Sociology

Major cities in the world are the central places for both urbanization and civilization. This is because most of the factors that foster development are found in the major cities. However, there are some transgresive behaviours in these cities that create a bad picture of the same. In UK, such behaviours are evident in large cities like London, Manchester and others. This study shall therefore describe how such behaviours like homelessness and graffiti in the UK cities, particularly in London both disfigure and threaten its functioning.

The homeless people in the cities are those who do not have any place they have established to be their permanent dwelling place. This includes those who sleep in the streets due to lack of enough finances to rent houses. Some of the homeless people are forced out of their own house after their failure to pay mortgage loans while others find themselves there due to lack of any employment to support their up keep. According to Bowcott (2009), the number of the homeless in UK has continued to increase and in the year 2009 it increased by 15.

Bowcott continues to note that those people suffering from mental health problems constitute about 85 of the total homeless people and also 85 of these people are drug users (2009). Further studies of the same reveal that these people either take drugs so as to cope with the hardships and due to that they develop mental health problems. There is still a possibility that these people do suffer from mental health problems and due to this they lose their jobs and end up in the streets. Whichever the case, homelessness has never been tolerated in any city. The government as well as other charitable organisations offer some support to these people so as to reduce the ever increasing number of these homeless people.

The law requires every person to have a well established dwelling place to ensure that law and order is maintained. This is the reason why it is illegal to be homeless. Every city is supposed to be well planed. For instance, residential houses and the business premises are supposed to be located in different places. Homeless people interfere with the arrangement of the city because they can occupy any place. They generally disfigure the city and interfere with its functioning especially where law and order is concerned. This is more so because the criminals also tend to stay in the same places.
Moreover, most of the homeless people also engage in the criminal acts in order to survive. Studies have revealed that most of these people have mental problems as a result of substance abuse. People who are mentally unstable do not only create a bad site but are also a security threat because they can easily engage in any unlawful acts. In fact, their in activities lead to transgressive performance which is law violation.

The homeless people do not usually have access to facilities like toilets and other sanitation facilities. They usually cause a lot of sanitation problems in the cities. It is therefore quite difficult to maintain the proper sanitation where there are a large numbers of homeless people. These people do not have access to clean water and thus they cannot afford to maintain their general cleanliness.

While there are people who are usually homeless with genuine reasons, others are homeless due to mismanagement of their finances. Others who actually do not want to work hard to earn a living may also find themselves in such situations. Under age persons who cannot get housing benefits also find themselves in the streets especially when they ran away from home (St Mungo, 2010). Nevertheless, the government and charity organisations work towards eradicating homelessness and therefore it is only under limited circumstances that a person is supposed to be homeless.

Homeless people may sleep at the back of business premises or on the verandas of such premises.  Since the owners would not allow them to, they usually occupy without anyones permission. Once a certain person or a certain family acquires such a place then it becomes their dwelling place and another homeless family cannot occupy such. Generally, the first group to access a certain place becomes the rightful owner of the place.

According to (Halifax Regional Municipality, 2006), graffiti is any form of writing, drawing or symbols applied to any surface without the prior permission of the owner. It can either be created using spray paint, engraving, using crayons or even permanent paint. Despite the fact that it can be found anywhere, some places like recreational facilities, post mail boxes, walls of public and also private buildings, in vehicles, play ground equipment among others are more prone to it.

Graffiti affects everyone including the citizens, organizations and also businesses. It is considered to be a criminal offence and also vandalism if it is placed in any facility whether private or public without the permission of the owner. In case where graffiti is not removed then the problem intensifies because such a site attracts more to be placed in the same place. This is because people conclude that may be it is not unlawful to put more in such places.

As any other transgressive act would, graffiti has serious impacts not only to the owners of the properties where it is placed, but also to all members of the citizens. Moreover, the impacts are not only social but also financial. Halifax Regional Municipality (2006)

 records that, financially the owners of the properties where graffiti is placed incur a lot of costs while cleaning and repainting their properties. Corby Borough council (2008) reports that, in London alone the cost due to graffiti is approximately 2.5m annually. Due to the fact that it ruins the outlook of a city, the investors and also the tourists are turned off. If the graffiti contains messages that may be targeting a certain group of people then such peoples feeling are often hurt by such messages.

As it has been recorded earlier in this study graffiti increases once the already existing graffiti is not removed. People who put graffiti in buildings and other places put more in areas where they find such. In cases where regular clean ups are not done, more and more graffiti accumulate leading to more destruction of property. Graffiti is an unlawful act because it is actually done without the permission of the owner of the property. The drawing and the writings sometimes contain hateful, offensive or unpleasant writings or paintings. Moreover, the fact that graffiti disfigures buildings and generally the city makes it unlawful. As the law does not allow such acts, it is usually done at night and that is the reason why very few graffiti artists are arrested (Graffiti News, n.d.). The same studies reveal that the only way to deal with graffiti is only to remove it within twenty four hours so as to prevent more to be put in the same place.

Both homelessness and graffiti are unlawful acts which threaten the development of the city of London and other cities in the world. This is because they affect the functioning of the city by creating unnecessary problems.  They contrast the beauty and the beautiful outlook of the city. For instance, the homeless create quite a bad site as they always move with belongings since they do not have any storage place. In cases where they possess a cart they even interfere with the traffic. Just like in any other city or town, in London you will mostly find them in garbage selection sites where they look for items to sell so as to get money for the upkeep. Any visitor who sees such people and the graffiti in all building gets a poor impression of the city.

Failure for the action to be taken on such unlawful acts creates continuity. History records that, despite the fact that the government has been having programs to help eliminate the homeless the number is still on the increase. As long as there are people on the streets there would still be more. People who have a problem with affording housing for their families will always results to sleeping in the streets because that has been the norm for a very long time. The same case applies to graffiti. In the cities where graffiti is mostly found, there will always be more. Due to the fact that people are used to putting graffiti in vehicles is an indication that even in future people will continue with the same trend.

In conclusion, it is clear that although homelessness and graffiti have not been identified as the major problems, actually they are among the major problems. Studies of St. Mungos, (2010) reveal that of all 498 people who sleep outside in England daily 248 are from the city of London. This means that homelessness is a problem in London as is the case other cites all over the world. The two problems often interfere with the development projects in the cities. Big cities like London are mostly affected because they attract many people. Some may actually be idle and that is the reason as to why they find time to engage in such unlawful acts. Others are those who have retired from their jobs and they find it quite hard to adapt to the normal life and end up in the streets.  Graffiti itself is very destructive due to the financial and social impact. Unless interventions are put in place such problems are bound to continue not only in London but also in other cities as well.

Challenges are often present in the society. In the case of women, there had been many years where in women are given inequality. Hence, one of these is the case of women and child birth. As Latinas there are certain issues and concerns which are not widely known to the America society.  One of these remains in the issue of child birth where in children and mothers are suffering for the reason that different institutions in the United States do not understand the concept of childbirth and motherhood for most Latinas. In order to understand more of these, it is only proper that I shall create an interview with a Latina woman. In order to give her privacy, specific information regarding the interviewee shall not be provided.

Questions 1
How many times have you given birth in the United States (United States)
- I am able to give birth in the US twice already. I usually have a caesarian section because it is required by the doctor.

Question 2
Have you see a different type of child birth other than a caesarian procedure
- Yes. During the time that I was young while I was still in my home country I was able to see a normal type of delivery. It was my older sister who gave birth. I was very bloody and horrific because I am unable to think that a person could do all that. But I think women really have the capability to give birth to a new life through her body because it is made to do so. However, I feel somehow disturbed by method done in the United States. Although I went through the process of caesarian section I still disagree with such process of giving birth.

Question 3
Why do you disagree with such process In what process do you find very horrid or violent
-Giving birth is known to be horrid and dangerous to the life of the mother and the child. However, through these types of experiences a woman feel that she is really a mother. Hence, after giving birth to a child, she has the right to see her son daughter and hold her child. However, most hospitals require a twenty four hour gap before the child given to the parent. Based on my personal beliefs, a child must not be separated from his or her mother because they are intertwined.

Question 4
Given such opinion about giving birth in the United States, why did you decide to give birth in the hospitals in the United States
-I choose to give birth in United States because I wanted to provide my children a much better life. Through giving birth in a hospital and tons of nurses provides security from different kinds of harms is at hand. The files of my children are easily procedure which helped me a lot by the time they entered school.

Question 5
What can you say about the current situation of birth rights and justice of the Latinas
-I do believe that Latinas are strong individuals who fight for their right and attain equality amongst the society. Hence, they could also change the current status of Latinas. Therefore, it is only proper, different people in the United States must be equal. Whether the ethnicity of people had become very diverse, everyone should be respected and treated equally by different groups in the society.

I hope that there will come a time that birth right would simply be given and practiced and not hindered. I highly value my relationship with my children from the time I have them in my belly until this very time. Due to this, the medical community and the government must open their eyes to the beliefs of Latinas in order to have a much equal society.

1.0 Introduction
The reviews cited are based on ethnicity Ethnic minorities concept from the category sociology purporting facts on definition of the concept, measurement of concept in migration research and the use of concept in migration research. Ethnicity concept is a variable which is viewed as an important factor in research population is experiencing tremendous growth and is contributed by minority populations. It is a major concern in population as it perceived to be controversial variable in public health, economic growth, social status and demographic change factor.

The objective of the concept is to demonstrate influence on ethnic minority factors on development and the human behaviour to change the perception of ethnicity in society. The forces which stimulate ethnic minority such as new genetics, focus on health, inequalities in health care, globalization, migration, large mass movement of refugees, trafficking of human to other nations influences the research based on these concept to find facts and informed decisions in national planning.

The article relates to facts of ethnic minority and provides relevant information by explaining different perceptions of ethnicity as defined by different scholars, the use of the concept as it is mainly applied in medical planning and how it is measured in migration. The scope of research is limited only to ethnic minorities.

Definitions
Bhopal (2004) states that ethnicity refers to a specific social group of individuals sharing common characteristics such as origin of ancestry, languages, religion, geographical settings, diet, culture and physical features. The characteristics which define ethnicity are variables, thus it is perceived as imprecise and fluid, it differs from one race, nationality, religion and migrant social stature to another.
Societal collection featured with distinct social and cultural traditions passed from one generation to another sharing same past and origin with sense of identity in a group as suggested by Scarlett S. Lil and Jennifer L. Kelsey (2000).

Sumi Okazaki and Stanley Sue (1995) define Ethnicity as features that can be identified effortlessly having universal cultural past with several persons possessing similar characters such as race, country of origin, belief, verbal communication and cultural locale. These features used to identify ethnicity do not necessarily appear independent but in interrelated patterns and configuration thus the grouping is based on assumptions that individual shares psychological feature associated with cultures related to personality. Ethnicity is demographic variable which displays psychological values such as cultural activities, religious practices, self-concept and social statue (Foner, 2001).

Tim Dertwinkel (2008) statement explains that ethnic minority is perceived as to be real or imagined community having a certain sense of belonging. The bases of the attributes are identified by carriers namely religion, language and territory.

Measuring of Ethnicity Concept in Migration
Migration is physical movement of people from one place to another  sometimes over a long distances due to push or pull factors in such of employment, conducive environment or being forced to move by occurrences of natural catastrophes, these migration has effects on ethnicity as stated
Migration size and ethnicity value is on rise due to globalization and strong process of change is experienced as large mass of people are migrating. The identification of migration measurements is through assimilation, separation, integration and marginalization as stated by Klaus F. Zimmerman and same case by Mark Thomson and Maurice Crul (2007).

Tim Dertwinkel (2008) suggests that the minority suffer severe inequity in the economy, politics and social sectors with limited resources. The minority are characterized by less education, poor health, poverty, poor housing structures, roads, high school drop outs, unemployment and poor access to social amenities. He further states that the minorities in form of migrants are the most vulnerable in society as far as economic growth are concerned.

Use of Ethnic Concept in Migration Research
Ethnic minority status data has been used in applications of clinical settings by identifying inhabitants receiving unequal prevention and screening to better and prioritize public medical attention targets and strategic planning (Foner, 2001). The suggestions lead to etiology thus guide in understanding the roles of interaction between genetics and environmental factors in a given geographical setting. Findings are used to assess conceptual risk factors, symptoms and diseases which may differ from one ethnic group to another in planning future developments on health to make specific interventions for a specific group as explained by Scarlett S. Lil and Jennifer L. Kelsey (2000).

Introduction    
The data from the U.S census on white families with two parents and two children with low-income levels has been constant in census carried out in 1999 and 2009. The lack of changes in the data may be an indication of stagnation of life in the economic well being of the low earning white families over the period.

Literature Review
National Statistics      
 According to the U.S censors Bureau (2010), the number of white families with an income of less than 10,000 by the year-end 2007 was 3.6 of the white population. Out of this, 1.3 earned less than 2,500 per month. Family expenditure for families with an income less than  56,870 and with children under 2 years was  8,500 and for those with children between 15- 17 years had an expenditure of about 9,450. These figures were the same as the census carried out in 2000.  The census shows that 5,259 families under the age of 65 years earn less than 15,000. The highest age bracket is for families between 25 to 34 years where 1,496 families earn below 15,000. The age bracket with the lowest number of low earning families is those with 75years and over where only 411 families earn below  15,000 (U.S Census, 2010).
                                                       
Observations
In the statistics data above, a family that earns below 56,000 has expenditure between 8500 and 9500 per child depending on the age of the child. This is considering that the expenditure is inclusive of clothing, housing, food, medical care, and other important aspects in the familys development.
Scholars agree that stigmatized individuals possess some attribute or characteristic that conveys a social identity that is devalued in a particular social context (Wendy, 2009). We therefore find several trends within this group that are not in line with positive human development.
                                                     
Cultural group
There is a high trend of people having low education levels according to the data, most cannot afford to go above the basic levels of education and this provides a high number of young people with low education. This result into high unemployment rates compared to other classes in the society. The income from those employed is too low to support all their essential needs.

Therefore, crimes in young generations, high level of unemployment in adults as well as drug abuse are much pronounced in this society.
                                                                 
Age
There is a drastic decrease in the number of families above 75 years earning below 15000. It may be assumed that, not many families get to this age and this may explain the decrease in the number of families at this age group. Due to hard economic conditions, the living standard for these people is very low and in most cases, they are not capable of meeting their needs. Children are the most affected due to poor hygiene and harsh environmental conditions. Adults on the other hand are more likely to engage in crimes to sustain their families.
                                                               
Gender
There is a gender imbalance in this class and mostly men are the breadwinners in their families. The rate of unemployment is very high and the income from those employed too little to fully support their families due to low levels of education that cannot secure a well paying job. It leads to stigmatization of the family where women are more affected than men Dont call me out of name because I wont answer you. Dont call me a welfare mother cause thats not who I am (Wendy, 2009). This is an example of a quote from a stigmatized mother who refused to be recognized by her social class.
                                                                 
Discussion
All groups have members who feel more or less indentified with the group however unlike other groups where members are bonded based on collective responsibilities, majority do not identify themselves with their social class (Wendy, 2009). This shows a case of denial and adaptability to the low social class by the members. While others feel emotionally secure to identify themselves with their social life, others have a life of denial and mostly likely may opt for class mobility into a better class. All the same, bonding is a major factor that brings these families together. The social learning theory best explains the lives of these low-income earners as given above.

 In social learning theory, environmental factors as opposed to personal factors are more responsible for the development of a particular personality. Elements beyond the control of a person will greatly influence the career choice. The greatest task in such a case is to find ways of coping with the circumstance as it unfolds.

The latest effort to analyze, categorize, and react to poverty in America, begins with a discussion of the continuing and pervasive appeal of cultural explanations as the root cause of poverty (Marks, 1991).

Discussions on this topic have strong opponents of the theory and proponents who try to prove on either side the relation between cultural values and low income or poverty in a society.
   
The best way to work with and help this group is by making them have a perception that social class boundaries are permeable. This means giving them a positive view that they can make their way from the low social class into the upper class. For those who have made it to the upper class would motivate the others to follow suit. Having studies that portray the social class as permeable as opposed to closed boundaries may help in determining the determinants in upward mobility beliefs (Wendy, 2009). The process of liberation of these people from their social bonding is so strong and plays itself at a psychological level and in most cases, breaking the bond in upward mobility becomes difficult. This is explained by the above theory where members of this social group will just look at nature to take its course in determining their development. The sources of conflict emerge in a situation where, as the members of this group believe, their destiny depends on forces beyond their control outsiders do not usually understand them.          
                                                               
Comparison
Comparing this report with the report on poverty in black families, there are similarities and differences in both cases. The report on black families is based on feminism theory, which explains the gender inequality and segregation of roles in families. However, the rate on poverty is larger in the black clients compared to the white families. In both cases there is a social class problem where mixing with the upper class is taken with suspicions from both sides.

The issues of family conflicts due to limited resources in the family is much extensive in both reports and habits such as drug abuse are distributed regardless of the race. Working with this class might be a unique and interesting activity once you prove that the class barrier can be broken and mobility is possible into an upper class. The challenge all the same will make them to leave the norms associated with this class as explained above.
                                                         
Conclusion
How people in real communities device collective responses to their problems, attempts are underway to provide to provide a common ground which is partly cultural and structural debate. (Marks, 1991). Such a ground when provided will give more light to the cause of social group trends. It will thus be possible to understand ones situation and the reasons why people find themselves in different levels in the society.

Introduction Post divorce, fatherchild relationship posed concerns about time spent by fathers with children, emotional bonding between offspring and parents and college age daughters feeling less close to fathers. Many studies have examined the relationship and came up with different conclusions. There was agreement on importance of maintaining relationship and cross sectional studies have been carried out with reference to relationship between college age and adolescent children with their divorced father. Studies reported that the adult children and their divorced fathers have an improved relationship, owing to maturational effects and the children being married and are parents themselves. Long term father-child relationship is influenced by a number of inter related factors, which made the studies complex and confusing, most studies were observing the phenomenon over only a limited time period. This study aimed at examining the adult children and divorced father relationship from the perception of the adult children 20 years after their parents divorce and the influencing factors that might play a role in the quality of relationship.

Method Binuclear family study was conducted for 20 years beginning from 1979, by following the life of divorced families. The sample of pairs of former spouses who had at least one minor child was randomly selected from public divorce records in Dane county, WI. Interviews were conducted at 1, 3 and 5 years after a legal divorce. For this study, search was made to locate adult children of the former spouses selected for Binuclear family study and collect data from them. 193 of possible 204 children could be located and were eligible for data collection, out of which interviews could be completed from 173 adult children. The sex composition of the respondents was Male89, Female 84, their age ranged from 21 to 52. Most of the sample adult children were well educated and employed.

Their marital status presented a variety married, married and divorced, married divorced and remarried or remaining single, unmarried and unmarried but in serious relationship or cohabiting. Out of 68 of the sample who were married    63 had children biological or otherwise. Doctoral students with clinical training conducted semi structured interviews with the adult children over telephone, for drawing both quantitative and qualitative responses. Since the interviews were intended to gather elaborate information over a long period of time respondents were encouraged to tell their stories and respondents were probed where ever required. To achieve the research objectives, the interview focused on eliciting qualitative and quantitative responses for questions dealing with  changes in respondents relationships with their parents 20 years post divorce , factors contributing to the changes in relationships with their fathers, changes in respondents relationships with their fathers in relation to changes in post divorce relationships with other family members and on respondents reports of changes in their relationships with their fathers in relation to their perceptions of how they have been affected by the divorce Ten-point scale with 1 being much better and 10 being much worse  and 5 and 6 being about the same was used to capture the response for the question  How did childrens relationships with their parents change post divorce . 8 point scale measurement, categorization and summarization in terms of percentages were used for data analysis. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used in case of analysis of data on geographical proximity of sample adult children with their fathers and holiday visits. Chi-square test was used to test whether custody was related to adult childrens report on relationship change with their fathers. Father involvement scale similar to 5-point Likert scale was used to measure the frequency of involvement across eight parental activities where high scores indicated greater parental involvement.

Major finding were 49 of the respondents reported that the relationship with their father got better, 12 reported that it stayed the same and 38 said that it got worse. For those where relationship got worse after parental divorce the reasons were subsequent changes and transitions initiated by parents dating and remarriage.  98 of the respondents reported that they had at least some contact with their father by telephone. Analysis suggested that the relationship of respondents with their fathers and mothers improved in the later stages of the family life cycle than what it was in the initial stages. Where relationship got worse it was greater with father compared to mother Findings on factors that influence the relationship showed that custody did not significantly influence while father involvement had a positive influence. Early remarriage had a negative influence on the quality of relationship with father but was not so in the case of mother.59 of the respondents believed that they were better off as a result of divorce, while 12 believed to be worse off.

Conclusions Even though relationship with parents showed an improvement as children mature over the years, the study found that this positive trend did not change with divorce. The study also concluded that there was a positive influence in the relationship if the co parents played a supportive role and had low conflict parental unit outside marriage even after 20 years.

The study adopted a mix of both quantitative and qualitative techniques depending on the suitability of the situation and the variables were handled with clarity. These were the strengths while its main weakness was that the study was very complex dealing with too many interrelated issues through narratives.

Abstract for Qualitative Research Article
Introduction  Parental divorce  not only exposed children and adolescents to the risk of  adjustment problems but also the adult offspring .Studies indicated that,  parental divorce during childhood, induced drinking and smoking habits. It was also found to be a cause for psychological adjustment problems, behaviorconduct problem and lower educational attainment among adults. Studies have pointed out the significance of common ground of communication by different members of the family about the divorce event, to bring about relational closeness of the child with both parents in the post divorce family. For the child, changes like where the child would be living or making plans to visit the non resident parent may trigger stress. Factors like secured economic situation on the other hand are protective in nature. One of the important protective factors is that the child is helped by the adults to form a coherent and meaningful story or narrative of divorce. This case study based on social construction theory and narrative theory attempted to explore an adult childs various stories or narratives of the event of his parents divorce and of the living arrangements that were made for the children, under 8 conditions of instruction, with a view to bring out the coherence or divergence between opinions and stories held by significant people surrounding the adult child from its view point, using Q methodology. The eight conditions were in short termed as, As a child, Today, Mother and Sister, Friend, Children, and Wish., Father.   The study also examined the suitability of Q-methodology as a research tool for analyzing family stories or narratives. In this study only a single case was examined for which a young adult child of divorced parent from South West Norway was recruited and was given a pseudo name Magne. To select appropriate statements for Q sample, interviews were conducted with two Norwegian adult children of divorces parents in their thirties, apart from those constructed from literature. The Q-sample statements consisted of four categories 1) experiences related to divorce in the child perspective 2) experiences related to divorce in the adult perspective 3) experiences related to living arrangement in the child perspective 4) experiences related to living arrangement in the adult perspective. Each category had seven statements totaling to 28. Q-sorting for a maximum of 2 conditions in a day was carried out completing the process for eight conditions of instruction in five days. The statements were given score values ranging from -3 and 3 indicating most unlike and most like respectively and 4 statements were placed under each score.

Findings  Q-sorting and Q-factor analysis led to some of the important findings 1) factor 1 was characterized by  four conditions of instruction As a child,  Today, Mother and Sister and distinguishing statements both on the positive and negative end of the scale pointed to grief, sorrow, confusion and loneliness. 2) Factor 2 was defined by Friend, Children, and Wish. and distinguishing statements reflecting adults consideration and cooperation for the childrens feeling and wishes. 3) Factor 3 was defined by only one condition Father and the statements score reflected adult control and lack of consideration for childs future.

Conclusions  The findings were interpreted   as 1) Q-sort of factor1 highlighted that Magne perceived full of surprise and negative feeling in him, his mother and sister. There was no room for any thing positive. The sort also indicated that there was no significant change in the way he understood the situation then and now in retrospect. But the study did lead him to reflect on the past story and the possibility of a story different from the original. 2) Q-sort of factor 2 dealt about solutions which Magne wished to happen. Magne visualized that parents were responsible and caring enough to provide parental cooperation for the children in spite of divorce. 3) Q-sort of factor 3 indicated Magnes opinion of his father.  Unlike his mother sister and him, his father knew of the divorce situation, his father neither thought about Magnes opinion on where he would live nor about the care and security needs of the children in that situation. For Magne his father represented adult control and lack of consideration of child welfare. The study demonstrated the usefulness of Q-methodology in analyzing family narratives both in research and clinical settings. The story of the respondent is elicited from the way the respondent sorted the statements. The Q-Methodology was helpful in divulging the congruence and divergence among Magnes versions of family narratives. For a researcher who is interested in the subjectivity of situation from the stand point of the person living it. Q-methodology can be the appropriate qualitative analytical technique despite its mathematical substructure.

The study centered on a single case. By not bringing to the picture other family members, it was possible to explore the possible incongruence within one person which might provide valuable insight for researchers and therapists. In clinical condition, the therapists can suggest alternative narratives that provided a perspective which helped client to understand and deal with the surroundings better.

When one closely examines gender and inequality in present day United States, he will notice that there still remain remnants indicating that the United States has not yet achieved gender equality as it should. Even though much as been achieved since the last century, a lot more needs to be done, whereas women have attained a lot in some areas like education, they still lack behind in areas like income as well as political representation. This paper critically examines gender and inequality within present day American society, the paper will delve into the subject under study and examine issue with the aim of understanding the present level of the gender and inequality.
 
Gender inequality
Gender inequality implies the manner in which gender categories of men and women are differently positioned in relation to the manner in which they access the various available social services such as employment and education, political representation, income among others. Gender inequality like any other social inequality is brought by various factors (Lardner, et al, 2006).

The level of gender inequality
According to a report available from United States Census of Bureau (2000), it indicates that women have nearly attained equality when it comes to education. Thus, the report indicates that in 1999, the percentage of women and men who completed high school education was same. Those who graduated from the university that year were 23.7 percent for women and 27.5 percent for men (US Census Bureau, 2000). Though this report indicates women a little below men regarding the percentage that graduated form the university, the figures show a considerable improvement in the last 30 to 40 years.

In the past, for example looking at 1970, the percentage of women who successfully completed a university education was only 8.2 percent in comparison to men who stood at 14.2 percent. As at 1980, the number of women increased to reach 13.6 percent, but the number of men as well increased to reach 20.9 percent. This tendency evidently indicates that education level of women is catching up with that of men. Indeed, latest studies have indicated that female percentage competing university education has risen to be higher than men.

Even though educational data do indicate that there is an increase in gender equality among men and women, this has not been transformed to real world outcome. For instance, records indicate that, in 2000, a female holding a diploma certificate was earning 21, 963, while a male with same qualification were earning  30, 868. Those females holding a university degree were earning 35, 408 whereas their male counterparts were earning 49,982 (US Census Bureau, 2000).

More women are likely to be poor compared to men. Available data indicates that 29 of single mother households live under poverty line, but only 12 of single male households live under the poverty line (US Census Bureau, 2000). As Zweig (2004) notes, this data can be due to a number of reasons, however, the major reason is that women today are still mainly employed in conventional female occupation like administrative support jobs and also service jobs.

Income disparity as a reason to gender inequality
Income plays an important role in creating equality, however, the fact that the income females earn has remained significantly lower in comparison to that of men, this also has contributed to existing gender inequality. This view is supported by a number of sociologists such as (Rhonda, 1998). Yet again, there those who view that gender inequality continue to exist because of the type of occupation preferred by women. As noted by Rhonda (1998) women are likely to take into account other factors when choosing a job and consider salary amount as the last factor.

Traditional gender roles that have continued to be practiced by some communities coupled by male stereotypes could as well contribute to gender inequality. For example Zweig (2004) asserts that gender inequality remains high among women from African American and Hispanic backgrounds as compared to white background, even in cases where these women have same education standards.

Making comparisons
The best way to assess gender inequality existing in the United States is by comparing it with other countries. A study carried out by the World Bank Group to compare workforce data among four countries namely, the US, Sweden, Mexico and the UK, established that the data was nearly similar in three countries, the UK, US, and Sweden. Accordingly, Sweden topped with female employment rate of 47 followed by the US with 46 and then the UK at 35 (Smeeding, 2005).

Perhaps one of the most telling statistics used to gauge the status of women in any society is the percent of representation they have in the government. There are some surprising facts revealed from this category. For instance, in 2004 the United States had only 14 percent of its elected legislative positions held by women.

Maybe, the best reflective indictor of women status within a given society is the proportion their hold in their government. In this category, remarkable findings were established. For example in 2004, merely 14 of elective legislative seats were occupied by women in the US. In UK, this was a little higher as it stood at 18 (Smeeding, 2005).  However, in Mexico, the country had 23 of women holding elective positions (Smeeding, 2005). Only Sweden possess a higher number of women holding elective positions, as it has 45 of women in such positions (Smeeding, 2005). With regard that women comprise more than 50 of the total population in these countries, the absence of equal political representation of women is somehow alarming (Smeeding, 2005).

After analyzing the above statistics, it clear that there is no specific answer to fully explain gender inequality existing throughout many countries around the world. A good reason as to why Sweden has 45 of women in its elective legislature positions could be possibly because traditionally Sweden has been viewed to be highly socially advance compared to other three countries (US, UK and Mexico) (Smeeding, 2005). However, this reasoning fails to pass through analysis, owing to the fact that the workforce percentage and earnings of Swedish women and American women are nearly same.

Similarly, though Mexico has a high number of women in elective legislative positions, the country has a low proportion of employed women (Smeeding, 2005). This maybe could be due to the low gross national product of Mexico or due to the family system where women stays home as mothers is more ingrained in Mexico compared to highly developed countries like the United States.

Critical reflection
From our study and the past literature examine, it can be stated that gender inequality still exists. However, what is required at the present moment are further studies aimed at establishing on how females can do away with culturally established patterns particularly when it comes to employment.  Studies have to be carried out on ways of encouraging girls to go for more modern jobs instead of their traditional jobs that pay less and offer limited career advancement. Certainly, in the United States, the percentage of female and male graduating form universities with bachelor degree is same if not better for women as at now, yet as seen there is still gender inequality in income as well as elective legislative positions. Thus, another area that needs further studies is how to improve representation of women in elective legislative positions. The two issues are crucial in reducing gender inequality better modern jobs for females and more representation in elective legislative positions. This is true in any society that needs to address this issue, be it America or Mexico.

Conclusion
Certainly, there are a numbers of factors ranging from economical, social and historical that continues to perpetuate gender inequality in America as well as in other countries of the world. Historically, men have been established themselves as the leading gender for many years. Thus, the undeniable truth regarding gender inequality allover the world is that, there is a lot to be done to bring equality. Any attempts to create equality among genders can not be successful without address income, which is related to education, and elective representation which is related to women empowerment. Though the advancement in gender equality experienced in the last century remains to be remarkable, particularly in education, employment, and elective representation and general basic rights of women, there are still gaps in gender inequality, particularly in areas that include income and political representation Lardner, et al (2006). Thus, real gender equality is yet to be achieved.

The French Civil Code was the administrative hallmark of an administrative genius, enacted in 1804 it was not till 1807 that it started being called the Napoleonic Code or code de Napoleone. Its origins lie in the decrepit legal system of the times. In France, there were many variations of the legal system. The laws were either different or applied differently in the various parts of the country. The nobles enjoyed privileges over the Third Estate, which constituted the main victims of the arbitrary judicial system. This created a multitude of administrative difficulties along with injustice for the common man. A commission of four people was set up by Napoleon for the purposes of codifying the existing legal system and establishing with a greater degree of firmness the new dynamics of the revolution. The feudal system was abolished, the church was backtracked and freedom of religion was guaranteed. The code had many economic implications which meant that trade flourished the easy accessibility of the code and simplicity ensured universal enforcement and justice compared to the older times. It focused on the family life and micro management of the everyday affairs of the people to set a dynamic which would be most conducive to peace and solidarity. The code was based on a set of principles the legislative incorporation of those principles would prove to be the legacy of napoleon.

The codification of these laws was the first of its kind. They answered a lot of questions for the French people where the law was arbitrary from locality to locality. By facilitating access to the law, it answers the democratic and economic needs of the masses. Before the Revolution in France the masses were really in desperate conditions, human rights were a privilege of the nobles and officials. The civil code provided for a universal law which was applicable to each and every citizen of France irrespective of their status in society. The courts could now refer to a code while enforcing justice and thus the arbitrary nature of the previous courts vanished.

The code napoleon is considered a step backwards for women rights. In all its innovative ingenuity, it dictated the supremacy of the male as the head of the family. Although women lived in miserable conditions under previous legal systems, in retrospect, the changes that the code brought about in the rights for women are considered to be detrimental to their overall standing in society. The answers it had for the questions of their standing in society are significant in their myopic patriarchy. This chauvinism was then perpetuated in the many countries that adopted the civil code and is still perpetuated today in the world.

The wife was made subservient to the husband in all public matters. She could not buy or sell property, or engage in commercial activity by herself. Her life was inextricably bound to the life of her husband. She was given the right to divorce, in case of adultery or irreconcilable differences. The married woman was to oblige the husband, whose nationality she was to share. Women could not be witnesses in court or individually or file a lawsuit.

The individual status of men however was uplifted. In the case of divorce because of adultery, a man could not be accused of adultery unless it was committed within the vicinities of the household. It made him the head of the family and morally responsible for its well being. While women were responsible for the rearing of the family and devoting their time and faithfulness to their husbands and children, this fertilization of virtue and subordinate vision has been the thorn in the side for women right advocates everywhere. It implies an imposition rather then the freedom to choose their responsibilities and way of life (Horgan, 42).

They were economically bound to men by the property law of the code. The control of her property was in the hands of her husband. Women could not work without the consent of their husbands, who would receive their wages and any profit she made in business would not be hers to keep. In the inheritance laws, she had no right to inheritance and her descendents would receive her property only if they were tied to those of her husband.  

Napoleon is said to have a famous saying Women ought to obey us. Nature has made them our slaves. Furthermore the influence of Jean Jacques Rousseau in formulating the code ensured that his take on the subject filtered out in the code. Rousseau was of the opinion that women were subordinate to men in the intellectual and physical hierarchy of existence. In explanations of the code, emphasis was placed on the chivalry of men and their biological superiority as necessitating the patriarchal nature of the code. Men have always been perceived of being the bread earners, smart and responsible sex. Even in other socio-political systems of the world, womens rights have rarely ever been treated impartially. The perceived necessity of their protection has always resulted in their sidetracking and subservience to their male counterparts. The code marked the coming of a new age for the French people, but this was only true in the case of the male population. It was not till 150 years later that women received the right to work without the consent of their husbands, even later did they get the right to vote (Council of Europe 32).

This trend of thought is not just limited to France. Just by extensions the code was adopted in varying degrees of conformity in Italy, Belgium, Spain, Egypt, and a host of other countries. The code is the basis of the Civil Law in the world today. The rights of women seem to be decided upon by men. They are afforded little faith and freedom, or have been throughout history. As the world witnesses a change in dynamic, we see women working and taking on leading roles in economics and academia their legislative rights are equal to those of men in the developed world. But tradition has kept them locked in the attic of this deep set belief that men were created to rule over them and they were created to oblige (Smith 120).

Conclusion
The code napoleon was not the embodiment of the ideals of the revolution, women rights were not uplifted in society. Its effects reverberated throughout Europe and all those parts of the world where Napoleon lead his campaigns. The code de napoleon has undergone certain changes since the 19th century. Justice is one of the fundamental human rights, and in the patriarchal system of France at that time it weighed in for the fairer and often maltreated sex. There are many countries in the world today where women do not enjoy basic human rights owing to this traditional view of women in society and cultures. 1804 is definitely a long time ago, but as a legacy of the revolution which was supposed to deliver the people from the injustice of the 19th century, it falls quite short of the mark. Therein lies the significance of the code de napoleon for human rights, as long as men write the laws, the standard of equal rights is a mere veneer of a deeply engraved universal mindset.

The Matrix is an American sci-fi film that was released in 1999 and the first installment of the series of films, comic books, video games and animation. The film was directed by brothers Larry and Andy Wachowski. The film is focused on the life of Thomas A. Anderson played by Keanu Reaves who is living two lives. He is a computer programmer by day and a malevolent hacker by night known as Neo. Neo finds himself as a police target when he was contacted by Morpheus, played by Laurence Fishburne, who is a legendary hacker that is tagged as a terrorist by the government. Neo had always been questioning reality but he finds truth far beyond his reach and imagination. Neo was awaken by Morpheus to the real world and explained to him what is happening. The film describes a future wherein sentient machines created a simulated reality called the Matrix in order to pacify and suppress the whole human population. These machines live off in humans body heat. Upon knowing these facts, Neo is drawn into a rebellion against the machines along with other people who have discovered the reality apart from the simulation of the machines. In order to do this, he must return to the Matrix and battle against the machines (IMDb.com, Inc.).

The film is a contemporary, even futuristic, film that deals with the possible rupture of peoples minds. The film has references ranging from cyberpunk to hacker subcultures and also touches both philosophical and religious ideas and perspectives. The film also features different deviant behaviors. Deviant behavior is a behavior that is not widely accepted or adhered with the prevalent social and cultural norms (Smith). One of the prominent deviant behaviors featured in the film is hacking. The protagonist, Thomas Anderson, is a hacker by night as well as Morpheus who is a known hacker and wanted by the police. Due to the prevalence and popularity of the current information technology, hacking is a deviant behavior done online or in the virtual space. Hacking is barging in or breaking in a private site or restricted databases in order to get information or disrupt the system. Hacking is one of the most despised cybercrime dues to the effects that it may incur in the site or webpage.

Another deviant behavior showed in the film is rebellion or insurgency against the government or any governing body. Although the First Amendment of the United States Constitution guarantees our freedom to petition the government for the redress of grievances, rebelling against the government to immediately replace it or the implemented policies is still a manifestation of deviant behavior. In the film, Neo and the group of individuals awaken to the reality apart from the reality made by the machines called the Matrix was drawn into a rebellion in attempt to eradicate the machines and alter the reality they made and perceived by the people. It is a type of deviant behavior as the radicals or the group of Neo is going against the prevalent social and cultural norm that is widely accepted by the population.

The Matrix is a film that depicted what is going on in the society. The machines served as the representation of the bad leaders that tend to deceive the people they should serve. Moreover, the group of Neo and Morpheus represents the group of radicals who try to change the existing government through an equally radical means. They try to inculcate their beliefs in the government and be implemented for they think that it will make the society better. The film reflects the reality in a futuristic setting and with using metaphors and analogies. The deviant behaviors showed in the film do not encourage its audience to do the same but to show its prevalence in the present society.

Health care services in the world as a whole requires incorporation of mechanism from various knowledge areas since the process of development and growth depends on the quality of health care services provided. It is noteworthy for policy makers in health care to focus on improving health services instead of driving a lot of resources in health facilities centered on provision of acute health services and ignoring the need for good health services. Despite the fact that many states have committed themselves to fund health services through taxation or public funding from social insurance, there is greater need for integrating devices that will manage the high demand for policy makers in health care to develop appropriate health care services so as to have a new approach of dealing with diseases that have been responsible for high rates of deaths in the current century (Hunter, 2009).

Change of paradigm in healthcare
Health care requires an urgent new paradigm based on a holistic point of view as well as creating favorable conditions in the health sector. What is needed is identifying assets and use them to construct positive health patterns. In 1979, the foresight seminar explored vital dimensions that found out that acute health care was not meeting customer needs thus absence of such allopathic standard made consumers to start looking for alternative solutions most especially those that integrates environmental and nutritional factors (I.A.F, 2007).

For effective transformation of health care into advanced service providers, there is greater need for public health leaders to begin working with people by creating tipping policies for change as this will ensure that people are reconnected with their health thus becoming key producers in health care sector. By taking such strategies, it will be easy to start changing sick communities into more healthy communities. It should be understood that health cannot be produced by a specific sector because it is cross-sectoral. Thus, empowering societies will ensure that communities maintain health assets that will guarantee greater management of their health. According to a seminar held in 1993 December on the need of emerging new paradigm for health care reform, most speakers pointed out that development in medical skills and knowledge promotes effective promotion technologies backed by effective policies. Similarly, speakers also emphasized that behavioral change is the main concern of prevention and research shows that pharmaceutical industry has put into place advanced behavioral change procedures that encourages physicians to move from ineffective drugs to quite effective ones and this should be accompanied by changing the behaviors of consumers (I.A.F, 2007).

The public health community should be quite passionate on health issues. They must be advocates of transformation through working with the entire public and solicit them to seek for change. Through their efforts of seeking for change they will be able to exert pressure on the government to change its policies and adopt holistic approach so as to deliver better health care services to communities across the globe.

Acute care is planned to offer management of acute episodes of injury and illness that is quite inadequate. Such care requires intensive monitoring, special care, medications as well as technological support so as to adequately deal with mental or physiological health situations. Therefore health care providers need to link with other settings so as to provide all-inclusive care services. Health care promotion for a child for instance may necessitate employing activities such as skin care, spiritual support, listening to music, pain control, enabling access to friends and family members among others.

 It is also indicated that to transform health care sector there is need for health providers to focus their strategies beyond treating injuries and diseases. Encouraging a health lifecycle is vital for development and this will be achieved if there is higher level of intervention by both health care providers and families. Nurses in particular are essential for offering health promotions to families since they center on holistic approach to health and they try to exploit the potential for higher level functioning. By the virtue of the fact that nurses work in environments where healthy promotion strategies may be easily employed they have an upper hand for instance in teaching parents on appropriate time for introducing solid foods to childrens, teach them on how they can make childrens develop learn social interaction skills as well as helping the adolescent to learn lifecycle behaviors which enhances physical and mental health (Elsevier, 2009).

The governments of various countries have key roles to play in health promotion. The dilemma facing health sector arises from poor leadership offered by governments in collaboration with the nature of public health that is diverse, large with no clear boundaries. A pathologist in Prussian by the names of Rudolf Virchow was exactly correct when he noted some a hundred years back that medicine is a social science has nothing to do with medicine on large scale but appropriate government policies. The implication of this is that there is need by government to adopt the notion of health in its entire policies.

By the virtue of the fact that the government has a greater role of protecting populations health there is need to collaborate with private sector, non governmental organization as well as entire society participation in making certain actions and decisions. Collective responsibility in decision making should not be deserted in favor of centering on peoples choice as well as consumer models of health prevention and promotion. What matters a lot is offering information to individuals as well as advising them on how to exercise informed choice (G.B.K.D, 2007).

Similarly programs developed by governments should adapt with changing times for instance the use of social security and Medicare programs by government is an outdated approach to current health care needs. What governments need to do is to look for strategies that brings together retirees and tax payers in one economic boat and encourage each person to find ways of tapping wisdom and energy as its done by United States zesty elders.

Likewise wider societal actions are vital in handling health determinants. The societal trends show that there are many problems facing social determinants of health for instance poor diet, excessive use of alcohol and cigarettes, psychological stress among others. The only way forward is moving to holistic approach that will help in imparting knowledge or education to the society as well as educating them on proper use of available resources this will help bring more changes in health care thus enabling consumers to be sure of receiving standard medication (G.B.K.D, 2007).

Research shows that for development of a broad based public health structure then a good starting point is by first adopting America institute of medicine definition of health care system which defines health care system as a compound network of organization and people who have the ability of playing significant roles in creating better conditions for health. It is therefore the holistic approach that will ensure that various stakeholders in the health industry work as a team thereby guarantying access to improved health care.

Similarly there is greater need for new paradigm in medical industry to help address the alarming rate of coronary diseases. The 1983 foresight seminar on heart diseases witnessed many speakers arguing in favor of shifting wellness programs. Their recommendations focused on a mixed approach comprising of allopathic and holistic approach to health care (Rigby, 1999). Another seminar held the same year on aging similarly highlighted the advantages of holistic approach against acute approach. One speaker in his speech pointed out the notion of standard aging individuals affected by diabetes saying  such diseases can be delayed until the last periods of life through controlling behavioral factors such as social relationship, smoking, diet among others because they help reduce death rates.

He further noted that using psychological model of health by aging population will reduce community illness by great proportions thereby the goals of holistic approach is necessary and policy makers need to understand that current elderly paradigm are in difficult healthy positions since very few can use their talent to generate income as many of them are disabled by elderly diseases (I.AF, 2007).

Conclusion
In conclusion, the current acute approach of tackling diseases is doomed to fail because it does not meet the needs of consumers. There is an urgent need for a new paradigm based on holistic approach of health. Similarly, there is greater need for all stakeholders to create favorable conditions for health which means they should focus on identifying assets instead of deficits. It should also be emphasized that the current information systems need to be replaced by computer based record system so as to improve quality of care since through integrated care delivery through multi professional electronic patient records in conjunction with offering quality assurance process.

First established following the 1970 election, the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) has emerged as an important catalyst for change.  Since that time, it has worked on a variety of issues directly related to the well being of African Americans.  In this essay, the CBCs approach to the empowerment and mobilization of Americans youth will be considered.  As stated on its website, the CBCs agenda aims to empower through development as well as action (CBC). This essay will argue that its strategy for empowerment through development is more likely to deliver a more substantive benefit for the global black community.

The most powerful argument in favor of development is the fact that it can produce meaningful and measurable results that are wholly within the control of the CBC.  While legislation needs to be passed by Congress, individual members of the CBC may connect directly with youth in order to create the leaders of the future.  This has the added benefit of creating a grassroots awareness of political issues, as these young people will share their knowledge and leadership within their communities.  In addition, the process of development will foster positive role models for young people of color allowing them to feel that they are part of the process.  In providing meaningful access to the legislative process and civic engagement trainings, there is a potential to affect real change throughout America.  Effective representation, as Singh notes, is impossible with organization (p. 28).  By creating an effective network to promote leadership and engagement amongst young people, the CBC will ensure its future success.

While it is impossible to deny the importance of providing access to education, health care and other social opportunities, it is equally important to create and motivate the leaders of the future.  As history shows, it is essential that the CBC seize the momentum gained in recent years in order to continue moving forward.

Overeating is a major social problem.  Throughout the history, perception of overeating has been changing with time owing to the changing social, political, and economic situations.  Overeating is an eating disorder which is centrally characterized by addiction to food that leads to binge eating.  Individuals who suffer from compulsive eating disorder suffer from episodes of uncontrolled eating. It has been shown to have psychological connection as these individuals tend to experience pressured and frenzied feeling.  As a result, the individuals continue eating even after they become uncomfortably full.  Binge eating tends to be followed by intense guilt and sometimes depression. While bulimics will purge themselves with vomiting or use of laxatives, individuals suffering from compulsive eating disorder rarely vomit or use laxatives and hence they continue to accumulate weight. Overeating has been recognized as one of the factors contributing to increased incidences of overweight and obesity which are major public health concerns.

Overeating is a social problem which means that the problem has taken different dimensions throughout history. It has been defined and understood in different ways depending on the changing political, social, and economic conditions. Even during the medieval period, overeating was recognized but it was not understood the same way it is understood today.  This implies that understanding of the problem has been changing with time and though it was recognized as a sign of wellness in the past, it is considered a major health problem today. Overeating today affects people across the social demographic divide.  The problem is today compounded by social values and health concerns.  The government has put in place different programs with an aim of mitigating the effect of the problem but little has been achieved.  Despite the current understanding of overeating as a social and health problem, and the programs that have been instituted to mitigate its effects, it still remains a major social and health concerns in the world today.

Historical Background of Overeating
Overeating is a social problem that has changed over time.  Since the medieval period, overeating has been understood in different ways depending on the changing economic, social, and political environments.  The problem has also been understood in different ways depending on the dominant social values and the changing philosophy of social welfare (Levi et al., 2008).  Definition and understanding of the problem have transformed with changes taking place in the environment. The current definition and understanding of the problem is very different from how it was understood during the medieval period.  In order to define and understand overeating, it is important to first look at the historical definition and understanding of the problem.

Historical understanding of binge eating dates back to the medieval period. At a time when the society was highly stratified, binge eating was understood as a sign of excesses (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008).  It was mainly practiced by those who had excess to eat, mainly those in the upper class. This means that the understanding of overeating during that time was mainly engraved in indulgence since these were only those who could afford plenty of food who ate more. Interestingly, overeating was not recognized as a health problem during the middle ages.  Historical accounts have revealed that the ancient Greece and Arabia had texts which showed description of binging and purging which means both were recognized at that time.  Also in ancient Rome, historians have shown the existence of constructed vomitoriums - places where individuals or feasters threw up food.  This is a sign of existence of overeating even at those ancient times.  It has recorded that Roman Emperor Claudis who ruled between 10 B.C. to A.D. 54 and Vitellius who ruled between A.D 15 to A.D. 19 were both bulimic. These historical accounts affirm to the fact that eating disorders were recognized as early as 10 B.C.

Although it was not recognized, overeating was the main cause of obesity in ancient times. Obesity, which results from overeating, is an age-old problem whose perception has changed over time. During ancient civilization, obesity was perceived in much different ways just like other overeating disorders. For example, ancient Egyptians considered obesity as disease. There have been wall drawing in Egypt which depicted obesity as an illnesses.  There was also the famous statuette of Venus figurines, which depicted the image of an obese female torso and which are presumed to have played major roles in carrying out rituals. Ancient Chinese also showed that they understood the problem of obesity and its effect on the longevity of the problem.  The Aztecs firmly believed that obesity could be considered as a supernatural problem which was affliction of gods. Hippocrates, who is regarded as the father of medicine, recognized that there were many sudden deaths which could be attributed to obesity, and this was expressed clearly in his writings.

However, this perception changed from place to place. In areas where food was scarce, overeating and consequential obesity were considered as signs and symbols of wealth and a higher social status.  In some African cultures, brides were plumped up in order to prepare them for child bearing period. Before a wedding, a bride was plumped up until she reached the expected weight to assist her to bear a child. This shows that overeating and obesity were perceived in different ways.

However, serious focus on the prevalence of eating disorders did not take place until the 19th and 20th century. At the time, there was great scientific advance which provided for research framework to carry out studies to understand the existence of these diseases. For example, it was in 1979 that a British psychiatrist, Gerald Russell, made official description of existence of bulimia.  He is the one who gave it its current scientific name, bulimia nervosa.  He had carried out a scientific study between 1972 and 1978 (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). What sets apart the description of Russell from those of ancient Greece and Arabia is that Russell identified that bulimia was carried out in order to cut weight, while the ancient studies did not identify the reason for existence of binging and bulimia.

Throughout history, overeating has been perceived in different ways.  This perception has changed greatly with changing times, especially in the course of 1900s. For example, French designer Paul Poiret showed that overeating and consequential obesity were unfashionable. Poiret designed skin-revealing women clothes in order to reveal the body image.  In the course of the 19th century, the rate of obesity continued to increase at an alarming rate as a result of different factors, among them change in eating patterns, especially overeating and changing lifestyle.

Despite the historical records of existence of binge eating, it had not been recognized as a health problem until 1959.  In 1959 psychiatrist and researcher Albert Stunkard first described overeating or binge eating as a social problem (Cooper and Fairburn, 2003).  He first described it as Night Eating Syndrome and later the term Binge Eating Disorder was used to describe overeating behavior that did not have nocturnal component.  This meant that the problem was recognized as a social problem only in 20th century despite its existence for many years.

Although the problem has been observed for a number of years, there has not been any scientific study that looked into the trends of overeating. At the time Stunkard described the problem, he had observed there was increasing number of people who were becoming overweight. He noted that overweight individuals had more incidents of overeating compared to the rest of the population (Levi et al., 2008).  The clinical observation convinced Stunkard that overeating was somehow related to obesity and only individuals with obesity showed recurrent episodes of overeating. With increase in the number of obese individuals owing to the changing lifestyle, it was easy for Stunkard to relate the prevalence pattern and the risk it posed to the general population. Since then, there have been several studies that have looked into the problem in greater details.  From the perception of a sign of excesses during ancient times, binge eating was now recognized as a health issues (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005).  Since Stunkard recognized the problem in overweight individuals, it was not recognized by the medical authorities in the country despite a number of consequent studies that have outlined the effects of the problem. It was not until 1994 when Binge Eating Disorder (BED) was introduced in the DSM-IV criteria. However it was introduced as a provision psychiatric disorder that required further research.

It is important to understand that during 1950s when the problem was recognized as a major social problem, there were a lot of changes that were taking place in the social, political, and economical environment.  This period marked the end of the Second World War and the world was drawing the attention away from war and political bickering to focus on social and health welfare of the population.  The end of the Second World War ushered the world into a new era that was more focused on social welfare of the people.  Since the turn of the century, the world has been much occupied with First and Second World War and the Great Depression that have wiped away wealth and people scrambled for food rations.  This means during the period after the end of the Second World War, people could access more food.

Change in technology has been recognized as another factor that contributed to increased incidence of overeating (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). The changing nature of life, mainly driven by technology, led to food process technologies that made food available outside the kitchen. Traditionally, food was only found and prepared in the kitchen which meant that people had limited chances of eating. However, the introduction of modern food processing technology, especially with the emergence of fast and convenient food, people have more chances of eating and this factor contributed to incidence of overeating.  With availability of food in different public spaces, and with emergence of food chains like MacDonalds, which have been established in almost every corner, people are encouraged to eat more often (Levi et al., 2008).  The increased incidence of overeating led to rising cases of obesity and this was one of the factors that drew attention to the issue of overeating.

Changes in social life, especially in working conditions, were another factor that contributed to the increased cases of overeating. Unlike times when people labored for hours in the field, the emergence of office jobs where manual jobs are left to machines encourages people to eat more (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). As the number of working hours reduced and more work was taken over by machines, people had more time to relax and eat. Even at work, the emergence of fast food meant that people could carry food to work and continued to eat while working.

There were a number of changes at home that also marked increased cases of overeating. The emergence of television sets and other entertainment devices stationed at home meant that people spent more hours watching TV while eating. At the end, they ate more than they would have eaten if they were not watching TV (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Apart from positive impacts of technological advancement and wealth creation like having TVs at home, there are other psychological changes that come with change in life that have been pointed out as possible causes of overeating. As people became busy and pre-occupied and the economy changed, the level of stress kept on rising (Levi et al., 2008).  High levels of stress and depression have also been pointed out as possible reasons why people engaged in overeating.  Research evidence has shown that compared to the past, economic crisis of modern time, where life is centered on economic performance, has contributed to high levels of stress.

It is therefore evident that throughout history, definition and understanding of overeating has dramatically changed in line with emerging social, political, and economic trends.  Earlier definition of overeating is quite different from the modern one. Binge eating has changed from a sign of wealth in ancient times to a health problem that is attributed to the changes in the modern lifestyle.  While the overeating and obesity have remained a problem for the wealth in earlier times, most of the obese individuals nowadays are found in the middle and low class.

Description of the overeating in youths and adolescents
Since the 1950s, overeating and accompanying overweight and obesity complications have become major public health concerns in the United States. As has been the tradition with the United States government, it responds with policies aimed at mitigating the effect of the problem but rarely puts in place policies to prevent the problem. Since overeating was noted as a public health concern in 1950s, it took the government several years before any policy was put in place to address the issue. With time, overeating, coupled with changing life style including reduced engagement in physical exercises has led to overweight and obesity, which are considered to be the major public health issues facing the country (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008).  Binge eating disorder is currently a major problem that cuts across the whole population.  Each and every year, there are millions of Americans who succumb to different threatening eating disorders, but binge eating remains a major problem across the whole population.  It is estimated that about 16 million Americans suffer from one or more eating disorders including anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). However, a higher number, 25 million Americans, are documented to suffer from binge eating. Interestingly, the problem is more pronounced in women than in men. Statistics shows that more than 90 of those who are affected by these problems are women (Hudons  et al., 2007). Unlike other health problems that have been known to occur with age, either very early or very late in life, eating disorders occur in the middle life. It has been documented that about 86 of individuals who report eating disorders are slightly below the age of 20, which means the problem starts developing early in life. For example, research findings show that about 11 of high school students have one or more eating disorders, with binge eating being a major problem (Raderprograms, 2010).

However, research shows conflicting results. A number of studies have pointed out that the prevalence of binge eating is not clear in the population. This is because the prevalence differs from place to place depending on the social economic status. However, it has been shown that the prevalence of binge eating in the general population ranges between 1-3 (Bull, 2004). As was earlier observed in 1950s, binge eating remains a major problem facing overweight and obese individuals.  A number of studies have clearly shown that among the overweight and obese individuals, binge eating rangers from 25 and more (Bull, 2004).

In adolescents and youth, binge eating has been described as a major health concern. Studies have shown that lost of control eating or BED is prevalent in young people not only in the United States but in the whole world (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008).  Binge eating is associated cross-sectionally with adiposity in children and youth and has been identified as a major factor predisposing them to overweight and obesity.   Overeating is therefore a major social problem not only in adults but in youths.

There are several reasons why the society is getting concerned with the problem of overeating.  Since the second half of the 20th century, increasing incidence of overeating has attracted public attention owing to the social and health ramification on the general population.  Overeating was recognized as a problem associated with obesity. The reason why the society is becoming more concerned with increasing incidence of overeating can be related to the rising cases of overweight and obesity in the population. Obesity is an epidemic in the United States that affects people across the social demographic divide. It is estimated that about three quarters or accurately more than 64 of American adults are overweight while 26 are obese (Levi et al., 2008).  The number of obese people in the United States has grown steadily from 19.4 in 1997 to the recent 26.6 in 2007 (Hudons  et al., 2007).

By 2015, it is estimated that about 75 of the United States population will be overweight while 41 will be obese (Hudons  et al., 2007).While obesity has been considered a problem for the aging individuals, demographic prevalence portrays a worrying trend as children and adolescents shows increasing cases of overweight and obesity.   In the last two decades, it has been observed that children and youths are becoming victims of complications associated with overeating, with 15-25 of American children considered obese while the number keeps on growing (Tanofsky-Kraff, 2008). Worrying trends show that one in every five children is overweight and has a higher likelihood of becoming obese.  By any standards, these statistics are worrying and call for action from the concerned stakeholders.

The above statistics clearly reveals why overeating is considered a major public health concern. What is more worrying is the observation that overweight and obese children and teens are likely to become obese when they grow up to adults. This means that there is likelihood of having a generation of obese adults in the cause of time if nothing is done (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005).  Although there are multiple sources which contributed to overweight and obesity, overeating has been singled out as the main cause of obesity in children and teens.  A recent study that was carried out by World Health Organization Collaboration Center for Obesity Prevention found out that while researchers have long faulted decrease in physical activity as the main cause of obesity, increase in overeating should rather be pointed out as the main cause of obesity. For children, overeating rather than other compounding factors is the main cause of obesity (RWJF, 2010).  If the above trend is anything to go by, then overeating should be a major concern for all individuals in the society and indeed, it is a call for the government to come up with measures to mitigate the effects of overeating in children.

There are many social, economic, political, and media forces that have garnered to define overeating as a major social problem. Socially, the perception of overeating has been changing with time and today it is no longer perceived as a sign of wealth and excesses but rather as a social problem. Research has shown that children who are overweigh and obese are likely to be bullied or face cynicism from their peers. They are perceived to be irresponsible, which means they suffer socially.

This means that overeating is no longer accepted as a social practice as it leads to overweight and obesity (Levi et al., 2008). Economically, people are becoming well off and the living standards have really improved. However researches point out that overeating is not an economic problem as it cuts across the divide, which means even children and teens living in low income areas are suffering from the problem. This means that there are more underlying economic factors, like the model of economy that lays less emphases on hard work that increases calorie consumption which has conspired to aggravate the problem. Political forces that have lead to recognition of the problem include government policies that have defined the issue. In 1994, the government took a bold step to include BED into the DSM-IV criteria which means it was already recognized as a health problem.  Through the relevant organizations, the government has funded a number of programs aimed at mitigating the problem (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005).  However, the most instrumental force that has shaped overeating as a social problem is the media. Now and then, the media carries out campaigns that are aimed at keeping children out of overeating. The media has been critical of multinational corporations like McDonalds which have encouraged overeating. On the other hand, media portrayal of desired body size, especially for teenage girls, forces them to engage in weight loss programs that lead to emotional binge eating.

The public understanding of overeating is coming to a convergence. As has been reviewed earlier, ancient understanding of overeating was quite different from the modern understanding. There were some societies that encouraged overeating in women to give them strength to bear children while in some societies, overeating was perceived to come with health effects. Nowadays, with the increased understanding of consequence of overeating in reference to overweight and obesity, public definition of the overweight portrays it as a major psychological problem.  According to DSM-IV criteria, binge eating is defined as a disorder marked by eating larger than usual amount of food in a short period of time, most specific, within a period of two hours.  It is lack of control on ones eating behavior or eating that cannot be controlled (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). In this definition, there are important values and ideologies that have are put into consideration. Most important, the definition puts into consideration the health value in belief that while eating is good it may come with consequential health effects. Concretely, overeating in youths and adolescent is understood as a psychological and behavioral problem that comes with grave consequences especially overweight and obesity. However, overeating is still understood in different terms by different social segments. For some parents, overeating in their children may be a sign of growth in appetite (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005).

Parents understand that throughout the life span, children feeding behavior keeps on changing and therefore overeating in adolescents corresponds to nutrients needs in their body, which means they do not consider it to be a problem.  However, for others, overeating is already recognized as a major health problem and hence they are doing their best to assist their children to overcome it.

Prevalence patterns show that Binge Eating Disorder affects millions of people in the United States, especially youths and adolescents.  However, the problem is more pronounced in females than males. In the United States, the problem affects 3.5 females compared to 2 males (Decaluwe and Braet, 2003). The problem is also more pronounced in individuals who are overweight and obese as more than 30 of individuals seeking weight reduction treatment have shown signs of BED (Decaluwe and Braet, 2003).  The fact that binge eating is twice common in females than males shows that the problem is not related to caloric needs as assumed by most parents.  The most devastating effect of binge eating is that it leads to health complications like overweight and obesity. Binge eating leads to increased adiposity in children and adults which increases incidence of overweight and obesity.  Since the problem cuts across the social demographic divide, including wealthy people and those from low income areas, there are no social injustices which are associated with the problem.

Generally, it can be recognized as a problem associated with increase in wealth, modern food processing technology, and changes in different spheres of life (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005).

Social value and political ideologies have impacted differently on the way the problem is viewed. As social value keeps on changing, so has the public perception of overweight and obesity. For example, traditionally, people with big bodies who can currently be categorized obese were valued and viewed as well up. However, this has changed with the changing media perception of ideal body weight. If any, there are few individuals in the society who want to maintain big bodies (Decaluwe and Braet, 2003).  This means that if overweight is being viewed negatively in the society, binge eating, which is a causative factor for overweight and obese conditions are also viewed negatively by the people.

Politically, there has been less government concern on obesity and overweight until recently when the government took bold steps in face of public threat posed by overweight and obesity incidences to institute measures to deal with the problem, for example inclusion of overeating in DSM-IV (Levi et al., 2008). Overweight and obesity are tied to the political ideology of capitalism which is defining the modern society. In capitalism, individuals amass more, and indulge in culture of consumerism hence driving forward the culture of overeating (Levi et al., 2008).

Overeating can be explained using different social theories. One of the recent theories that have been used to explain overeating is reversal theory which explains overeating as a response to high-tension stress (Sue et al, 1998). This theory has shown that women who engage in weight reduction program suffer from tension and stress which forces them to engage in overeating.  The same model has also been expressed by psychosomatic theory which shows that emotional eating results from confusion and apprehension related to emotional states that are in turn related to hunger and satiety (Terry, 2005). Another theory that explains overeating is habituation theory which suggest that when one habituates or adjusts a to food cues, one is less likely to get satisfied and keeps on consuming food (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). In line with this theory, social learning theory also shows that overeating is a learned behavior that is learned due to physical surrounding and interactions. Cognitive theories have pointed out that overeating is deeply rooted in cognitive process which means it is a cognitively driven process. This means that the brain is motivated to eat more and more with no feeling of satiety (Terry, 2005).  In reference to the above theories, it can be deduced that there are biological, social, and psychological causes of binge eating. In biological causes, it has been revealed that body parts and hormones like hypothalamus which control appetite may fail to send correct message for hunger and fullness and hence lead to overeating. Psychological sources have shown that depression and binge eating are closely linked to each other. The U.S Department of Health and Human Services shows that more than half of binger eaters are depressed or have suffered signs of depression in life (Levi et al., 2008). On social factors, it has been shown that social pressure adds shame on binger eaters but this only fuels their emotional eating (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Environmental factors like parental practice of use of food to conform children fuels binge eating. A causal chain that explains pathway to overeating may be constructed as follows.

Overeating causes many health related physical, emotional, and social problems, including overweight and obesity, stress, insomnia, suicidal thoughts, and many others. Depression, anxiety, and sometimes substance abuse have been pointed out to be possible side effects of binge eating (Munsch and Beglinger, 2005). Binge eating also comes with social problems like interference relationship and career.

In terms of effects and benefits, overeating can be looked from two angles, from the point of view of those who benefit and those who suffer from the problem.  To start with, there are much more people who suffer from the problem than those who benefit from it. Those who suffer from the problem include individuals who are  suffering the consequences of such problems like overweight and obesity, close family and relates who are related to the individual and also suffer from the  problem, the government which has to incur billions of dollars in treating complications associated with the problem, and many others (Hudons  et al., 2007). On the other hand, those who benefit from the problem include businesses which deal with food and others like pharmacies which sell medical supplements to deal with complications of overweight and obesity.

Currently, there are many programs which are dedicated to mitigation of the problem. It is important to note that most of these programs have taken the approach of providing education to youths and adolescents on causes, effects, dangers, and ways to prevent overeating. While the government has instituted such policies as school feeding policy that encourage healthy eating, most of the programs are run by the private sector in conjunction with the government, most of them existing in their own microenvironment. Some of these programs include Focus Adolescent Services, The Center- A Place of Hope, Eating Disorder Hope, and many others.  These programs have used the most accessible information dissemination media, mainly through the internet to reach as many youths and adolescents as possible.