Sociology

The world today is grappling with multifaceted challenges that threaten to stabilize the social, economic and even political set-ups. These challenges include international terrorism, drugs trafficking, arms smuggling and human trafficking, to mention but the least. Worth noting is that, due to globalization, most these challenges are interconnected and their resolutions demand concerted efforts from across the nations. This paper focuses on the causes and nature of human trafficking in and through Thailand the legal structures available in the country to combat the illicit trade and also the impact of globalization the unscrupulous trade.

The most distinguishing feature of human trafficking is that it has targeted women for either sexual exploitation or for the provision of cheap labor in farms and industries. As Beeks and Amir (2006) point out, the trafficking in women in our modern world, exists not only in Thailand but also in many countries across the globe and this goes a long way into demonstrating how slavery as it was known before, has actually changed in form. In essence, the problem of human trafficking in global in context and it also proved to be one of the fastest growing criminal enterprises. (61)

This illicit business is quite attractive for traffickers because of the economic returns that it brings, given the fact that it is also much less risky. In fact, it is estimated that human traffickers operating in organized criminal gangs garner approximately  7 to 12 each year from trafficking in women. Notably, the country that tops the list where this illicit business has flourished is Thailand, closely followed by Philippines, which have been the major transit countries in many years. Recently, Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union countries have also become significant market for trading in women (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p. 61).

According to Beeks and Amir (2006) the root causes of human trafficking are uniform in all countries where the trade is conducted, Thailand inclusive. These include unemployment, abject poverty the low social and economic status of women in their respective countries, inadequate social-economic opportunities and the want of prosperous life. Another crucial factor that has helped the perpetration of human trafficking, it is the idealistic view of the western world and the wealthier countries women are easily lured by the promise to go there to work only to end up in brothels as prostitutes. (62)
This trafficking of human beings has become such a complex problem because it is conducted in various ways. In Thailand, women are exploited as workers in sweatshops they are used to beg in streets for money or they are exploited sexually in brothels (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.61)

The Prevalence of Human Trafficking in Thailand
Besides being the country where human trafficking is a noted criminal mainstay, Thailand has eventually become the origin, transit and destination for women being trafficked from across the world. Many women who are Thailand nationals are trafficked to Europe, Australia, North America and Japan for the sole purpose of sex exploitation through debt bondage (Beeks and Amir, 2006).

Previously, the trafficking of women within borders was identified as the major problem. But since the economy of the country began to rely on the steady supply of exploitable labor from across borders, the cases of intra-border trafficking have reduced significantly. Currently, people from countries such as Cambodia, Lao, Burma and China are trafficked into Thailand, where they stay to either work in sweat shops, brothels, farms andor fisheries or they are further trafficked to other countries such as Malaysia (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.143)

This illicit trade has flourished in Thailand for a number of reasons. For one, the officials in Thailand who have the onus of combating the crime have been complicit in either committing it or not taking decisive actions against its perpetrators. Besides, some government officials have been involved in human trafficking these officials are mostly in the low levels of the law enforcement force and those of the immigration department (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.143)

However, these lower tier officials are not the only ones to blame for the prevalence of human trafficking in Thailand there are senior Thailand public official, especially from the political class, the police and the military who have been identified as harboring commercial interests in the brothels and sweatshops, where many victims of human trafficking toil and moil for their exploiters (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.143)

This however, does not mean that the business of trafficking of women in and through Thailand is a quite sophisticated process to the contrary, it basically involves some loosely connected networks of criminal gangs. It is these very criminals who make collaboration with other such like criminals across borders to facilitate the trafficking of people outside Thailand their networks therefore, are of a global nature (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.143)

The Challenge of Combating Human Trafficking in Thailand
Since human trafficking is a multifaceted problem, the quest by the Thai government to curb the crime has been met with equally insurmountable hurdles. The Thai government has mostly concentrated its efforts on enacting legal structures that can help in deterring traffickers from conducting the business, though this has proved to be of little, if any, constructive result.
Historically, human trafficking in Thailand was first recorded back in 1984, when five girls who had been trafficked from the north of the country were found chained onto a steel window bars and burnt to death after the brothel they were in caught fire. Ever since then, Thailand has been battling with the problem of human trafficking, thereby amassing a wealth of experience on this crime more than any other nations in the world (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.144)

Subsequently, Thailand enacted a number of legislations aimed at containing the crime from being carried out within and thorough its borders. One such law was passed later in 1992 and was then subsequently amended in 1997. Then in the late 2005, a new law, crafted along the provisions of the Trafficking Protocol was passed in Thailand to combat human trafficking (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.144)

Far from that, Thailand has also used a network of laws whose provisions are related to those statutes that fight against human trafficking. These include such laws whose aims are to combat prostitution, money laundering and also those laws that address the rights and liberties of immigrants and workers (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.144)

When it comes to the enforcement of these laws Thailand has made some progress in regards to the investigations and prosecution of traffickers. Beeks and Amir (2006) state the fact that whereas the prosecution of the offenders has been quite sporadic, they have nonetheless taken place and there is a marked in better prepared cases making it into the court. Arguably, more than any other country in Southeast Asia, Thailand has demonstrated conviction in the identification and response to the vulnerability of the victims of human trafficking, including those that are brought to those that are brought to the criminal justice process (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.144)

So far, Thailand boasts of a rudimentary system, which helps in identifying victims of trafficking from the numerous illegal migrants, most of whom are undocumented. And even though there still exists some significant gaps and weaknesses, this system ensures that at least a good number of victims of human trafficking within Thailand receive immediate support and assistance in repatriation (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.144)

In comparison to the magnitude of the problem of human trafficking in Thailand, this progress is invariably modest. As Kara (2009) notes the Royal Thai Police faces challenge that are typical of such law enforcement units created by countries to investigate and prosecute anti-trafficking crimes. Like other such units, the Royal Thai Police is of a small size in the human resource and it is also under funded. This frustrates the efforts of the officers in the unit in the sense that even though they are committed to fight trafficking, slavery and other related crimes they dont have the funds to train their officers, purchase arms, uniforms and even conduct comprehensive investigations. As a result, foreign assistance has become the main source of their funding and such means have proved inadequate in funding the Royal Thai police. (39)

Far from that, Royal Thai Police unit doesnt have the authority to conduct an investigation or raid in a sex-slave establishment its only allowed to respond to complaints from communities or victims. And the complaints are hard to come by because victims are often intimidated by traffickers. There are also no witness protection laws to protect the victims who would wish to volunteer information about the trade. Consequently, less than ten percent of the victims have so far testified against their oppressors (Kara, 2009, p. 39).

Beeks and Amir (2006) are of the argument that the evaluation of the Thailand criminal justice response to human trafficking is complicated due to the fact that it is a country of origin, transits and destination. For instance, the manner in which Thailand handles the trafficking of its citizens across borders is quite different from the way it responds to trafficking and exploitation of foreigners in the country. The Thailand authorities rarely conduct or even commence investigations in case of human trafficking from Thailand. It is typical of Thailand police to respond to request for information and assistance from foreign authorities that are investigating of trafficking of Thailand citizens into their own countries. (147)

Normally trafficking within and into Thailand is hardly investigated or prosecuted in any systematic or particularly effective way. The Royal Thai Police, whose main mandate is to deal with human trafficking cases, only act in response to a particular complaint and the speed and depth of its investigation depend on the avenue through which the complaint is presented. For instance, the cases which are brought to open by the media or by local and international non-governmental organizations are addressed with urgency and effectively.  The high level of complicity by the public sector and the general mistrust of Thai police, have made many a victims not to register their complaints, mostly if the victims are foreigners, illegal immigrants andor have faced exploitation in the sex industry (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.147)

Above all, the manner in which convicted traffickers are penalized leaves much to be desired about the provisions in the law. Kara (2009) argues that for human trafficking crimes to become riskier there must be a corresponding measurable risk that is economically detrimental to whoever commits that particular crime. If anything, sex slavery is a crime with enormous economic returns a criminal trade in which a slave owner exploits hisher slave in order to bring to the minimum the cost of labor and to maximize the returns. But in Thailand there is no financial penalty for persons who have are convicted for sex trafficking offense. The jail term is always a part of any such conviction but in most cases the term does not last more than a few years. (40)

On another front, there has been there has been stunted cooperation and coordination between the organizations that work on human trafficking in Thailand. The responsibilities to achieve this have been allocated between government agencies and the agencies and non-governmental organizations, which have failed to successfully implement the duties expected of them (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p.144).

Impact of Globalization on Human Trafficking in Thailand
Undoubtedly, globalization has greatly impacted human trafficking in Thailand in number of ways. One of them is that it has fanned the criminal trade by facilitating the transit of people into and through Thailand. Sanders, ONeill and Pitcher (2009), demonstrate the fact that migration today is as a result of some powerful market forces that are inextricably connected with globalization, capital market forces and the mainstreaming of the sex industry (163).

Oishi (2005) further adds that the crime of human trafficking has been fed by the migration of people from one country to another. Asia is specifically being affected by this changing global landscape (184). It should be noted that through globalization, communication has been made easier and so it is the access to the knowledge about the available markets of trafficked women. Since Thailand is a busy transit point, globalization has speeded up its efficiency in the criminal trade.

Secondly, globalization has brought a radical twist on the question of prostitution an issue that is central in human trafficking. ONeill (2001) argues that there are currently two major perspectives on prostitution. One of which is that women who work as prostitutes are normally exploited by the people (men) who organize and manage the industry. Moreover, prostitution and the wider sex industry are structured in such a manner that they establish prostitution as a patriarchal institution, which affects the lives of women and gendered relations. The second perspective is that in the present society, many women have freely chosen prostitution as a form of work and the rights and liberties of the women working in the sex industry need to be respected and upheld just like those of any other workers and this include the freedom from fear, exploitation and violence in the course of their work. (16)

The latter conceptualization, as Penttinen, (2008)observes, mainly refers to the absence of  alternatives to sex work, which causes women to resort to prostitution as the most profitable option rather than being directly coerced or tricked into prostitution by third parties such as pimps, boyfriends or criminal networks. The debate rather involves the discussions whether a prostitute is merely selling herself or her sex. The former standpoint reflects a patriarchal ideology that associates women identity with her sex and that considers virginity and chastity as womans highest value (15).
These ideological shifts are a justification to prostitution by women who find themselves in the web of human trafficking and decide to remain victims. This mindset mean that an increasing number of molested victims will opt not to come out in the light with their testimonies and to the law enforcement force of a country like Thailand, where the crime is rife, this doesnt bode well for its future.
 
Thirdly, globalization had also seen to the cooperation on countries in Asia in the fight against human trafficking. Given that human trafficking is a vice that has got an extensive global network, Thailand cannot successfully combat it unilaterally she needs the support of the international community.
As Oishi (2005) reveals, for quite some time, there was no regional cooperation or discussions that concerned the protection of migrant workers in Asia. But in recent years, many countries in the region have realized the need to cooperate on the issue of migration largely due to the increase in cases of trafficking of both women and children. For instance, the Manila Process, which was initiated by seventeen countries within the region in 1996, has provided a regular forum for migration authorities to share crucial information on the trends and policy measures that concern irregular migration and human trafficking (184). This cooperation has been made possible by the demand of globalization that countries need to share the battle front in combating the challenges that face them.
The Thai government has also demonstrated conviction in cooperating with its regional neighbors to stump out human trafficking Beeks and Amir (2006) state that Thailand is now playing an important role in fighting human trafficking abroad. Its government is considered a regional policy leader on the issue of trafficking. It has managed to reach an agreement the governments of Lao and Cambodia on the issue of identification and repatriation of victims of the vice. (144)

Thailand also helped set into motion the COMMIT process, a high-level ministerial process that consisted of all the six countries of the Greater Mekong Sub-region a process that resulted into the adoption of a landmark Memorandum of Understanding (MOU). Apart from that, Thailand has been instrumental in promoting and coordinating cooperation between the law enforcement agencies within the sub-region. And the Thailand government has at least signed the Organized Crime Convention and Trafficking Protocol, though it is yet to ratify it. Besides, Thailand is a party to a number of key international human rights instruments, for instance the Women Convention, the International Labor Law (ILO) Convention on the Worst Forms of Child Labor and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Beeks and Amir, 2006, p144).

Additionally, it is through globalization that the Asian countries managed to come up with the Asia Pacific Consultation (APC), which is sponsored by both the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and the UNHCR, is another forum that helps the Asian and Pacific countries to make consultations on matters regarding the movement of populations in the region, including those of immigrants, refugees and the internally displaced people (Oishi, 2005, p.184). Such collaboration means that Thailand gained the much needed partnership, which is crucial in its efforts to fight against human trafficking.   

Conclusion
The problem of human trafficking is chronic in Thailand and as elaborated herein, the country cannot succeed to fix the problem without the help from international players. The major factor that exacerbates this problem is globalization, which enables the communication and movements of people across borders. The situation is apparently getting bleaker with governments concentrating resources in fighting other forms of crimes, despite ratifying various treaties that abhor human trafficking.

Introduction
Corporations have direct impact on the lives of the public. At the outset, these organizations create employment opportunities for the society members. Besides, the ventures contribute to the economic development through tax remittance. Their management is of great concern to the public and therefore violations by these organizations or individuals in these firms attract as much attention as can be expected. These crimes may include indulgence of firms or individuals acting on behalf of the corporation in violations of laws that are punishable. These violations call for penalties as well as fines. However, corporations are always operating in larges scale and have both financial and political influence therefore these penalties andor fines may be insignificant to their operational costs. This may be one of the factors that have contributed to increased corporate crimes in the U.S. Several legislations have been enacted but with minimal funding from the government and increased globalization, little has been achieved as far as suppressing corporate crimes is concerned. Prevention of these criminal activities requires involvement of all stakeholders including the government but more so the corporate and the behavior and business culture these organizations are nurturing.

Types of corporate crimes
Corporate crimes are varied in nature and may therefore be classified into various types. According to Hartley (2008), corporate crimes are in five groups including Elite crime, Elite deviance, occupational crime, organizational crime as well as political crime. To begin with, Elite crimes entail violations of the law committed by an individual or a group of individuals while carrying out a legitimate occupational and financial activity on behalf of the organization. Elite deviance on the other hand involve violations of the law committed by leaders and or organizations they head that result in either financial, physical or moral harm to the offended. Occupational crime involves violations of the law committed by an individual while carrying out an activity in a legitimate occupation.

Political crime entails violations of the public trust committed by an individual or on behalf of the government driven by the desire of financial gain. Finally, organizational crime involves violations of the law by omission or commission of an individual or groups of individuals in a genuine and recognized organization, which have grave economic or physical effects on workers, customers or the general community (Hartley, 2008). Clinard  Yeager (2005) however classifies crime committed by an individual in hisher own capacity and not acting on behalf of the firm as occupational crime and not corporate crime and vise versa.

Typical Profile of an offender
Corporate crimes cause more harm and deaths compared to other sources of death. This is not publicized hence the public unawareness of the implications of such crimes. Corporate offenders are individuals of middle or high class with high level of education and no history of crime-related activities. The offender studies the existing regulations on crime violations and get involved in sophisticated planning of the crimes. They are always sober and not influenced by drugs in most cases and usually prefer privacy by working alone except when need for corporation arise. The corporate crime offenders take advantage of prevailing opportunities in the work environment such as self-regulation to pursue their ambitions. These offenders rob the economies enormous finances worth billions of dollars.

Causes of corporate crime
Causes of corporate crimes stem from socio- cultural and economic factors, nature and structure of the corporate, competence as well as industries that facilitate crimes in their mode of operations (Gobert  Punch 2003). The duo argue that the standards and conduct of the society especially the business community as well as the government influences to a great extent the behavior of corporate within the same societal setting. They state that its uncommon to find a corporate that enhances transparency in a society that tolerates crime and corruption. The employees come from the same corruption-ridden society and therefore influence the operations of the organization in one way or another. The nature and structure of organizations facilitates crimes by hook or by crook.

To begin with, organizational decisions which are portrayed as unitary may at times prove to be actions of a single segment of the organization. In the corporate are cultural segmentation, rivalries and poor communication as well as institutional disintegration which make it hard to articulate judiciousness and coherence to unitary decision-making process of an organization. Moreover, the pressures and forces exerted on individual members in an organization to meet the demands of the organization may turn them into group actors thereby increasing their chances of indulging in violations even though they might have been individuals of high moral standards. His idea is shared by Clinnard and Yeager (2005) who despite insisting on individual members in the corporate as the key offenders emphasize on the pressures and opportunity in the business that makes the criminal activity inevitable in such corporate. They attribute this to existence of such corporate in an environment characterized by stiff competition. It is important for corporate to adopt strategies which would ensure their survival in the market as well as their growth in the industry. However, it is unfortunate that some corporate get involved in crimes to enhance their chances of survival ( HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22MarshallBarronClinard22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Clinard   HYPERLINK httpbooks.google.co.kebooksqinauthor22PeterC.Yeager22clientfirefox-asourcegbs_metadata_rcad11 Yeager, 2005).

Gruner (2004) supports this by implying that sources of crime curtail from features of corporate functions which provides an atmosphere for corporate individuals to engage in violations. He further reiterates that corporate employees not only commit offenses for their personal gains but also for the benefit of the corporate. According to Gruner (2004), individuals are responsible for committing offenses while corporate do not. He however argues that the aim of committing corporate crimes is to realize benefits that will help corporate in one way or another. For instance, corporate may be involved in violations to increase revenues or even to minimize expenses associated with law compliance. On the other hand, these crimes may be aimed at personal gains by the individual involved in the violations or at shunning penalties to those individuals for failure to achieve assigned duty. Violations are also possible when one or more agents of the corporate engage in a crime in which case the corporate is liable.

Gobert  Punch (2003) further explain how an organization can be liable to corporate crimes due to incompetence of its board members. Assumption that board members are qualified is always risky since some of these individuals may be lacking certain expertise to address organizational problems as witnessed in the Enron collapse thereby leading to corporate crimes. Finally, the duo explain how the coercive nature of industries facilitate the corporate crimes by individual members as earlier elaborated by Clinnard and Yeager (2005) who cited pressures from the corporate as the reasons why members indulge in corporate crimes.

Conclusion
Corporate have direct impact on the lives of the society and therefore high degree of transparency and expertise should be enhanced in its management to minimize cases of corporate crimes which have not only robbed the economy of its resources but have also caused deaths in many circumstances. Stringent legislative measures should also be enacted to provide stiffer penalties thereby controlling the up surging corporate crime rates.

Leadership remains to be an essential quality shaping organizational development and harmonizing the process of supplementing new directions for change. It seeks to address the appropriate mindset for addressing challenges and complementing the necessary styles in cultivating behavior and establishing effective relationships. Given these, it is crucial to identify appropriate strategies and seek out to address the changing trends of today. Such capacity then opens up greater appreciation and value towards providing a path that brings about transformation and recognition of ones capacity and goals.

Reflecting on my current process of applying leadership goals, it can be seen that I have sought to develop a transformational style. It is derived from the overall objective to sustain growth and encourage actions that can stimulate relationships and cultivating important areas such as communication, effective group interaction and recognition of a specific purpose. I do believe that all these have indeed been relevant in creating a transformation and discovering new approaches to establish patterns towards adapting to the current environment.

However, in achieving this process, I have to undergo different challenges and hurdles that tested my determination in pursuing my goal. It brought about significant insights over what needs to be done and what serve as catalysts in achieving these objectives accordingly. Seeing this, I used the experiences, both negative and positive as instruments in recognizing the appropriate mindset and what efforts need to be made. Such dynamics then provided the leverage to decipher the value of communication, group interplay, and consciousness as valuable principles collaborating and making transformational leadership work.

Establishing Consciousness
One relevant process that I had observed remains important in furthering transformational leadership revolves around creating an established consciousness. This principle revolves not mainly on operating on specific goals and values. Rather, it corresponds to a collective calling in achieving a prospect and value  something that is innate and responsive to the needs of each one. It is through such mindset that values, principles, and goals must be rooted. As Burns (2003) provides, leaders take the initiative in mobilizing people for participation in the processes of change, encouraging a sense of collective identity and collective efficacy, which in turn brings stronger feelings of self-worth and self-efficacy (p. 25).

Similarly, processes and issues are addressed in a communal manner. Here, attention is given on the views of all and correspond to how our individual differences shape the perspective in outlining our transcendence and contributions for the betterment of the group. In particular, Palmer (2003) mentions that in order to achieve this process, we need both the interior intimacy that comes with solitude and the otherness that comes with community (p.54). 

Relating this to my experience, my participation within a group opened my eyes to the process of transformational leadership. Here, the group exhibited behavior that sought to intensify the value of redefining the process of interaction. It takes into account each ones contribution as supplementary and vital to the achievement of goals. Other actors within the group served as equal representatives in developing this consciousness. Such ability to understand one another brought about the value of consciousness to be fully realized and allowed my capacity to lead transcend to the groups needs accordingly.

Cultivating Communication
Another process that is valuable in the facilitation of transformational leadership revolves around communication. Under this component, it takes into consideration both informal and formal patterns that serve as instrument in bridging similarities and differences together in a group. Such course then ensures the stability of the group by opening up not only elements of interaction and compliance but also seek to resolve occurring disputes that are happening within the organization or group (Carey, 2006). This element in turn thus serves as an important catalyst in honing transformational leadership.

Likewise, the establishment of effective communication and interaction creates opportunities for sharing of ideas. This in turn helps establishes relationships by furthering common areas where individuals agree or disagree. Though this method may provide differing ideas and perspectives over issues, it also carries out the ability to recognize and point out human needs and justify what directions are necessary. As Carey (2006) points out, the move toward greater and greater self-transcendence may be viewed as the driving force of developmental theories of human growth, the criterion for authentic human needs, and the antecedent for authentic relationship (p.3).

Applying this principle with my experience, I deem that the communication process strengthened my ability to further transcend to the group both as a leader and a member. Here, I learned the value of balancing the time to both listen and speak what I believe is necessary. Under this process, I began to cherish how communication and dialogue infuses authenticity and ability to convey important ideas. It served as an important leverage not only on getting things done but also redefined my view of enhancing conflict-resolution strategies and cultivating motivation.

At the same time, the establishment of communication also helped realized its impact in relationships. I began to appreciate that for every organizationgroup to work such process should remain embedded within its dynamics and function. It brings about the ability to recognize fully responsibilities of each actor and how they can contribute with the process of achieving a unified mission and objective. These elements served as vital in honing my ability to recognize the value and relevance of transformational leadership as it takes communication as the groundwork for gaining success.

Group Dynamics and Interaction
The last aspect shaping transformational leadership circumvents with the creating a specific group dynamic and interaction that is rooted with the end goal and objectives. Here, it takes into account the relevance ideas and how it can be use to complement one another to achieve a specific task. Such process can stem from a simple to a more complex one gaining momentum and motivated by a proper leadership style.

At the same time, the process also considers the creation of work with consideration of how the group contributes to the process. Allowing each one a fair share of production, it can shape their ability to recognize their function and meaning within the community. Such realities then provide valuable opportunities to allow growth and further development to occur. Here, Carey (2006) mentions, the insights we have about the dynamics of transformation (regarding both what facilitates and hinders it) can be applied to work as leaders, choosing to assist others in their own developmental journey toward leadership consciousness (p.3). 

Reflecting on its application on my experience, I do believe that considering the value of culture also remains to be a valuable process to consider in transformational leadership. To become an effective leader, I must not only seek to cultivate relationships but also address the capacity and responsibility to understand the differences that people have. Here, I had made considerable attention in fostering informal and formal interaction to acquire information and competency. Such approach then provided a greater degree in achieving tasks in a more effective manner.

In the end, the value of achieving transformational leadership takes time. It seeks to create a collective undertaking in both individuals and groups towards recognizing the notion of communication, consciousness and relationships as valuable tenets in achieving transcendence. These elements also provide the ability to utilize new dimensions in addressing current trends and encourage a new sense of belongingness and motivation to pursue objectives regardless of existing challenges and hurdles along the way. 

Considerable proportions of individuals booked in American jails are considered to have mental illness. According to NCCHC, out of the 11 million adults in American prisons, over 700,000 are believed to have serous mental illnesses with 75 of them having co-occurring substance abuse disorders. Morrissey, et.al. (2006) found that, many times persons in jail had lost access to Medicaid benefits prior to their release. Inadequate transition planning also led to compromised public safety, suicide, hospitalization, relapse to substance abuse and increased psychiatric disability. Furthermore, oftentimes, this scenario finds patients with mental illness re-applying for coverage in the critical days following release leaving them without access to care. Federal policies allow states some latitude in suspending status of Medicaid for persons who are incarcerated. 

Illness self-management foci place emphasis on how best to help individuals learn the skills and knowledge for lessening the impact of their mental illness in terms of impact on their personal lives while also striving to establish a sense of personal wellbeing and control over their destinies (Meuser and MacCain, 2005). Management of ones mental illness is an important goal of practitioners in the area of psychiatric rehabilitation, especially for individuals who have been, or are currently, jailed. Managing mental illness can help patients make better treatment decisions, reduce the impact of their problematic symptoms, or lessen the severity of relapses and re-hospitalizations.

According to Hertz (2000), inmates and other patients with psychiatric disabilities oftentimes have recurring troubling symptoms, such as, hallucinations or delusions, mood swings, depression, or anxiety, apathy or anhedonia, other dysfunctional behavior, and concentration or memory problems Taken in context these symptoms can be distressing psychologically and add to ones functional impairment. Illness self management, cognitive behavior techniques targeted at cognitive restructuring, and other coping strategies can reinforce and increase the patients ability to cope with their mental disabilities, certain situations in their lives, and the world around them ( Hertz, 2000).

In 2004 a subcommittee on criminal justice was created from the Presidents New Freedom Commission on Mental Health to identify intervention responses and their effectiveness toward development of programs that can be adapted to the special needs of inmates with mental illness in the following settings

Programs that divert minors with severe mental illness out of the criminal justice system.
Services in correctional facilities to target inmates with severe mental illness who have committed crimes worthy of incarceration.

Discharge plans that can link inmates with severe mental illnesses to community based services upon release from those correctional facilities (Mueser and Mackain, 2005).

Toward this end, it is my belief that adopting a program similar to that of GAINS, SAMHSA, or one of the others methods like PAI or ACT or any of the others that have been tested in correctional settings, along with the APIC model, could prove beneficial in managing the integration of existing health, mental health, substance abuse, and social services such that services rendered meet the patientsinmates needs. Goals should hinge on, but not be limited to, the improvement of patientinmate outcomes related to self-sufficiency and reducing recidivism in the Durham County Jail.

Purpose of Study
The purpose of this research project is to examine best practice models identified in the literature for providing mental health services to inmates in jail and recommend a model for the implementation at Durham County Jail.  The research further seeks to highlight and explain how the Durham County Jail can benefit from implementing a Best Practice Service Delivery Protocol. Research will be completed to analyze data regarding best practice service delivery protocols that may lead to delivery of better services to inmates with mental disabilities in the jail.

Problem Statement
Is there a best practice protocol or model that can be uniquely adapted to the needs and requirements of the inmates in the Durham County Jail

Can the AIPC (Assessment, Planning, identification, and Coordination) model help them understand and adapt to their various mental disabilities by minimizing the impact of their mental illnesses on their lives (both on the inside and duringpost-probationparole) while providing them with a sense of personal wellbeing and control over their destinies such that patients and practitioners can lessen recidivism

Approach
This study will be a qualitative approach in that it will encompass a number of studies across a couple of decades by numerous professionals in the area of psychoanalysis and mental disabilitiesdisorders. Data will be presented from symposiums, forums, discussion groups, interviews, etc. of multi-disciplinary teams, comprising those working in the detention facility in Durham County, administrators, sheriffs, county and state mental health and substance abuse professionalsadministrators, courts and law enforcement personnel, elected officials, patients and their families. An exhaustive literature review will highlight journal articles, books, and other information derived from professionals on the topic of mental illness as it relates to inmates and recidivism rates in Jails where rehabilitation has been the goal of such treatments and interventions. 
Outcomes anticipated as direct result of this study should touch on improvement of quality and scope of the information available to mental health care professionals, especially those working in the criminal justice system in the state of North Carolina, as well as, targeting systemic change in the organization and financing of services to the inmate population. Achieving improvement in the quality and scope of information in the area of mental illness and its proposed treatment of inmates in the Durham County Jail means increasing collaborative efforts on behalf of practitioners and helping them to develop practical applications for a best practice service delivery protocol. The APIC model is the one believed to be the best fit for this particular situation, but this APIC model should take into consideration the particular conditions consistent with jails, correctional facilities, and prisons, including the political environment, and fiscal realities, that go hand in hand with implementation of such practices, methods, and policies.

Relevance to Social Work
The relevance of such discussion is that mental health care practitioners will be better equipped and prepared to handle psychiatric rehabilitation and potential recidivism of inmates in the Durham County Jail. This discussion is directed toward selection of a single best practice service delivery protocol and adoption of the APIC model. The APIC model used as best services delivery protocol can create opportunities for multiple jails, correctional, or prison systems to participate as teams. A team based approach, originally introduced by Eli Lilly in treatment of schizophrenia toward this problem with mental illness and recidivism can be a critical ingredient in garnering change and appropriation of funding at the local and state levels on issues of recurring mental health and substance abuse that service in the criminal justice system in their state (Mueser and Mackain, 2005).

It is anticipated that in order for this APIC program to work optimally it may be necessary to integrate or merge the services provided by mental health and substance abuse. It is hoped that this cooperation and collaboration between closely aligned departments (mental health and substance abuse) can produce significant improvements above those realized in the current system. Research suggests that jails are a good point to begin development of such services targeted at persons who have been diagnosed with recurring or co-occurring mental health or substance abuse disorders by linking community based services to those of the jail based program (Teplin, 1990).  Please note that programs that serve women with co-occurring mental health or substance abuse issues may require additional attention because there are huge deficits currently in meeting their specific needs.

Chapter Two
Literature Review
According to Teplin (1990), The American Bar Association mandates that persons with perceived mental illnesses be directed toward treatment instead of incarceration. Practically speaking most police officers do not look further than arrest records when picking up persons for crimes or other criminal incidents. As such, diagnosis and treatment for those with mental illness leads oftentimes to arrest as management for those disorders. More than likely these marginalized persons may have already been rejected by halfway houses, hospitals, andor detox facilities. Furthermore, Abram and Teplin (1991) believe that because these persons profiles are so complicated by having multiple disorders they have been dropped from treatment programs and as such find themselves guests of our criminal justice system.

Osher and Drake (1991) found that there are many more persons with co-occurring disorders cloistered away in our prisons and jails than are part of mainstream society (1991). Ruiz and Edens (2008) therefore affirms high rates of co-occurring psychiatric disorders within the justice, an observation justifiable based on the fact that individuals with mental illnesses are more likely to abuse and depend on drugs. Ruiz and Edens (2008) attest to this affirming that researches on the PAI drug problems (DRG) scale have generally proved a positive correlation between mental health and substance abuse problems. Comparative to their normal counterparts and due to their cognitive impairment, offenders with mental illnesses are less likely to avoid arrest and more likely to be convicted since they lack the necessary mental capacity to effectively defend themselves, (Edens and Ruiz, 2008). New guidelines and mandatory sentencing have resulted in longer jail, correction, and prison periods for those with co-occurring mental disorders. It is also noted that homelessness and impoverishment oftentimes plays itself out as a result of that revolving door scenario.

The relationship between crime and drugs has been investigated for decades with studies indicating that there are individuals who fall in the criminogenic or substance-abusing offerenders category, (Deitch, Koutsenok  Ruiz, 2000). Lurigio and Swartz (1994) believe that persons who need (use) drugs commit crimes in order to continue to supply their drug dependence. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (1992) there is a heavy correlation between heroin and cocaine use and crime. Studies show that there is a three time increase in criminal acts of those considered users compared to nonusers. Cognitive and emotional disorders associated with persons who suffer from co-occurring mental illness are increasingly likely reasons why these persons may be apprehended for commission of crimes.

Eden and Ruiz (2008) believe that, there is a huge need for detection of persons with mental disorders in the correctional setting because each year more and more persons with mental illness are incarcerated. The importance of this early detection lies in the ability to separate those who are violent substance offenders from those who are not violent. In such instances, the non-violent offender may then be diverted to treatment programs as early intervention is proven to lessen management problems during incarceration.

History of Different Models and Theoretical Framework
The ACT (Assertive Community Treatment) treatment model is a highly integrated and intensive service delivery model that serve aid people with symptoms of mental illness which may result into severe mental and functional difficulties thereby interfering with their normal operations such as having friends, working and living independently, (Morrissey and Meyer, 2005). ACT lasts as long as it is deemed necessary combining supportive services such as vocational rehabilitation and peer recovery services with treatment and is cross-disciplined from the care perspective. ACT was devised in the 1970s in Madison, WI and specifically targeted prevention of the revolving door that enabled repeat hospitalizations of persons with mental illness (Marx, et.al., 1973). ACT has been a part of over fifty-five well established studies, in the USA and abroad.

FACT is an outcropping of ACT with the simple premise of preventing incarcerations and arrests (Morrissey and Piper, 2005).  All FACT practitioners have histories with the criminal justice systems and previous involvement with co-occurring substance use disorders making them ideal candidates for helping others in the same or similar situations.

ICM, or Intensive Case Management, has been used in the criminal justice system under the guise of Forensic Intensive Case Management (FICM), (Marshall, et.al., 1998).  This method is similar to ACT, but without the team based approach. Rather it links coordinated services with patient treatments and generally has more lax transition times. For example, the method may provide jail-based case management services while organizing for release or implement a community based case management service following the release. Currently there are 12 states with 26 programs of this type available to persons in the US criminal justice system.

APIC, (Assessment, Planning, Identification, and Coordination) is a widely recognized model for community reentry for jailed offenders that depicts the importance of mental health assessment beginning at the point of entry and ending with probationparole (Edens and Ruiz, 2008). Most practitioners in the field concur that the symptoms that receive the most referrals in correctional settings is depression. However, it would be remiss to not note that there is an inordinate number or persons in our correctional facilities who suffer from severe mental illness and disabilities ranging from bi-polar disorder to manic depression and schizophrenia.  According to Boothby and Clements (2006), many of these persons have previously been exposed to trauma that set the stage for development of their mental illnesses

PAI, or Personality Assessment Inventory, is another tool used on a multiple scale for measurement of psychopathology and personality disorders, both in the correctional and forensic setting (Edens and Ruiz, 2008).  PAI is a very cost effective tool in evaluation of low reading levels (typically 4th grade) that is associated with reduced administrative costs and time while reaping solid information in terms of psychometric properties affiliated with personality disorders and risk toward violence. The model gives inmates better access to mental health initiatives enabling prisoners access to psychiatric specialists besides contributing to their rehabilitation and safe successful integration into the community. These aggression scales have proven useful in such measurement in identification of inmates who are more prone to violent actions while incarcerated. 

WRAP (wellness recovery and action plan) is the brainchild of Mary Ellen Copeland (Copeland and Mead, 2004). Her generalized program was standardized such that it could be used to help persons with recurring health and emotional problems experience healthier and more rewarding lives. There are seven components of WRAP, creation of a daily maintenance plan, identification of triggers, early warning signs potential crisis signs, development of the actual crisis plan, making changes in lifestyle, setting up a support and self-advocacy team, increasing ones self esteem, and relief of stress and tension.

Empirical Studies
According to Mueser,et.al (2002) there has been extensive research completed on the topic of illness management, his results contend that people with psychiatric disabilities are able to learn and retain information about their disabilities and treatments, but that the end results, including relapse, re-hospitalizations, and recurring severe symptoms were unaffected. Practitioners in this area deemed that educational approaches were not sufficient in improvement or management of persons with psychiatric disabilities. Merinder (2000) and Zygmunt, et.al. (2002), tended to reach similar conclusions in their research.

According to Atkinson, Coia, Gilmour,  Harper, education about mental illness is a necessary and critical factor in family intervention programs (1996). This family education targets how the relatives of the mentally ill can help to manage and collaborate, with regard to potential treatment programs, for those with whom they reside who experience some degree of mental illness. These techniques are meant to overlap and meld with individual illness self-management programs. There appears to be consensus that research on such programs has failed to illuminate any specific results that favor such treatments or interventions and there is no specific mention as to how educational outreach programs favor inmates (Atkinson, et.al., 1996).

Peters, May, and Kearns,  have found that persons who attend jail-based substance abuse programs, and also show symptoms for mental illness, had more difficulty in areas of employment, relationship development, and other mental difficulties (1992). Overcoming these issues means developing new leisure activities, recreational pursuits, and employment skills and training within the prison environment.

Blackwell believes that there has been too much adherence to recommended treatments with regard to psychiatry and mental illness (1973). According to Coldham, and Addington, an individuals sensitivity to others efforts to direct or control their behavior as psychological reactance thinks that treatments that are authoritarian in nature can cause non-adherence in persons who are known to be highly psychologically reactant (2002). There is some consensus between Fogarty (1997) and Moore, Sellwood,  Sterling, that if there is collaboration in exacting treatment alternatives between psychiatrist and patient there will be more respect for the treatment decision (2000).

Lurigio and Swartz made many attempts to evaluate substance abuse treatment in the Cook county jail located in Chicago, IL (1994). The program being used there was three-pronged in that it began with orientation, then intervention, and aftercare. Sadly, of the 34 who started this program, only 17 of those actually completed it.

Relapse prevention strategies have proven effective outside of the criminal justice setting according to research performed by (Mueser, Corrigan, Hilton, Tanzman, Schaub, Gingrich, Essock, Tarrier, Morey, Vogel-Scibilia,  Hertz (2002). These programs varied in duration and comprehensiveness. One such program lasted six weeks and was aimed at bi-polar disorder. This study was proven effective at the end of the two year trial and follow-up sessions.  Hertz, Lamberti, Mintz, Scott, ODell, McCartan,  Nix, studied schizophrenic patients relapse at weekly meetings held over the course of a year (2000). This program was established to track, recognize, and respond to the early warning signs of relapse while also attempting to help these patients manage their triggers better. The end result of this study was that it did have an effect upon relapses and rehospitalizations (Hertz, et.al, 2000).

Wallace and team conducted research regarding medication management and symptom management. They devised a training manual that can literally be used by anyone, from practitioner to novice. Sixteen programs were implemented as result of this study ranging from residential care facilities to corrections, and psychiatric operations. Their particular program lasted for one year and each of their modules were taught over six month periods of time to a variety of personnel showing marked improvement in social adjustment for their patients. Follow-ups were conducted after two years and showed results were ongoing and positive in this regard (Wallace, Linerman, MacKain, Blackwell,  Eckman, (1992).  This study was not specific to the correctional facility setting and more information would need to be reaped before adopting this program for the Durham County Jail. 

Hogarty and colleagues devised what they termed personal therapy. This was an individualized psychotherapeutic approach targeted at persons suffering from schizophrenic disorder (1995). It was their intention to help patients achieve and maintain stabilization in the clinical sense of the word. Sessions for personal therapy were conducted bi-weekly for the first year and somewhat less often over the duration of the second year this program was implemented (Hogarty, 2002).  Personal therapy was divvied up into three segments with exact guidelines as to how the program was to proceed. Step one was a meeting between patient and therapist that developed a treatment plan and created a relationship or connection between the two. Sector two was psychoeducation where the patient learned about their illness and various treatments available to control the effects. Internal coping skills and stress management were taught at this juncture. Lastly, was social skills training and interactions where the patients learned how to avoid situations that might cause them conflict and how to initiate positive interactions with others. Personal therapy was deemed to reduce psychotic relapses for those residing at home, but noted increased relapse rates for those living on their own (Hogarty, 2002).. They attribute this anomaly to conflicts with landlords or additional stress from other unrelated factors. However, at the three year follow-up mark personal therapy noted significant improvement in overall symptoms severity, ability to adjust, and employment opportunities. 

Chapter Three
Methodology
As previously mentioned the APIC model is the selected best practices service delivery protocol that will be adopted and tested in the New Jersey criminal justice systems. Archival data will be collected from the APIC protocols at each facility that is part of the New Jersey criminal justice system. It will be administered to a select number of inmates, two to three weeks after admission such that the team performing diagnosis is working from a blind perspective and has not biased any results that may follow. Basic demographic information will be gathered from these inmate charts. There will be attempts to segregate the results according to mental disorder, violent or non-violent offenses, drug-related, or non-specified.

Setting
The setting to be used for implementation of the APIC model is the criminal justice system in New Jersey. Symptom profiles are complex for persons with co-occurring disorders because of their multiple treatment needs. Of the jailed in New Jersey ethnically speaking the vast majority was African American or Hispanic, many were males between the ages of 15 and 25. Since 1995 there had been an increase of over 57 females entering jail compared to 34 males entering jail for the same time frame. Of that population 60 had some mental disorders that required treatment and intervention. There was no further demographic breakdown offered from HYPERLINK httpwww.jailovercrowding.comindexwww.jailovercrowding.comindex. 

Teplin (1991) found that 85.5 of the persons with co-occurring disorders in the jail system were diagnosed with schizophrenia and had some alcohol dependencies as well. 72.4 had some drug addiction issues. His studies were conducted in five prisons sites. The ratios he found in this study were compared to institutional studies of persons with schizophrenia in combined communities and the prison data sets were double that of the institutional setting. 88 of those persons were males. No data was offered as to ethnicity or specifically targeting women in jail. Pointing to the fact that more studies need to be conducted to reap meaningful demographic data for this area 

Models Used
A blend of models will have been tested and evaluated in order to select the APIC model as best practice service delivery protocol for the criminal justice setting in the state of New Jersey.

Best Practice Model
AIPC, (Assessment, Planning, Identification, and Coordination) has been deemed to be the best practice service delivery protocol to be implemented in the New Jersey jail because it takes the best features of the other plans and models and correlates them to the best possible outcomes for the inmates with mental illnesses in those facilities.

Implementation
The AIPC best practice service delivery protocol is organized to roll out in phases over the coming months in order to allow for practitioners to be adequately trained in the requirements to make this plan a success. The first couple of weeks will entail training, networking, and educational outreach projects coordinated within the community this jail impacts most. A variety of professionals from a diverse pool of specialties will contribute to this educational endeavor and hopefully make it a seamless move into the second portion of this plan. The second part of this plan will be the direct results of this educational quest in that it will be the first direct contact these professionals will have with the inmates in this jail.

This portion will begin with an evaluation phase to determine the degree to which these inmates are impacted by their mental illnesses and to ascertain what, if any, previous treatments and interventions have been employed. Medications will be included in this phase as they relate to each persons specific condition and should lessen any outbursts or other problems for the correctional officers tasked for overseeing them. There will also be discussion about how these inmates can begin to take charge of their illnesses, notice what things trigger their episodes, and rein in the ill effects this has caused on their lives.  The crux of this plan is to lessen recidivism rates in this jail, especially for those with mental illness or co-occurring mental disorders.

Symptom management is a top priority in this regard and will be taught in four sessions identification of early warning signs and seeking immediate intervention, developing relapse prevention plans, coping with ongoing and persistent symptoms of their various mental illnesses, and avoiding substance abuse. This portion of the plan will involve twice weekly sessions that last for three to six months and will shift, when necessary according to duration of time to be served, from in jail populations with these mental issues to outpatient facilities for continuum toward achievement of best results.

Chapter Four  Implications for Social Work Practice
Even under the best circumstances for diagnosis and screening in identification of offenders with mental health issues, few are noted to receive care beyond basic medications for control of symptoms or separate housing for behavioral problems associated with same. (Beck and Maruschak, 2001 National Institute of Corrections, 2001) Cost is a concern at these facilities. A multi-tiered approach toward this serious issue may come close to addressing these needs for inmates with mental illness according to Messer and MacKain. (2004) Multi-tiered services have been adopted by some states and are usually effectuated in the least restrictive setting. These programs offer in-patient care, residential care for special needs inmates under house arrest or lock-down, daily and intermediate treatments, and outpatient mental health services.

Osher and Drake (1996) believe that negative clinical outcomes in the jail setting are more the rule than the exception. Persons with co-occurring disorders compared to those with single syndrome shook out as follows Co-occurring persons had increased vulnerability for rehospitalizations, exhibited more psychotic symptoms, were noted as having more severe depression and tendencies toward suicide while incarcerated. In addition to that they also had serious issues adapting to their daily lives, were more violent and non-compliant in approach to treatments and interventions, and had higher incidence of HIV.

The implications for implementing the APIC plan should be clear to create a best practice service delivery protocol that can lessen recidivism in the New Jersey jail. Paramount in achieving this goal is early detection of inmates who are mentally ill or show signs of co-occurring mental illness. With appropriate interventions on behalf of skilled professionals it is the express hopes that the persons who fall into the correctional system with these disabilities can be diverted on toward treatment facilities where they can overcome some of the ill effects these illnesses have created for them and be less a burden and challenge for the personnel at this facility.

Overall, if this plan can perform as anticipated it sets the stage for adoption into other correctional facilities within and outside the state of New Jersey. The APIC model can serve as benchmark in aiding practitioners in this challenging field to better weed out persons with mental disabilities or co-occurring symptoms from our overcrowded jail and correctional facilities such that they receive appropriate treatment that can help them return to productive persons within our society. 
Chapter Five
Conclusion
Best practices are intended to come about due to extensive research and exhaustive studies that have been tested in a variety of circumstances in order to assure that they are capable of being implemented into the one at the jail in New Jersey. Many models have been considered before selection of the APIC plan. Mental illness, like other lifelong chronic diseases, requires ongoing care and management in order to lessen the disruptive and destructive effects on the patientsinmates daily lives, (Mueser and MacKain, 2005). Through regular monitoring by medical and psychological professionals it is hoped that they these professionals can help these inmates move on to lead perfectly normal lives away from the criminal justice setting.

If these inmates can understand the insidious nature of their mental illnesses and co-occurring mental issues they can begin to make changes in their lifestyle behavioral tailoring andor cognitive restructuring, take charge of their medications, select coping strategies, and make better informed decisions about learning about early warning signs and identification of triggers can go a long way toward relapse prevention when they require emergent medical care or intervention for control or prevention of recurring mental problems.  It is worth noting that there are oftentimes cognitive limitations associated that accompany these mental illnesses that may require environmental changes to compensate for same. (Velligan, et.al., 2000) 

Statistically, it has been proven that, in the vast majority of the studies, there are significant benefits reduced symptom severity or distress on behalf of the inmates with mental illness or co-occurring mental disabilities that can be derived from implementation of the APIC model into the New Jersey jail. (See empirical studies above)  Over the course of the past couple of decades, as result of such studies, a number of new programs have been devised in a variety of settings. Information as it relates to the inmate populations in correctional facilities and mental illness or co-occurring mental disabilities still requires more study and insight into alleviating or lessening the recidivism rates for those persons, but it is our firm belief that the APIC model will help in this regard. New studies need to document interventions in jail diversion programs or mental health courts, jails, prisons, or other correctional facilities in their host setting.

SYNOPSIS
Push written by the poet Sapphire in 1996 is a classic literature of low-class black culture. Claireece P. Jones, or Precious to those close to her, is the narrator of the story. She has experienced the worst experience any person wouldnt like to experience. She is pregnant with her second child from her father, she is abused verbally and physically by her mother, and she has reached ninth grade without learning how to read or write. Adding to that, after her father dies, she discovers that she contracted her fathers sickness which is AIDS. But an alternative school (Each One Teach One) teaches her to push herself in reaching for a better life for herself and for her children.

A Precious Problem
There are several offenders that contributed in Precious misery. First of all, her mother who not only physically abuse her but verbally abuses her at the same time. She is not concerned with Precious education. Her mothers forced ignorance of her boyfriends sexual advances to Precious makes her offence far more inhuman than the fathers sexual acts. 

Another offender is Precious father who gave her two children out of incest. Some of the minor offenders are the people in her community who keeps insulting Precious because of her illiteracy and size.

Injustices
In the time that the novel was situated, Precious was still living in a community wherein black people have accepted their deplorable state in a way that they dont see a chance at betterment. This leaves Precious even more pitiful of her state than hopeful. She is deprived of real love and companionship and the people at her school are not genuinely concerned of her welfare. She has nowhere to go and no one to really depend on. She is lost in her own circle of frustrations.

Women sex offenders
Sex offence is usually connected with men. Although at some time, many women are engaging to sex offence or in easier terms, women rapes too. It is hard to believe though that women are becoming sex abusers too being that they are usually seen as nurturing and caring. And that is the reason why the existence of female sex offenders hasnt really been noticed by most people. But with the societys situation, it is not very far to assume that the statistics of female sex offenders are going up in an alarming rate. It is already bad that there are men sex offenders. Now one cant be sure in staying at home since both men and women might be dangerous sexually. Men are not the only dangerous specie nowadays, women are also.

Precious predicament
Precious situation was more than anybody could ever want to experience. In the real world, it may be inconceivable that a girl must experience Precious predicament at such a young age. At 12 years old, she is already pregnant with her first child (out of incest). She gave birth to her first child on the kitchen floor of their house, and the child comes out with a Down syndrome. She does not know neither to read nor write. And yet, with this pressing situation in her life, why was it difficult to help Precious Because she wasnt helping herself in believing that there is still hope.

People are always encouraged when they are surrounded by people who are encouraged also. Most often than not, people gets their inspiration from another person. But if the person itself does not help himselfherself, it would be too difficult to help himher. It would be like teaching to a wall.

Other than this, there are factors which contribute to Precious injustice her race contributes to her low self-esteem which adds to the difficulty of her situation. Her lack of education doesnt help in her knowing what to do or to whom to go to. Her lack of money indicates that she is not secure in her needs. Her security and health is at stake because of her mother and fathers lack of concern.

These combining factors placed Precious unprotected of her predicament and in getting justice of her situation. Being out of connections and not knowing how to make needed connections, she faced her situation alone without any idea how to face it. She was scared of her father, which is the reason why she cant refuse his sexual advances she is angry with her mother for not rescuing her from her situation, she is sad for not knowing what to do, and she is hopeless that shell ever get out of her circumstances. Her vulgarity in language prevented people from trusting her sincerity.

But a good way of ending the novel is when Precious learned how true her name is to her life. And although she is positive of the AIDS Virus, she will keep going not just for herself but for her two children.

The spread of HIV throughout the world, as indicated by scientists is not coming to an end any time soon and is shadowed by increasing difficulties to human rights, at both global and national levels (Gruskin and Tarantola, para, 1). HIV according to Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 1) continues to be marked by increased discrimination against specific population groups those who live on the extremes of the society, and those who are presumed to be at a higher risk due to their behaviors, race, sexual orientation, gender, way of life, and social qualities that are stigmatized in a particular society. Throughout the world, prejudice also jeopardizes reasonable delivery of goods and services that are aimed at preventing and taking care of HIV infected people. These include drugs that are necessary for HIVAIDS care as well as the development of vaccines to take care of the needs of all people. Human rights issues related to HIVAIDS as stated by Gruskin, and Tarantola (para, 1) are becoming more diverse and evident with the increase in the numbers of people living with HIVAIDS in nations that have different economies, social structures, and legal systems.

AIDS, Ethics and Society
According to Overberg (p 73), HIV and AIDS generate ethical question that extend throughout the lifecycle and around the world. Some of these questions include whether it is the common good of the society for someone to be tested for HIV, and who is to be tested healthcare professionals, those who have high risk behaviors, those who apply for marriage licenses, people convicted of crimes, or every person. The second question is what the societys responsibilities are concerning costs related to HIVAIDS. The third one is whether there is a moral responsibility concerning educational programs in the light of the growing epidemic. Another question is whether programs that promote the use of condoms should be supported. Lastly is the question concerning the bias against people infected with HIV and their families as well as friends in housing, workplace and medical treatment The consistence ethic of life was developed in order to assist in shaping the public policy. Political decisions together with economic structures, as indicated in Overberg (p 73) significantly assist or impede the flourishing of all life.

Initially, as asserted by Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 3), the association between HIVAIDS and human rights was only perceived as one that involved people who were infected with the virus and with AIDS and the prejudice to which they were subjected to. For those who were infected with the virus and those who had AIDS, the concerns included a compulsory test for HIV restriction on international travel discriminating hurdles to employment and housing, access to health care, education, and medical insurance and various issues raised by names exposure, partner warning, and privacy. Cultural context however played a major role in determining how various issues concerning HIVAIDS were responded to. These issues, according to Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 3), are critical and almost twenty years into the epidemic, a solution to them has not been found. The situations have in someway become more complicated due to the fact that old issues emerge in new places and present themselves in fresh and unusual ways. A good example is whereby employment has continued to be restricted to those who have HIVAIDS. Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 3) states that people infected with HIVAIDS even in areas where this situation has improved have a high risk of getting themselves denied workplace health insurance, thereby greatly affecting their health and thus their overall performance in the workplace. New issues with grave human rights implications also exist. These issues are raised for people who are infected with HIV and they include the extensive and growing inequality in access to drugs required for managing HIVAIDS as well as other forms of care.

Situations that occurred in the 1980s were defining moments of the linkage between human rights and HIVAIDS (Gruskin and Tarantola para, 4). By the end of 1980s, as noted by Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 4), the call for human rights as well as for consideration and solidarity with those living with HIVAIDS had been clearly incorporated within the first World Health Organization response to AIDS. Some of the motivating factors for this approach were moral outrage and the recognition that safeguarding of human rights was an essential aspect of a global public health response to the growing epidemic. The outcomes of this call were extensive. Through designing public health strategy in human rights terms, it made it to be deeply rooted in international law. This, as Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 5) states, made governments and international organizations publicly responsible of their deeds towards those who were infected with HIVAIDS. The most significant modern contribution, as acknowledged by Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 5), depends on the recognition of the international law, and its applicability to HIVAIDS and thus on the ultimate accountability as well as responsibility of the nation under international law for issues relating to health.

The main aim of human rights, according to Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 6) is to define the relationship between an individual and the state. International human rights laws clearly state that the state should not do things that violates the rights of a person such as torture, arbitrary imprison, and infringement of a persons privacy. International human rights laws also state that it is the responsibility of the government to make sure that all people have an easy access to all basic requirements such as healthcare, education, shelter and food. These laws also, as illustrated in Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 6), makes it clear that it is the responsibility of the government to provide suitable health care to those who are infected with HIVAIDS. These laws clarify that a person who is infected with HIVAIDS has the right to the maximum attainable standard of health care. HIVAIDS infected people, also have the right to information and association, the right to social security, and the right to the benefits of scientific research (Gruskin and Tarantola, para, 6). They also have the right for the work of public health that is, access to health care prevention programs including voluntary counseling and testing, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted diseases. HIVAIDS infected people also have the right to privacy meaning that they are supposed to be protected from compulsory testing. Their status is also supposed to be kept confidential according to the international human rights laws.

Depending on the nature, the legal and social situation of the epidemic in the nation, some people may be more susceptible to HIVAIDS epidemic and its impact due to their legal status or lack of human rights protection, for example women, minority groups, poor people, children, sex workers, refugees, and prisoners (Gruskin and Tarantola, para, 7). According to the international human rights laws these groups are supposed to have equal access to health care, education, commodities, anti-retroviral treatment and to HIV care (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 7). They should also not be subjected to sexual violence or coercion and should be allowed to take part in the development and the implementation of HIVAIDS policies that directly affect them. The international human rights require that those infected with HIVAIDS be given an opportunity to work, move freely, marry and seek asylum regardless of their medical condition (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 8).

The extensive focus in the 1980s on the human rights of those who were infected with HIVAIDS, helped to increase the understanding of the significance of human rights in determining the susceptibility of people to HIV infection and the likelihood of their getting appropriate care and support in case they were infected (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 10). The association between human rights and HIVAIDS is clearly illustrated by the effect, neglect, denial and violation of human rights on the context of HIVAIDS epidemic, has on those who are HIVAIDS infected according to Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 10). This however, applies in different ways to different groups of people who are either affected by or vulnerable to HIV. If a person is infected with HIVAIDS, the likelihood of hisher rights being violated is very high. These people usually face marginalization as well as discrimination in matters of health education as well as recreational services. The realization of the rights of people who are infected with HIVAIDS in this context would therefore require for equal access to basic amenities in a supportive social environment (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 12).

HIVAIDS adversely affects people incase their close relatives, communities and in a broader sense the structures and services from which they get their daily bread are strained by the effects of the epidemic and due to that fact fail to offer them the support and the services they require. Marginalization in conjunction with stigmatization on the basis of features such as race, behaviors, kinship and migrant status compound the effects of HIVAIDS on peoples lives and these may be taken as risk factors for HIV infection (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 13).

Violation and neglect of the human rights of people suffering from HIVAIDS may include aspects such as denied access to health care, education and recreation services. People living with HIVAIDS may advance towards the realization of their rights as well as of better health in the presence of enabling conditions to eliminate the impacts of individual, communal and programmatic concerns in their lives. In order to achieve this programs and services, there is need to be design and to extend support and services to families and communities that have been affected (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 13).

The lack of power of individuals and communities to reduce and adjust their risk of exposure to HIV infection, and in case one is infected to obtain adequate healthcare and support, according to Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 14), increases susceptibility to HIV. Some people may be more susceptible than others to HIV infection, even in communities where the pandemic has not widely spread. Economic disparity and gender, as an example, may force a woman to engage in unprotected sex with her partner even though she is very sure that he is engaging in sex with other people.

Denying access to preventive education, information and services may increase the vulnerability of adolescent boys and girls to HIV. Sex workers have a higher risk of HIV infection in case they do not have access to services aimed at preventing, diagnosing, and treating HIVAIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. Their vulnerability is aggravated by the fear of coming out in the open due to the stigma associated with their occupation. In order to decrease susceptibility, actions must be taken that allow people and communities to make and implement choices in their lives, and as a result effectively adjust the health dangers to which they may be exposed (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 15).

The impact of prejudice, especially in the form of gender based discrimination, racial discrimination, as well as homophobia keep on aggravating the effects of HIVAIDS on the lives of individuals and communities all over the world. It should be noted that realization of human rights is crucial to safeguarding the rights as well as self-respect of those affected and those living with HIVAIDS, and to minimizing the susceptibility of individuals and communities at large (Gruskin and Tarantola, para 16).

Governments have a responsibility for their deeds regarding those living with HIVAIDS. It is important in the wake of current violations that governments realize their responsibilities concerning specific human rights. It is the responsibility of any government to ensure that no human rights are violated and also to make sure that conditions necessary for people to appreciate their rights to the maximum are available. It is important to note that for all human rights, governments have liabilities at three levels they are supposed to respect the right, protect it and fulfill it (Gruskin and Tarantola para, 18). The meaning of respecting the right is that states should never violate human rights. If children are barred from attending school due to the fact that they are infected with HIVAIDS, it is a violation of the right to education. Protecting the right denotes that states have the responsibility of avoiding breach of a right and providing a remedy that people are aware of and can access if their rights are violated. Fulfilling the right signifies the use of all suitable means aimed at ensuring that human rights are fulfilled. In case a state does not offer the necessary HIVAIDS prevention education in a language that is well understood by many through media that is accessible by all in the community, this can be regarded as a violation of the right to education as illustrated by Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 18).

Resources in combination with other hindrances can make it difficult for a government to immediately and effectively execute human rights. Extensive evaluation of governmental responsibility in the observance of human rights notices that, as a matter-of-fact, an assurance to the right to primary education does not just require passing of law. It indeed requires monetary resources, well educated personnel, appropriate infrastructure, and other facilities Gruskin and Tarantola para, 19).

Even with the importance attributed to human rights, there are times when it is considered legal to restrict these rights so as to attain a wider public benefit. One of these public benefits is public health (Gruskin and Tarantola para, 20). However, these restrictions are not supposed to be implemented in a manner such that they violate the rights of a person. Restrictions imposed by public health officials that do not take into consideration other suitable options may violate the principles of both public health and human rights. Some rights, according to Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 22), are however unlimited, meaning that restrictions can never be put on them though they may be justified as essential for the benefit of the public. These include the right to fair trial, right to freedom of expression, and the right to be free from slavery and torture. Although the common good of the public requires that every person be tested for HIV, people can not be forced to undergo these tests.

The consistent ethics of life, which has its roots in social teachings, puts together personal, common good, human decorum and unity. Supervision, based on regulatory rules, of concrete situations as well as careful attention to details may however, result in differences on conclusions as to whether compulsory testing is justified in particular cases (Overberg, p. 74). It is important that governments recognize and respect the three types of HIV testing that exist voluntary, compulsory and routine. In voluntary HIV testing, people choose to undergo the test and looks for an appropriate testing center where they are tested and counseled at the same time. Counseling is aimed at reducing the risk. HIV tests offered to people as part of another health care service, for example while preparing for a child birth are what is referred to as routine testing. Mandatory tests are carried out for example as a requirement for a certain job and when a HIV test is legally required. In such a situation, the HIV test is carried out regardless of an individuals awareness and rarely in such circumstances is there counseling or privacy (Overberg, p 74). There are four points as stressed by Overberg (p, 76) relating to HIV prevention, testing, and financing of HIVAIDS programs. These points states that tough laws do not always do away with discrimination that vital medical-care services should be provided to all before any special financing of HIVAIDS programs is done that though voluntary testing should be rigorously promoted, explicit cultural education can reach more people and achieve better results than routine testing and that the most appropriate way to safeguard patients is to emphasize on universal precautions by health-care providers.

As asserted by Gruskin and Tarantola (para, 23), when a government restricts the enjoyment of a right, it has to take this action only as a last way out and will only be taken as legal if the following criteria is followed. The limitation is executed in line with the law for public good does not lead to discrimination no other less remedy can be used to achieve the same goal and is absolutely essential in a democratic community to achieve the objective. This approach has for long been used by those who monitor human rights as an important strategy for analyzing governments actions. It is currently widely used by people responsible in government for programs and policies related to HIVAIDS. 

Conclusion
The history of HIVAIDS is evident from the 1980s. Since then, it has been spreading throughout the world rapidly. Its spread is however shadowed by increasing challenges to human rights, at both global and national levels. Some of the major human rights issues regarding HIVAIDS include discrimination and marginalization. The initial association between HIVAIDS and human rights was only perceived as one that involved people who were infected with HIV and the prejudice to which they were subjected to. This association however formed the base for the development of international human rights laws concerning those living with HIVAIDS. Chances are very high that people who are either affected or infected with HIVAIDS will have their rights violated. The international human rights law comes in handy to protect the rights of those who are living with HIVAIDS. The international human rights laws clearly illustrate the responsibility of the government concerning those who are HIV infected. Nobody is supposed to be discriminated on the basis of hisher HIV status. The government is supposed to make sure that the rights of an individual are respected, protected, and fulfilled. There are times when human rights of an individual are restricted. However, this limitation is supposed to be carried in a manner such that it does not violate the rights of a person.

In United States, it was English Poor Law that led to development and ultimate regulation of family foster care. These laws, in 1562, permitted the poor children to place in indentured service until they came of age. This method was introduced to the United States and was starting of the placement of children into homes. Although, indentured service allowed abuse and mistreatment, it was a step ahead from almshouses where children did not learn a trade and were exposed to dreadful surroundings and wicked adults. In 1636, Benjamin Eaton, at the age of seven, became first foster child (National Foster Parent Association). In the middle of 19th century, approximately 30,000 abandoned or homeless youngsters lived in slums and streets of New York City. Charles Loring Brace, a minister and director of the New York Childrens Aid Society, was concerned and believed that there must be a way to transform these childrens future. Brace thought that by removing young people from city streets and placing them in farm families, they can have an opportunity of escaping a lifetime of misery. Brace planned that these youngsters be sent by train to Midwest and West to live and work on farms. The resulting Orphan Train Movement, which lasted from year 1853 to the early 1900s, moved more than 120,000 children to new lives (The Childrens Aid Society).

The Childrens Aid throughout the history has stayed ahead for foster care improvement and support. The success of Orphan Train Movement and other Childrens Aids programs directed to a group of national child welfare improvements including, adoption, laws of child labor, services of foster care, health care provisions, nutrition, public education, and also vocational training.How foster care beganChildrens Aid, in the beginning of 1900s, lead the way to a Concurrent Planning, which is a foster care method that turned into foundation for the federal Adoption and Safe Families Act of 1997 that significantly transformed foster care.Childrens Aid Society works at the same time with biological parents and also foster parents to attain permanent placement for children as fast as possible through Concurrent Planning. Their first and main concern is to give back the children securely to their own biological parents. If that is impossible, this plan makes sure that foster parents are ready to adopt those children.

Childrens Aid Society is also leading a national movement in the direction of community related foster care. In community based foster care, children can be inside their communities in foster homes, which help in providing continuity with friends, familiar surroundings, and school, thus reducing the upset. How children get into foster careSome people willingly place their children in foster care. However, most children enter the foster care because somebody makes a report of neglect or abuse to the State Central Register (SCR). Sometimes that person is someone close to the family such as neighbor or friend or a mandatory reporter. Mandatory reporters include dentists, doctors, nurses, counselors, psychologists, social service workers, nurses, teachers, hygienists, childcare workers, police officers and therapists. Once, a family member has been reported for abuse or neglect, Administration for Childrens Services (ACS) caseworker will inspect to see whether the report seems to be proper (Child Welfare Organizing Project, 2007). The ACS worker checks the home of the child to look for any unsafe conditions in the home. During the investigation, the ACS caseworker may question a number of people in the childs life. Those people may include both parents, siblings, and other people living in the same house of the child. The worker may also ask neighbors, teachers, and other people that the family member knows. He may also check the child for any injuries on the body. Caseworkers look for proof that the child is being neglected or abused.  The ACS worker has 60 days time period to make a decision whether the report to the SCR is specified.Emergency removalsChildren can be subjected to emergency removal from home when the ACS worker feels that they are in imminent danger of neglect or abuse. In an emergency removal, the family member is given temporary removal notice of child and a 72-hour child safety conference brochure. In both of these, there will be details such as name, telephone number, address of the ACS caseworker who is working on the particular child removal. After the child has been removed from the home, the ACS case worker leaves a note to the family member regarding the date on which they have to attend the court. If the ACS has decided to remove the child from the home, they first get a court order unless the family member agrees to the removal.

In New York City, most of the time, ACS takes the children away from their schools, homes, hospitals, and other places without giving a court order. If the child has been removed from the home, ACS files a petition in family court immediately and gives the family member petition copy. In petition, the ACS describes the things (allegations) the family member has done that hurt the child and make it unsafe for the child to stay in that home. Foster care agency worker, called case planner, is a person who supervises the foster family in which the child is placed. The case planner develops the permanency plan for the child after removal. This means they work to ensure that the child has a permanent home. If the case planner decides not to return the child to the family member, they work on concurrent planning. The plan is then evaluated by the court. The primary permanency plan for most of the children is reunification with their birth parents. According to federal law, every state should make realistic efforts to offer birth parents with the supports and services they need to get back the custody of their children. However, there are some exceptions to these conditions. States are not necessary to follow reunification under specific conditions. In these situations, alternative permanency choices such as legal guardianship or adoption are the objective for these children. Under present law, if a child is in foster care for 15 months out of the previous 22 months, states are to suggest that rights of the parents be ended and the child is ready for adoption (Bass, Shields,  Behrman, 2004).

Reasons why children are in foster careThere are number of reasons children enter foster care. Some children enter at birth, when it is obvious that a mother cannot take care of her newborn. Other children enter foster care when a social worker, teacher, neighbor, or a police officer reports suspected child abuse to child protection services. Some of these children may have gone through physical or sexual abuse from a loved and trusted adult. More frequently, parents who are in poverty, mental illness, substance addiction sadly abandon their childrens needs (Child Welfare Organizing Project, 2007).Primary reasons why children come into foster care are neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional maltreatment. Neglect Neglect is the withholding of, or failure to offer enough food, clothing, shelter, hygiene, medical care, school attendance, and supervision to a child when the parent is economically able to do so or given financial or other reasonable ways to do so. Neglect also comprises extreme corporal punishment (spanking or hitting), abandonment, and misusing alcohol or drugs to the level that the child is or can be injured.Physical abuse Physical abuse is the non-accidental physical harm of a child caused by a parent or caregiver, varying from superficial bruises and swellings to broken bones, severe internal injuries, burns, or death.

Sexual abuse Sexual abuse is the sexual misuse of a child by a parent, caregiver, relative, or other person, which may vary from non-touching crimes, such as exhibitionism, to fondling, sexual intercourse, or using child in the pornographic material production. Emotional maltreatment Emotional maltreatment is the continuous use of orally abuse language to severely disapprove of and put down a child. It also involves emotional neglect, the withholding of emotional and physical contact in a manner that injures the childs usual emotional and physical development.Statistics and trends in foster care and adoptionChildren in foster care on the last day of the federal fiscal year (September 30) Between FY 2004 and FY 2005, the expected number of children in foster care on the fiscal years last day rose from 508,000 in 2004 to 511,000 in 2005, but then decreased to 505,000 in 2006. For the first time since Adoption and Foster Care Analysis Reporting System (AFCARS) data have been stated, the expected number of children in foster care on September 30, 2007, decreased below 500,000 to 491,000. In fiscal year 2008, it decreased even lesser to 463,000 (Administration for Children  Families, 2009). The same pattern is seen in the total expected number of children served all through these years. After decreasing since fiscal year 2002, the expected number of children served raised from 787,000 to 797,000 in fiscal year 2005, and 798,000 in fiscal year 2006. In 2007, the number of children served decreased to 784,000, and in 2008, it even decreased to 748,000, which is the lowest since AFCARS data have been stated.Entries to foster care during federal fiscal year After remaining below 300,000 until fiscal year 2005, the expected number of children entries into foster care raised from 298,000 in 2004 to 307,000 in 2005. Since 2005, number of entries into foster care has been decreasing down to 303,000 in 2006 to 293,000 in 2007. The expected number of entries decreased even further to 273,000 in 2008, which is the lowest number since AFCARS data have been stated. The expected number of exits from foster care increased between 2002 and 2007 from 278,000 to 293,000 and then decreased to 285,000 in 2008.Children waiting for adoption In 2008, the number of children waiting for adoption decreased below 130,000 to 123,000 for the first time. The expected number of children waiting for adoption whose parental rights had been ended as of the last day of the fiscal year constantly increased from 74,000 in 2004 to 81,000 in 2007. The number decreased to 75,000 in 2008. Children waiting for adoption, whose parental rights had been ended comprised 61 percent in both 2007 and 2008, signifying a small raise over the 59 percent in 2006.Children adopted The number of adoptions stayed relatively flat between 2002 and 2007, ranging between 50,000 and 52,000. For the first time since data of AFCARS have been reported, the number of child adoptions raised to 55,000 in 2008.

Developmental issues for young children in foster careMany children with complicated, severe mental health, physical health, or developmental difficulties are entering the foster care during the early period when brain development is most active. Every attempt must be made to make foster care a helpful experience and a curing process for the child. All people in the child welfare system should understand the threats from abuse and neglect to a childs development. Pediatricians have a vital role in evaluating the needs of children. The developmental concerns significant for children in foster care are implications and outcomes of neglect, abuse, and placement in foster care on early development of brain the significance and challenges of creating a childs attachment to caregivers the significance of considering a changing sense of time of a child in all facets of the foster care experience and the response of the child to stress.In United States, more than 500,000 children are in foster care. Majority of the children have been the sufferers of repetitive abuse and prolonged neglect and have not experienced a fostering, steady environment during the early stages of life.

Such types of experiences are vital in short-term and long-term development of a childs brain and the capability to later take part completely in society. Foster care children have unreasonably high rates of mental, physical, and developmental health problems and frequently have many mental and medical care needs that are unmet. Pediatricians have a significant responsibility in helping to develop a precise, complete child profile. Pediatrician should be provided complete health and developmental histories at the time of evaluation for creating a useful assessment. Pediatricians and other expert professionals in child development must be practical advisors to the workers and judges of child protection concerning the needs and best interests of child, especially regarding placement issues, permanency planning, and mental, medical, and developmental health problems. Pediatricians should encourage caregivers to give plenty of love and attention to the child be constant with love, discipline, and stimulation motivate the child through disclosure to developmentally suitable conversation, holding, music, toys, and reading expose the child to chances to enhance language by means of direct voice and face-to-face contact and make the environment suitable to childs nature (Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption and Dependent Care, 2000).

Conclusion A child who has experienced neglect or abuse has a heightened necessity for permanency, safety, and emotional steadiness and are, therefore, at more risk because of the discrepancies in their lives and the foster care. Every attempt must be made to quickly set up a permanent residency for the child. For childs healthy development, stability in relationships with family and friends is vital. Several moves while in foster care can be harmful to the mental development, brain growth, and psychological adjustment of the child. Apart from the type of placement, all children should get personal attention from their caregivers.