissal, loss of rank, or salary reduction. Upon return to the work place, they should not be denied their position and should enjoy employment benefits together with their undedicated salaries.

Labor
The organizations and businesses should ensure that workers get remunerations that meet their basic needs. No worker should be oppressed and the amount of work done should be relative to the package of remuneration an employee receives. (Repa, 2007)
 At least every worker should have at least one day off in a weeks time and any overtime work done should be voluntary. Salaries, wages and benefits given to the employees have to be determine the legal requirements stipulated by the governments and any agreements discussed and negotiated by the employees. Child labor should be discouraged and no persons under the age of fifteen should be allowed to work in the organization.

Harassment and Abuse
Organizations should ensure that all their employees are shown respect and distinction. Every employee has aright to work in an environment free from harassment. Any form of sexual, psychological, physical, verbal harassment should be accompanied with harsh penalties and fines as a disciplinary measure. Strict rules should be enforced to any worker found guilt of substance abuse. (Repa, 2007)

Discrimination
All employees should be treated fairly despite their race, age, culture, creed, color, sex, sexual orientation, origin, disability, or marital status. There should be no discrimination whatsoever during the process of recruiting, hiring, benefits, salary allocation, advancement, discipline, termination, retirement, promotions, or any other conditions and terms of employment.
Remuneration and Benefits
Organizations should provide salaries and benefits that act in accordance with the legal acts and requirements and are relative to the tasks being executed by their employees. Underpayments and overworking situations should not be permitted. Any form of deductions from employees pay slips should not be allowed without agreement and possible explanations made to the employee. Prior consultations should be arranged.

Working hours
Employees should be expected to work not more than twelve hours per day and not less than 48 hours per week or as per agreed time schedule stipulated by the organization. No employee should be forced to work overtime, except under unusual circumstances. Compensation should be done for overtime hours at a premium rate discussed and agreed upon by both the employee and the employer. In a seven day period, an employee is entitled a one day off.

The reproductive health issues affect both men and women in todays society, Men in their early age use contraceptives such as condoms for fear of impregnating young girls. This implies that the reproductive system of young boys and girls has already developed. In the late years, men would prefer using vasectomy while women would also prefer using drugs and female sterilization as methods of contraception, to avoid more births for the case of married couples or a way of family planning, Sexually transmitted diseases like Gonorrhea, Syphilis and HIV are a major hit in the world, at all ages, both men and women are at risk of contracting the sexually transmitted infections, diseases associated with the STDs affect both men and women, but symptoms of some diseases appear more to women than in men, e.g. itching around the vagina  or a vaginal discharge (that has a distinctly different bad odor), pain during intercourse, painful urinating, or pain from hard aches to cramp like pain in the groinpelvic area, to mention just a few, this might cause psychological problems to both partners for the case of married couples and trauma to single or unmarried  partners. Of child bearing, pregnancy and   parenting, we see that some couples prefer genetic testing for the case of them not being able to bear children genetic testing may have a negative impact to the unborn child, this may cause disability to the unborn child, and a child born with a disability may have a negative attitude like rejection and discrimination from the society. Once a child has been born with disability due to the genetically used drugs or supplements, it becomes very hard and complicated to bring up a disabled child. Couples love healthy children, and would not love to see their children suffer. They can be weighed down by the physical and psychological needs of disabled children. It is natural that many people would not love to give birth to a disabled child and this calls for abortion to prevent suffering.
Abortion is a major problem in todays society, any child conceived has a right to live, what if a child is found to have a disorder, does this call for abortion before birth Many women are traumatized by their abortion experience, they try to commit suicide. Others try to avoid any reminders of abortion. They feel shame, anger, and guilt regardless of whether the abortion was their choice or they felt forced into an unwanted abortion. Often, they feel they deserve punishment for their abortion so they tolerate abusive relationships or use alcohol, drugs, has eating disorders, or even physically abuse themselves. Many who appear to have a normal life actually spend hours in private crying because they feel such despair and abandonment.   A man involved in the decision to abort his baby too suffer negative psychological effects like anger and frustrations of not being able to protect and provide for the unborn baby and as a result of a previous experience, they do not want to be put into another situation where another pregnancy may occur, instead they experiment homosexuality because it allows them to have a successful sexual relationship with no commitment and no worry of pregnancy. Men may suffer from other forms of sexual dysfunction such as impotency and addiction to pornography and masturbation. Other effects include sleeplessness, panic attacks, poor coping skills, flashbacks, nightmares or self-imposed isolation. He may be unable to hold a job due to his inability to handle decision making, or he may be an excessive risk-taker in work and social environments, setting himself up for failure. This indicates clearly that reproductive health issues affect both men and women. People marry their loved ones and try to build a family, a family cannot be complete without children, and this calls in the issue of child bearing and of reproduction, and reproduction of children involves both man and woman in the marriage institution. There are some couples who are not able to bore children in their marriage, this becomes complicated because the couple may want to have children but it becomes impossible as they may have problems with their reproductive system, like a man not being able to produce, or a woman may have cancer of the uterus.   They make endless visits to gynecologists and end up using a lot of money because it is not a one partner issue.

Programs are instituted essentially to address specific societal problems. They therefore aim at achieving certain goals that transcend the societal sphere. Programs are larger than projects as they combine different projects that result in the attainment of a common goal. This paper seeks to analyze an Aging and Adults Services Medicaid program to find out if its design meets specific program evaluation standards.
An Overview of the Medicaid Program
    The goal for Medicaid Program is to provide payment for some medical costs for certain individuals who are older, have low income and limited assets or are disabled. The program is institutionalized by the State Department of Health. The eligibility conditions for participating in this program as recipients are that one should be a permanent resident of United States applicants may be persons receiving Supplemental Security Income they may be receiving temporary financial services under the Family Employment Program are over sixty five years of age are blind or physically disabled or are below eighteen years old.
    It further states the enrollment procedure where one has too fill an application form as well as attend an interview and provide documents related to proof of age and citizenship, trusts, income, liquid assets and medical expenses. The applicant then receives a brochure detailing their rights and responsibilities and awaits notification of qualification after a period of 30days or 90 days if disabled. A denial notice is issued to those who do not qualify stating the reason for denial. This section further provides detailed information on third party liability, the selection of a health care provider, requirements for coordinating Medicare benefits with Medicaid.
    Financial eligibility requirements for this program include asset standards, income standards, spend down obligation and buy out. Finally, the benefits accruing from this program include the extent of coverage of the program, mandatory services available to all Medicaid recipients such as inpatient and out patient hospital services, family planning services, physician services as well as optional services.
    Program evaluation is necessary in institutions and organizations as it assesses the viability of the program in terms of its usefulness to constituents. It refers to a process of collecting information carefully on or about a program so as to make important decisions about it. Mohammad (1999) recognizes it as a systematic appraisal of the operations and outcomes of a program compared to implicit or explicit values as a means of contributing to the improvement of a program or project. At a glance, it may be looked at as a wastage of time and resources that could otherwise be diverted for other uses. However, it is important to note that program evaluation is necessary at all stages of a program from conceptualization to final implementation and continuation of the program. Program evaluation may take several approaches from needs assessment, cost benefit analysis, goal based, process based to outcomes. The choice of a specific approach depends on what is essential to the individual or group.
    The key considerations for any evaluation process as discussed by Mohammad (1999) include the purpose of the evaluation, recipients for the evaluation results, a deep insight of the program or its constituent that is the focal point for evaluation, sources of  information and mechanisms to institute to collect the information.
  In order to evaluate the Medicaid program effectively, the process based approach is adapted. Process-based evaluations are intended to help organizations understand the processes required in implementing a program. This kind of evaluation determines how a program produces the outcomes that it does. Process evaluations are most useful in analyzing the efficiency of processes in long-standing programs.
 To obtain a thorough insight of this evaluation process the following questions are answered using information from the program
What forms the basis of the need for products or services provided by the program
    The main basis of the need to provide the Medicaid service lies in its initial goal. The Medicaid program is committed to availing a wide range of relevant information to beneficiaries to ensure that they make informed decisions on health insurance. The target population for this program is old aged individuals with low incomes, limited assets or disabled persons. This target population is mainly composed of vulnerable persons.
What are the contents of the program
This program describes extensively the eligibility of beneficiaries which includes but is not limited to the old as well as individuals with financial needs the enrollment procedure which includes the application procedure, third party liability, the selection of a healthcare provider, coordinating efforts between Medicare and Medicaid benefits requirements on financial eligibility and the benefits accruing from this program.
How are customers incorporated into the program
    Customers are required to fill up application forms obtained from the Bureau of Eligibility Services offices. The information in these forms needs to be backed by necessary proofs. They then go through an interview where they are asked to provide documents of trusts, assets accruing to them other than their homesteads, age and citizenship, health and life insurance policies, their income, medical expenses they have incurred for example, health insurance premiums. The applicants then receive brochures explaining their rights and responsibilities notice of approval or denial is then sent to the applicant within thirty days or ninety days for the case of the disabled.
What are the qualifications of clients to the program
For clients or customers to qualify for such a program, they should be citizens or permanent inhabitants of the United States. Be persons presently receiving Supplemental Security Income, (SSI) that is are elderly, blind andor disabled. Be persons currently receiving provisional financial services under the Family Employment Program, (FEP).Are residing in a skilled nursing facility, are under eighteen years or are adults caring for children below eighteen years.
What are the benefits of the program to the recipients
Medicaid covers the expenses of most medically necessary services. It can allow health insurance premiums as a deduction and pay the Medicare premium. In addition, medically essential services for children are covered. For qualified individuals, Medicaid covers medical bills even when the services were provided before an application was submitted to Medicaid. It is therefore retrospective in nature.
Once in the program, recipients are legible for mandatory services such  asInpatient and Outpatient hospital services, laboratory and X-ray services, skilled Nursing Facility care for adults, home health care services, physician related services, rural health clinic services, family planning services amongst others. Optional Services such as clinic services, hearing aids, artificial limbs, personal care, hospice care, cost of Medicare premiums, and transport to medical services, dental care, eyeglasses, and vision screening are provided at the discretion of the state.
On what basis do employees decide that the service is no longer needed
The service may be terminated on grounds of little or no impact even after substantial years of service provision. Secondly, if the intended goal of the program is achieved, the program can be successfully withdrawn. As for the case of the Medicaid Program, the recipients are from different backgrounds with diverse needs that require complex solutions. Stopping the program would therefore result in further deepening the problems of these individuals.
To summarize the above, program evaluation, when conducted regularly, can improve to a great extent the management and efficacy of organizations and its programs. To do so requires a proper understanding of the differences between monitoring and evaluation, making evaluation a central component of regular program development and implementation, and collecting a wide range of information needed by managers at functional levels of the organization. The process incorporates specific procedures that fabricate desired outcomes to ensure that specific targets are met. It also ensures that relevant stakeholders obtain viable information of the status quo of the running program so as to brainstorm on ways of improving service delivery at low costs.
The driving force for the continuation of this program is first, to increase the number of beneficiaries of the program and secondly, to ensure that provision of services is efficient. For this to take place effectively, the program should be flexible to meet diverse requirements of the ever increasing populations of people with similar and recognizable needs and take into consideration the employment of competent personnel to foresee the efficiency of service delivery. 

Credit card debts forms one of the most distressing issues to the students and the society in that it culminates to great losses to companies and penalties to the credit card holders. Particularly, it is a clear negative implication of managing the resources at different levels. The increasing rates of credit card usage among the college students have equally resulted to heightening of the credit card debt.  As the problem continues to intensify among the students in different colleges, the demand to effectively understand the problem and its causes as the core framework towards addressing it is very critical. Therefore, this paper explores the key causes of the problem among the students, the consequences resulting from the same, and the solutions that can be employed towards addressing the same problem.   
b) Background of the problem and key statistics of the problem  
    Notably, the demand for furthering education among the young people resulted to establishment of support funds for them. Indeed, as Leila, indicates, the administration sees the support for young people being very critical as a mechanism to maintaining high levels of literacy and securing the nations future. According to Sallie Mae (2), about US  180 billion is available for students in the country. Sallie Mae (3) further indicates that by the year 2004, about 84 of the total number of students, which represented an increase with 8 from the previous year, had at least one credit card. Notably, about 21 of the total undergraduates had a mean balance ranging between US  7,000 and 3,000 (Sallie Mae 3). According to the data collected by Sallie Mae (5), the average amount of debt that undergraduates increased drastically from the year 2004 with about 46 to reach US  3,173 in the year 2008. Besides, the senior students also have higher levels of credit card debts compared to the freshmen. One major question that has gone unanswered is why indeed the problem is highly prevalent among the students in the nation.
c) Causes of credit card debts
    According to Dicker, a credit card debt is largely caused by the behavior assimilated by the credited card issues in the nation. Notably, as Dicker continues to say, due to the open and poorly regulated mechanism of regulating the card issue, competition from the different issuers is indeed resulting to be very harmful. Particularly, the periods of economic sluggishness sees the colleges being a major target. Therefore, to the issuers, the students form key consumer base with massive potential to promote their businesses. As indicated earlier over US  180 billion is held by the students every year (Salle Mae 2). In addition, various companies are always providing key promotions to encourage the students spend the little they have without providing them with the necessary advise on how to manage the credit in them.
    In addition there are poor legislations that governance of credit card operations in the nation. Indeed as Silver-Greenberg and Dicker concur, the government has failed to establish the correct mechanists that can regulate the mechanisms of credit card usage and the actual behavior of the credit companies for the different systems of management in the country.  While indeed several bill are awaiting passage in the in the house, none of them have been passed into law. Therefore, as the credit card companies continue pursuing the students to make the different purchases, analysts have indicated the need for key concerns in the management.
    It has frequently been argued that students lack the necessary skills to manage their credit cards credits. Indeed as Greenberg reports, majority of the freshmen usually experience their first credit cards when they get to colleges. However, even those that have had the credit cards before, they lack adequate skills to mange limited resources.  Through a large number of students indeed handle their credit cards well there is great deficiency of education on credit cards use among them.
    As indicated by Leila, most of the students rely on the credit provided by the government to make their end meet. However, it is no doubt that the resources available for their disposal are highly limited against a myriad of expenditures they have to make in their studies. Jonathan reports that the credit provided to the students of about US  is divided into major expenses such as fees, commuting costs, textbooks expenses, tuition, room and board, computer related costs and other costs incurred by the students. As a result, it is critical that effective planning education is provided for effective preferential budgeting. 
d) Consequences  
    Notably, the implications of Credit card debts are very immense to students, the credit card companies, and even the education system. To begin with, the students usually get themselves broke and cannot afford key student supportive items. Therefore, they are forced to pursue the remaining part of the education session with insufficient services that has extended implications. In most of the cases, they are disturbed psychologically as they lack the necessary tools for their education. This becomes critical especially when others have the facilities they lack. Indeed, Regina (85-86) indicates that it turns into a major psychological concern and culminates to stresses which if not treated effectively can lead to depression. On a long term consideration, the students with high credit card credit are debts are bound to record low grades in the country. Despite the key miseries affecting the students, they are also fined heavily by the credit companies which are deducted upon the next loading of the credit cards (Jill).
    Though the credit companies have a key niche to male major profits form the students, delayed payments are indeed a source of losses to them.  Dicker indicates that following the key implications that credit companies are getting from delayed payments, some of them are contemplating changing their strategies of dealing with the students debts. Dicker further reports that it is indeed dawning to them that there need for cooperation to with the education institutions to address the problem by providing the necessary information to them. 
    Nationally, credit card debts are an indication of problems and disasters. Once college students have gone bankrupt, they easily get into bad peers where drugs abuse and alcoholism becomes the order of the day. Therefore, major problems related to violence, theft, and other societal la-adaptive behaviors are common to them. Failure to address this problem effectively has been projected to have possible key negative long term implications to the country (Regina, 51-52).
e) Addressing the problems of the credit card debts 
    As indicated earlier, addressing the problem of the rampant credit card problem in the country is very crucial to the young people in the colleges, the education system, the credit card companies and the nation as a whole. One of the most advocated methods for addressing the problem is educating the students on the best methods of managing their credit cards. As indicated earlier, the main cause of credit card debts is poor knowledge of how to manage credit by the students. All the credit card companies should assimilate the crucial role of educating their students on the best mechanisms of using credit cards (Jill)
    It is critical that the government employs key policies that can help to address the problem in the country. Particularly, it is critical that the behaviors of the credit card companies are addressed to facilitate effective non exploitative relationship between them and students. Under this consideration, the credit card companies should be made responsible for periodic effective credit card info I relation to their policies and possible changes.
    Regina (45-46) indicates that cooperation between the credit card companies, colleges, and the government should be improved to formulate clearer understanding and problems solution related to the students credit card mannerism. It is particularly crucial that the amount of credit provided for the students is adjusted upwards to reflect the changes in the economic progression of the nation and globally too.
     It is from the above discussion that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement, credit card debts form one of the most distressing issues to the students and the society in that it culminates to great losses to companies and penalties to the credit card holders. It came out clearly that credit card debt have strongly entrenched itself strongly to all the students in the nation. Besides, the implications are equally highly profound and projected to all the people. It is therefore of critical importance key solutions are assimilated with speed to facilitate a better learning environment and a future for the nation.