Sociology

The Concept of Social Research
Across centuries, specific procedures through which social scientific knowledge is gathered have been developed most of which serve to facilitate the interaction between theory and empirical data. There exist a number of methods, attained from the history and philosophy of science, with which social scientists work in order to systematically understand social phenomena, (Neuman 72). The process may be interpreted as a group of assumptions, a strategy for knowing, a purposeful or functional activity or a collection of methods, tools and techniques useful in defining social phenomena, (Colin 5). Social research cuts across a number of disciplines inclusive of sociology, social psychology, social policy, cultural anthropology among others. Presently, ethnography, surveys and experiments forms the three main methods used in social research with ethnography being the most in-depth in the generation of information, (SRU 1).

Foundation
The concept of social research is founded on logic and empirical observation, and involves the interaction between theoretical ideas and concrete evidence. In an attempt to describe observable social phenomena, social researchers formulate ideas, (Social Research Methods 1). The process of social research serves to validate ideas through the process of data collection and analysis with the primary goal of exploring, describing and explaining variant social events. Unlike philosophy and belief, social research aims at finding social patterns in life and therefore is mainly concerned with social groups, (Social Research Methods 1).

Comparative to the physical sciences, research can be divided into pure and applied with the former having no real life application while the latter can be applied in the study of social processes within the globe, (Zimmerman 53). Laws created after social research are not absolute but generalizations about class of facts with a fact being an observed phenomena, where observations may be defined to mean an event that is experienced, seen and heard by the researcher.  Distinct as a systematic explanation for the observation relating to a particular aspect of social life, theories result from any social research process and are built upon concepts which are simpler, (Colin 87).

Social Research Process
Irrespective of the research method, social research process follows a general process, (Colin 21). During the development of a theory, certain basic assertions are assumed to be true, assertions that are known as postulates or axioms, (Social Research Methods 1). Following the establishment and analysis of axioms, propositions which form the conclusion are drawn about the relationship among concepts based on the axioms, empirically realistic hypotheses specified, and the social research process, the process that tests whether hypotheses are true or false begins.  Summarily, social research involves the creation of theories, measurement of variables and the actual collection of data useful in testing the hypothesized relationship.

Defined as logical sets of attributes or any entity that can take on different values,  variables remain critical to the understanding of any social theories which are primarily logical relationships within observable attributes, (Colin 87). Two categories, dependent and independent variables, are the primary divisions of variables. Although variables are not always numerical, their attributes may be assigned specific values thereby enabling numerical manipulation, (Social Research Method 1).

Explanations and Inquiry
Explanations are mandatory during social research to offer illumination on any given social theory. Social theoretical explanations are either nomothetic or idiographic with the latter being used to situations in which a scientist is trying to gain knowledge of all the causes of a particular condition or event, (Colin, 127). Idiographic explanation on the other hand is applied to situations in which social researchers are out to identify new causal factors to events or conditions, (Colin, 127). Similar to the philosophical methods of inquiry, social research can either be deductive or inductive. Deductive inquiry involves the formulation of a hypothesis with specific expectations developed on the basis of general principles. On the other hand, inductive methods of inquiry is a type of inquiry that in which general principles are formatted based on specific observation.

Philosophical Foundation
As noted above, social research is founded on a system of logic hence there exists variant philosophical schools of though that forms important perspectives for contemporary social research. Social scientists often formulate and are guided by fundamental philosophical premises necessary to establishing their knowledge base. From logical positivism or empiricism and reductionisms, philosophical principles often influence how social scientists gather knowledge and evaluate the outcomes, (Zimmerman 54). Established sociological paradigms include conflict paradigm, critical communicative methodology, feminist paradigm, Darwinist paradigm, social network analysis, positivist paradigm, structural functional paradigm and symbolic interaction paradigm.

Ethics of Social Research
There exists a number of ethical issues defined under a system of ethical protections that contemporary social research establishment created in order to protect research participants. Voluntary participation is a principle that requires persons not to be coerced into participating in a research. According to Social Research Methods (1), this principle aids in the protection of individuals especially those who may not have a choice such as those in prisons, and hospitals. The principle of informed consent states that prospective research participants should be fully aware of the procedures and any risk involved in the research and must be allowed to freely consent to participate. The standards also require researchers to desist from exposing participants to conditions that might place them at risk of harm where harm can be both physical and psychological, (Social Research Methods 1).

The principle of confidentiality states that any participants must be assured that any identifying information related to himher will not be made publicly available to anyone not directly involved in the study, (Social Research Methods 1). The principle of anonymity, which is even stricter states that participants in any social research will remain anonymous throughout the study sometimes even to the researchers themselves. Comparative to the principle of confidentiality, anonymity offers stronger guarantee of privacy and may extremely difficult to implement. Additionally, researchers have to handle the issue of a persons right to service in which any research initiative should have beneficial effects to the participants, (Social Research Methods 1).

Stepwise Progression
The first step in social research is the identification of the theory to be investigated, since a hypothesis is often deduced from the theory to be tested. Step two involves the formulation of hypothesis followed by the selection of research design (Step 3). Step 4 entails devising measures of the concepts in which the researchers is interested, this is followed by the selection of research site or sites and the selection of subjects or respondents, (Colin, 47).

Colin (46) affirms that in social survey research, an investigator must be concerned to establish an appropriate setting for his or her research hence the process entails a number of decisions that must be made on the basis of scientific ethical regulations. Critical to the quantitative research process is step 7 which involves the administration of the research instruments. Colin (51) notes that experimental research often entails pre-testing subjects, manipulating the independent variable for the experimental group and post-testing respondents. In cross-section research that uses social survey research instrument, interviewing the sample members through structured interview schedules are often applied.

Following the administration of research instruments, social researchers transform the information collected into data. In qualitative research, observations are prepared to be quantified. Successful completion of step 8 leads to step 9 which involves data analysis, a step in which the social researcher uses a number of techniques of quantitative data analysis to reduce the data collected to manageable levels, test for relationships, and develop ways of presenting results of the analysis to others. It is during data analysis that the researcher must check whether the hypothesis is supported and the relative implications of the findings for the theoretical ideas that formed the background to the research, (Colin 63).

Validity
Critical to the outcomes of every social research process is the concept of validity. Social scientists must establish whether or not their research designs are valid. Four key types of validity, the statistical conclusion, internal, construct and external have been particularly relevant to social scientists in the course of carrying out their research, (Social Research Methods 1). Statistical Conclusion Validity serves to indicate whether the variables under study are related. Internal Validity on the other hand describes causality between variables involved in any social research. Construct Validity indicates the relevance of the study while external validity is construct to whether the results of a given social study may be generalized to other places, persons, events or times, (Social Research Methods 1).

Types of Research
DescriptiveExploratory
Descriptive research serves to describe or classify specific dimensions or characteristics of given social phenomena. This may include traits of individuals, group behavior, and events hence social scientists often use descriptive methods to analyze social situations in which northing or very little is know about a given social phenomena, (Neuman 132). Social scientists often use two categories when undertaking descriptive results namely naming and classification. Naming offer description to a dimension or characteristic of some social phenomena while classification will often elaborate the dimensions or characteristics of a given social phenomena giving the interrelatedness between the dimensions whether mutually exclusive, sequential, hierarchical or overlapping, (Neuman 135).
 In social sciences, descriptiveexploratory researches often use empirical method and often involve observation of phenomena from a given setting. In this research type, data are not only gathered by participant observation but by structured interviews or questionnaire as well. Although quantitative in nature, any resulting qualitative data is analyzed by means of content analysis, a technique in which data is sorted into categories during analysis. Otherwise quantitative data is analyzed using either parametric or nonparametric measures of central tendencies.    

Relational Research
In social research, relational approach specifies relations between dimensions or characteristics of social groups, individuals, or social events and situations. Neuman (135) observes that they serve to explain how variant facets of a phenomenon relate to one another. Development of relational approach always follow the definition of essential characteristics of a given phenomena hence only follow after descriptive research have identified, developed and validated primary facets. Relational approaches are often developed by correlation research yet correlation studies use the empirical method, (Neuman 135).

Explanatory (experimental) Research
Explanatory research goes beyond relational statements hence they predict precise relationships between different characteristics and dimensions of social phenomena. Experimental research relies on the evidence obtained through systematic and controlled observation. Commonly applied in the physical sciences, social sciences have attempted to use similar approaches and methods although with decreased level of objectivity owing to the difficulty in coming with Furthermore experimental research is concerned with the description, explanation and prediction of natural and social phenomena, (SRU 1).

Critics have noted that although the method is realistic, its understanding is always partial, incomplete and probabilistic and is often guided by evidence obtained in systematic and controlled observations. Hence, although common in physical sciences, social sciences often prefer alternatives to reach similar levels of objectivity. It is of essence to note that this research type uses empirical experimentation methods, a method that involves the manipulation of given social phenomenon, (SRU 1). Similar to correlation research, experimental research requires quantifiable data since in this research type, numbers are required to determine whether experimental treatment makes a difference. Critical to the understanding of the nature of experiments are the key terms such as the experimental or treatment group that receives the experimental treatment and manipulation, the control group that produce comparisons in the treatment of interest and independent variables, (SRU 1).  

Evaluation Research
Evaluation research refers to the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of a given social object, (Social Research Methods 1). The research type involves the systematic acquisition and assessment of information so as to provide useful feedback on a social phenomenon which may be a program, policy, technology need, activity or person, (Social Research Methods 1). It is intentioned at providing useful feedback to diverse audience who may include donors, sponsors, staff, client groups or any other relevant constituencies. Evaluation strategies may include the scientific-experimental model that applies scientific methods to social sciences with prioritization to accuracy, objectivity, desirability of impartiality and validity of outcomes. Management-oriented system models also forms part of evaluation procedure and applies the two models of PERT or Program Evaluation and Review Technique and CPM or Critical Path Method, (Social Research Methods 1).

It is imperative to note that management oriented systems focus comprehensively on evaluation with interest to placing results within a large framework of a social systems activities, (Social Research Methods 1). Qualitative models that emphasize the importance of observation and the participant oriented model that specifies the need to involve participants in the evaluation process also form critical models of evaluation. A number of evaluation types have been developed inclusive of Formative evaluation which includes needs assessment, structured conceptualization, evaluability assessment, process evaluation and implantation evaluation. Summative evaluation may be divided into impact evaluation, secondary analysis, cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis, (Social Research Methods 1). Conclusively, evaluators often ask a number of questions and use a variety of methods to answer them.

Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research
As noted above, quantitative and qualitative research is the two broad research types used by social scientists during research. Colin (32) states that although there has been much debate on the more effective type and whether the two can be complementary, it is of no doubt that the combination of the two approaches may give more appropriate description of social systems. Attempting to prove that the two research kinds are complementary, Colin (35) and Zimmerman (56) establish that qualitative methods are often used when developing quantitative research tools such as focus group.
 Similarly, qualitative methods can also be used in the exploration and may facilitate the interpretation of relationship between variables. Social researchers often use qualitative research in few cases but involving many variables while qualitative research is often applied in studies that involve many cases with fewer variables. In appreciating the limitation and strength of each research kind, Zimmerman (58) observes that quantitative methods of inquiry are more useful in describing social phenomena since in many cases, the cases are often large. He however notes that it is the qualitative methods that allow scientists to attain more elaborate explanations on a smaller scale.

Choice of a Research Design
The choice of a research design is critical to the outcome of a social study and is dependent upon the questions asked and the state of the theory development, (Social Research Methods 1). Phenomena which are little known may be investigated using the descriptive approach while if a phenomenon is adequately described but its relationship to other phenomena unknown, correlation studies may be used. Similarly, if a phenomenon is adequately described and its relationships with other variables well known, experiments would remain the most appropriate.  

Conclusion
In contrast to the physical sciences, social science research measure intangible social attributes such as attitudes, emotions, behaviors and personality. Individual social research process must serve as a purposeful or functional activity with the process justifying the resources it consumes to accomplish its purposes. A number of methods are used to describe, understand and explore social life, two major ones of which are inclusive of the Quantitative and the qualitative methods, (SRU 1). Inherently, the quantitative methods as applicable to social research are generally concerned with the attempt to count social phenomena and often focus on the collection and analysis of numerical data. Qualitative research methods emphasizes on individual experiences and interpretation concerning itself with the understanding of social phenomena.