Sociology

A stereotype is a generalization which develops in peoples minds about a particular group of people. It is very common in the society and the basic cause is the ignorance. Stereotypes are usually used to convince and persuade people to a certain cause.

When talking about the stereotypes regarding politicians one can observe a number of them in our environment. The most common stereotype associated with the group Politicians is double-standard. This says that if a party does wrong it is now not wrong for you to do it. It is commonly believed among the people that politicians always practice wasteful spending they always are hypocrites and are liars and actually tell lie in order to get into power. It is also believed commonly that politicians develop wrong stereotypes about their opposition so to get through success. It is believed because people have experienced it a many times that politicians did not practice what they promise and did not accept what they did before. This doesnt mean that all politicians are actually acting on these stereotypes and we have experienced some that are not like that, but most of them followed the practice and so the stereotypes associated is believed true by the people. We should not always believe that every politician is a liar and hence every stereotype associated with the group should not be applied to all the politicians because we can recall the names of a number of politicians who were excellent leaders and persons of integrity and conscientiousness.

Conceptions about tattooed people can also be categorized in the examples of the stereotypes. People generally believe the person with a tattoo as a gangster. They think that a person who is tattooed is a violent one or he may be thought as a criminal, a rough bike-rider, a circus person and a military person. (Green, 2009). They are also thought to be a foolish person who is not happy with the body provided to him by the Almighty.

Many religious communities believe that this way to mark a persons body is a sinful act and it must not be done. It is also experienced that many of the mentioned attributed people used tattoos and so the stereotypes developed. This stereotype is not a true and it has been proved wrong. (Moore  Parker, 2007, p.21p).  Misconceptions are now changing with the passage of time and the stereotypes associated with the groups are diminishing as it has been seen that people who previously condemned the use of tattoos have used them afterwards. It is ridiculous to associate all the previously mentioned attributes with every tattooed person.

Another example which can be categorized in stereotyping is the stereotypes associated with feminists. When the name feminists comes people associate the word butch with them. ( HYPERLINK httpwww.triond.comusersChristopherDeRoche t _blank DeRoche, 2009).  Butch means those who usually have short hairs, they have relationships with women usually and do not like to be with men, and they do not shave their body hair. People believe that feminists are lesbians and they want this concept to be legalized. This concept is not at all true for all the feminists. We can say that this could be correct for some but this can not be associated with all the members of the group feminists. It is just a manipulation by the media unless media finds something else to target. Feminists are in real the women who want to stand up for their rights and they do not like to use men for their helping purpose. They want to be independent. They point here is that one should not associate the stereotypes with all the feminists as they are all wrong and do not prove correct with all feminists.

One other example which one can give while describing stereotypes is the stereotypes related to the senior citizens. Old age members of the society are generally believed to be ill-tempered, of drooped shoulders and slump postured. No one of them seems prominent. Other stereotypes can be the gray hairs and wrinkles on the faces of the senior ones which are true because it is medically true that when a person grows old his skin becomes wrinkled. Other stereotypes related to the senior citizens are that they drive too slowly and some people think that they are like a burden to the society just taking pensions and do not pay taxes. There is no law related to slow driving and it is not at all prohibited any where so the thinking that old people are wrong here, is simply no better than rubbish.

The belief that senior citizens are a burden to our society is again an example of rubbish. We must not forget that the senior citizens of our society have lived their whole life giving taxes and contributing towards the growth which made us what we are at this time. So this is the time at which they must not be charged taxes as they need our support now.

We can see that there are a number of stereotypes related to many groups of people. It is not at all necessary that the stereotypes apply to all members of the group and in some cases these stereotypes are even not applied to the majority and they are just being manipulated.

The impact of the Fall of the Berlin Wall on the social, economic, and global impact on the German and the world population at large.

The Berlin Wall was a barrier built by German Democratic Republic(GDR) in East Germany on Aug 13, 1961. The GDR built this wall as a protection against what they perceived as a Nazi influenced West Germany. From 1961 to 1989, i.e., for more than a quarter of a century, this wall separated East Berlin from West Berlin, stopping the movement of people between the two borders completely.
This Wall was referred to as the Anti-Fascist Protection Wall by the GDR and The Wall of Shame by the city mayor of West Berlin. It stopped the emigration of vast majority of people to West Germany and other European countries.

According to the Potsdam Agreement (July 17-August 2, 1945), Nazi Germany was to be reconstituted into four divisions, each governed by one of the four occupying  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiAllies_of_World_War_II o Allies of World War II Allied powers the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiUnited_States o United States United States,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiUnited_Kingdom o United Kingdom United Kingdom,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiFrance o France France and the  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiSoviet_Union o Soviet Union Soviet Union. But Soviet President  Joseph Stalin wanted a Communist Germany and hence, tried to intimidate the other Allied powers to surrender the rest of Germany, using various tactics like nationalization of property, subverting education system, discontinuing food supplies to West Germany etc. The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) was declared on October 7, 1949. By a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority. While East Germany followed a Communist regime, West Germany became a capitalist country with a democratic parliamentary government. Due to the economic growth of West Germany, mass scale emigration took place from East to West. To curb the movement, the GDR under the chairmanship of Walter Ulbricht, decided to close the porous border. Starting with barbed wire on 13th Aug 1961, the wall was constructed with concrete.

When Communism and the USSR began to collapse, it was inevitable that the wall of shame had to go uniting the people of both parts of Germany together on 9th November 1989. Consequently, amidst chaotic celebrations, the wall was physically torn down  and  with it the downfall of an autocratic rule . Germany was reunified as a nation. The impact of the construction of the Berlin Wall had far reaching effect on the social and political lives of German citizens. Before World War II, Germany was a united nation with families living in different parts of the country. Suddenly the people found out that not only were they ideologically separated but they were physically divided as well. East Germany followed a policy of communism. Citizens were compelled into backwardness and deprived. They were forced to denounce West Germans as opportunistic capitalists.

To assert the GDR control of East Germany, the walls served as a necessary checkpoint. Since this wall divided families, it had deep social and economic impact on the German population. Begun in 1975 and completed about 1980, known officially as Sttzwandelement UL 12.11 (retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. (2) East Berliners and East Germans could at first not travel to West Berlin or West Germany at all. Over the years several exceptions were made to family members, pensioners, professionals etc. East Germans successfully defected by a variety of methods digging long tunnels under the wall, waiting for favorable winds and taking a hot air balloon, sliding along aerial wires and by simply driving a sports car at full speed.  If an escapee was caught in the no-mans land then the Grepos or the East Berlin border guards let the fugitives bleed to death in the middle of this ground, as in the failed attempt of Peter Fechter  aged 18. Fechters death created negative publicity worldwide. This led the leaders of East Berlin to place more restrictions on shooting in public places, and provide medical care for escapers. (3)

In a speech at the Brandenburg Gate commemorating the 750th anniversary of Berlin, on June 12, 1987, Ronald Reagan challenged Mikhail Gorbachev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, to tear down the wall. (4) Globally, peoples opinions were against the Wall and it was perceived as a means of suppression.

For those unable to abscond from the East, life was bleak and things only continued to get worse throughout the 70s and 80s as Communism and the USSR began to collapse. The GDR resolutely stuck to their rules, speaking out in support of their regime. But with rationed food and the control regime, freedom was a luxury in East Germany.

When Hungary opened its borders in the summer of 1989, a flood of East Germans made their way West. Student protests in Leipzeig put pressure on the government to lower the borders into West Berlin. The western democratic media was vociferous in its reporting of the plight of the Communist Germans.

In the evening of November 9th, 1989 Gunter Schabowski, Minister of Propoganda, read out a note at a press conference announcing that the border would be opened for private trips abroad. With this announcement the Wall was finally pulled down.

Findings from various studies have indicated a direct association between sexual satisfaction and relationship satisfaction (Sprecher, 2002 Hatfield et al., 1982). Building on extant literature, this study posits the following conceptual hypothesis The greater the sexual satisfaction, the greater the relationship satisfaction. This study defines sexual satisfaction is as level of sexual activity (Rosen  Bachmann, 2008) and operationally defines relationship satisfaction as the level of happiness in a marriage. The independent variable (sexual activity) is predicted to influence the dependent variable (marriage happiness). This correlational research proposes to test the following operational hypotheses

H1 The higher the sexual activity in a marriage, the higher the level of happiness in a marriage.
An alternative hypothesis is also posited as

H2 There is no relationship between sexual activity and level of happiness in a marriage.
Research Method
This study is designed to be a correlational research using survey data in order to test whether there is a direct relationship between sexual activity and happiness among married couples. Datasets to be utilized for this research will be taken from The General Social Survey (GSSS) undertaken by the National Opinion Research Center (NORC)  of the University of Chicago. The GSS (2009) features data on sexual behavior and attitudes among the adult population since 1972. For this research, the independent variable (sexual activity) will measured in the GSS as frequency of sexual activity (FREQSEX) and the dependent variable (relationship satisfaction) will be measured as level of marriage happiness (MARHAP). The datasets required will be downloaded with permission from the NORC Website (2009) and will be subject to statistical analysis using SPSS software. Pearson Product Moment Correlation will be conducted at .05 level of significance to test whether or not there is a direct correlation between sexual activity and marriage happiness.

Transsexual people are individuals who have attained a permanent identity of the gender opposite to the sex assigned them at birth. This has been a legal issue in many parts of the world. In most countries the legal aspects of transsexualism are contained in the family law which basically controls the issues related to marriage. However, this issues touches on other aspects of the law such as the rights of the individual as a spouse and the insurance or social security benefits from the spouses contributions. Transsexualism is recognized in many countries in the world especially in Europe. However, the legality of transsexualism varies from one country to another.

In many parts of the world, individuals are allowed to get sex reassignment which allow the change of sex in the birth certificate and make it legally recognizable. Transsexual individuals in many cases have surgeries to change their bodies permanently. Some times the changes may be semi permanent where hormones are used instead of surgery. The trend is more prevalent in the European countries where many countries give transsexual individuals legal rights such as rights to get married to individuals of their post operative gender, change their names or change the gender in their birth certificate (Aggrawal, pg 347).

Transsexualism in the United Kingdom
For many years, many transsexual individuals were able to change their birth certificates and marry individual of the post operative gender. However, this legitimacy of the act was challenged in the 1960s where some individuals argued that the changes were only legally acceptable in cases where the holder wanted to inherit a title. The court session that handled this case was held in secret in a Scottish court and was not made public until 1970 when it was brought to the English court. The court ruled that marriage among transsexual individuals was illegitimate according to the law and the sex considered in marriage is the sex assigned at birth. Marriage that had taken place under such circumstances became invalid and unofficial changes in the birth certificate reduced. However, this did not prevent transsexual individuals from changing names in their passports, driving licenses and insurance policies details. In the last two decades of the 20th century, a good number of individuals filed cases of human rights violations (Shaw and Ardener, pp 40). In the mid 1980s the court ruled out human rights violations but concluded that the laws should be reviewed. Although the law was not reviewed, the court concluded in 2002 that some basic rights to privacy and the transsexual individuals family life were being violated. In 2004, the United Kingdom parliament acted to that effect and legally recognized transsexual individuals. Under the law as it stood before the Act, transsexual people could not obtain legal recognition in the United Kingdom in their acquired gender. Although they could obtain some official documents in their new name and gender, they could not obtain a new birth certificate, nor could they marry a person of the same birth gender (Church of Englands Mission, para 2). Contrary to the situation in other countries the law requires the individual to have suffered from gender dysphoria, lived for two or more years in the obtained gender and ready to continue for the rest of his or her life

Transsexualism is Spain
Historically, the Spanish law did not recognize transsexual individuals. However, the law has changed since early 2007 where transsexual individuals are allowed to change their names and alter their gender assignment in any official document. The recognition of transsexual individual according to the law is based on the individuals request and need not to have undergone any surgery (Soley-Beltran, Para 11). However, the individual need to have undergone gender treatment for not less than two years and he or she must have been diagnosed to have suffered from gender dysphoria. Hormonal treatment does not qualify the individual for recognition as a transsexual unless it is supported by other prerequisites such as age or health.

The Gender Recognition Act 2004 allows transsexual people who have undergone gender reassignment to apply for a gender recognition certificate as of April 2005. When a full gender recognition certificate has been issued, the person is considered in the eyes of the law to be of the acquired gender (The University of Bolton, para 5).

Transsexualism in Germany
The change of names and gender has been regulated by the law in Germany since 1980s. As in the case in many countries in the world, the law in Germany requires the first name of any individual to be gender specific. However, an individual can change the name or both the name and the gender where possible. The change of the name or gender must however be supported by an opinion of at least two official specialists. The opinions must be presented to court stating that the individual has been medically diagnosed and has been found to be transsexual, the individual has the desire to live in the gender for the rest of his or her life which he or she should have done for not less than three years and the feelings of the need to belong to the other gender are not likely to occur. Incase a man changes his name and gender after which he gets married to a woman or fathers a child, the changes can be revoked. Therefore, it is a requirement that for an individual to be infertile permanently. This should be followed by a surgery that changes the outer sexual features of the individual to significantly resemble the feature of the other gender. Originally, the law had age restriction and the changes were only available for adults above the age of twenty five. This restriction has been declared void by the court and changes are available to any one who qualifies. Since 2008, the law allows even married individuals to change their names and genders. The law applies to German citizens only with exceptional for non citizens with specific recognition by the law for example stateless people who have lived in Germany for long enough and legally.

Transsexualism in Romania
All transsexual people in Romania are recognized by the law. They have the legal rights to change their names and their gender identities in all official documents. The changes are based on personal choice although they are regulated by the law. Since the late 1990s individuals are allowed to change their gender through reassignment surgery which changes their official gender. The post operative sex is recognized by the law and individuals are allowed to marry individuals in their pre operative sex.

Transsexualism in Netherlands
In Netherlands the law is not very different form other European countries. An individual who proved in court to be sterile which may be through surgery and has physically and medically adapted to the new gender can be allowed to change his name and gender. Transwomen must prove to have had genital surgery as well as hormonal treatment. On the other hand transmen must prove to have undergone hysterectomy and chest surgery in addition to hormonal treatment (Shaw and Ardener, pp 57).

Conclusion
In many countries especially in Europe, transsexual individuals are recognized by the law. However there are set regulations that set the minimum legal requirement for the individuals gender to be changed. In many cases the legal and medical issues in the modification of the individuals gender are tied together and the decisions are possibly made by the medical practitioners.

In this paper I will write a reaction to an article written for the Colorado State University website regarding childhood obesity.  In brief, this article points out the different factors that cause this epidemic as well as discusses what these children are at risk for in their futures.  Finally, it talks about what parents can do to promote a healthy lifestyle for their children.

In the article Childhood Overweight by L. Bellows and J. Roach, they discuss the social problem of childhood obesity.  The article looks at all of the problems related to this epidemic such as, future medical issues these children face as well as the mental and psychological problems that go along with it.  They also take a look at all of the factors related to the causes of childhood obesity and the at-risk factors as well.  Finally, the article talks about the different things that parents and children can do to prevent or deal with obesity in children.

The article starts by giving us quick facts about childhood obesity overweight kids are more likely to be overweight adults genetics, behavior and family environment all are key factors overweight children are at risk for medical and psychological problems.

Approximately 16 percent of children 2  19 years old are classified as overweight. (Bellows and Roach)  And this number has increased in recent years.  They go on to tell us that obesity can lead to immediate and long-term issues and that these need attention.

Body mass index or BMI is what doctors use to measure a childs weight to height ratio in regards to their age and gender.  This helps to determine whether the child is overweight or is at risk of being overweight.  They categorize the different percentiles ranging from underweight to overweight and the childs BMI is plotted on this chart based on their percentage.

They discuss the consequences of a child being overweight such as higher risks for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.  There are also additional health complications associated with overweight children including sleep apnea, asthma, and liver damage. (Bellows and Roach)
The article looks at the causes and contributors to childhood obesity such as genetics, behavior, environment and socio-demographics.

Finally, they wrap up the article talking about what parents and children can do to combat obesity by promoting healthy habits such as, healthy eating, increased activity and decreased screen time meaning less time in front of the television or computer.

I feel that this article is accurate regarding this epidemic of childhood obesity.  It takes in account different factors such as genetics and environment in making a determination of whether the child will be overweight or not.  It makes it clear that not one thing alone can lead to the problem.  It can be a combination of things poor eating habit, watching too much tv, overweight parents, not being active enough in school or at home.

Bellows and Roach talk about how parents should advocate better nutrition and more activity in school as well as limit their childs time in front of the television at home.  Kids need to get out and be more active.  I think they got that part right.

However, even though I think the article was accurate, Im not so sure that someone reading it that has an overweight child would take immediate action.  I dont think that the article does enough to scare anyone that really needed the help.  I think that it is very informative but doesnt talk enough about all of the damage that childhood obesity can do.  They definitely touch on it but dont drive home the point that this is something that needs to be remedied now.  And I feel that this issue is that serious.

The article also failed to point out the drain on society that childhood obesity causes.  They do say that they are at a higher risk for cardiovascular diseases and also type 2 diabetes, but they did not mention what impact this would have on society as they got older.

Bellows and Roach did touch on the fact that childhood obesity can lead to psychological problems from bullying and poor self image but they didnt go any deeper than that.  I wouldve liked to see them delve into the psychological aspects a little more.  I think that would help to get the point across a little better.

Finally, I do agree with what the authors wrote about the solution to this problem.  Kids need to put down the video game controllers, parents need to turn off the television and families need to eat more healthy meals together as a family.  The overweight children need more physical activity and a better diet.  I just feel like this article was a very clinical one, and, perhaps thats what it was meant to be.  However, I wouldve liked to see a little more guts to it versus skimming over the top.

Childhood obesity is a serious social issue that parents, educators and children, all need to take notice and do something to help solve this epidemic.

The popularizing of brands has scoured almost all corners of the American world. From billboards to newspapers, the average American is thought to have been exposed to hundreds of advertisements everyday. For the virtue of providing exact statistics, the ordinary American is said to be faced with 247 commercials everyday according to recent surveys conducted by the Consumer reports Website. On the other hand, he Business Journal Phoenix Website has reported the existence of 600 advertisements which consumers face everyday. It is for this fact that one can say, somehow, that the act of popularizing a product has a huge impact on the normal American way of life.

There are almost thousands of advertisements flourishing the televisions and the internet today. One of this was made famous during the holiday seasons known as the Apple Holiday commercial featuring two friends who are designing their first Christmas tree. It basically shows the relationship of Mac and PC as they consider each other very good friends. While decorating their holiday tree, Mac says he was just glad that they have something sensible to do out of the boring holidays. In the end, PC was forced to show his creation. He plugged the Christmas lights and bright letterings of PC Rules highlighted the tree. This commercial is evidently a reflection of how Americans do away with boredom through the use of humor and entertainment. According to Robert Scholes, advertisements like this are geared to create the best single virtue of art. He further emphasized that they (commercials in video text) offer us what is perhaps the greatest single virtue of art change from the normal, a defense against the ever-present threat of boredom. Video texts, like all except the most utilitarian forms of textuality, are constructed upon a base of boredom, from which they promise us relief.

It is in this light that this Mac commercial offers its viewers the idea that the best way to highlight the holiday seasons and break away from boredom is to get a personal computer which rules the American world. It is indeed characterizing the American culture of technology.

Visual fascination by cultural reinforcement is the process through which video texts confirm viewers in their ideological positions and reassure them as to their membership in a collective cultural body. This function, which operates in the ethical-political realm, is an extremely important element of video textuality and, indeed, an extremely important dimension of all the mass media. (Scholes, 1989)

Another video text commercial to be analyzed proving Scholes claims is the
David Beckham Sharpie TV commercial. David Beckham is seen signing autographs for different kinds of people in various places including grocery stores and even in ordinary side streets. He makes of his Sharpie pen to indicate his surname Beckham on any kind of flat surfaces which the fans ask him to write on. At the end of every autograph signing, the fans could be seen going away with his Sharpie pen. He was even posed fighting for the pen against a little girl. This shows that even a celebrated TV icon could not let go of his Sharpie pen. In the end, Beckham is seen to have changed his ways by keeping his Sharpie pen at once after every signing. He could give up his clothes in order for him to keep the pen.

This Sharpie video text is very simple to be understood by the ordinary audience. The use of narratives has paved the way for comprehension. Commercials always have the power to induce from the audience their ability to construct the stories based from given scenes.

An audience that can understand this commercial, successfully constructing the umps story from the scenes represented in the text and the comments of the narrative voice, is an audience that understands narrative structure and has a significant amount of cultural knowledge as well, including both data (how baseball leagues are organized, for instance, and how the game is played) and myth (what constitutes success, for example, and what initiation is). (Scholes, 1989)

Indeed, advertisements have this power to influence the preference of the audience because of its inherent characteristics of creating the bridge between the audiences cultural inclination and the product being promoted. Scholes has emphasized that visual texts have the ability to capture the attention of the viewers using narrativity (story construction) and cultural reinforcement. Either way, the audience finds relief looking at the visual aspects like colors (the first featured commercial by Apple made used of interesting cartoon characters) and cultural referencing (David Beckham as an American icon).

On Tuesday, January 20, 2009, Barack Hussein Obama, raised his right hand, took an oath of office and was sworn in as the 44th President of the United States.  For some, this one moment in history magically erased any ethnic and racial inequities that exist in this country.  Indeed, the fact that America has come to a place where a Black man can be elected to its highest office is an indication of the huge strides we have made as a nation to repair racial injustices, and to live up to our promise of providing equal opportunities for all men and women.  But, to think that centuries of unequal access to employment, education and economic opportunity could be eradicated with one single moment in time, no matter how profound that moment may be, is nave at best.

The underlying factors contributing to racial inequity are so complex and interwoven that it is sometimes difficult to tease out the causes.  Take education, for example.  The numbers speak for themselves. University after university, many of which make concerted efforts to attract and retain minority students, still show disproportionately low numbers of some ethnic groups.  One could say that there arent enough qualified minority candidates applying to these schools and leave the argument right there. But, why arent they applying in greater numbers  Racial factors, social factors and economic factors all contrive to put some minorities at a disadvantage before they even get to the point of applying for college.  If you are born Black or Latino in country, like it or not, it is factually true that you are more likely to be born into poverty.  Those are just your odds.  And, if you are poor, like it or not, you are less likely to have access to the kind of preparatory educational materials and resources (human and otherwise) that makes you a competitive candidate for college.  Schools in poorer neighborhoods often have less our outdated text books and scholarly publications. Think about a young person who wants to make a career in software programming, yet doesnt even have access to a computer in his middle school. And, think about scholarships.  I wonder how many tennis scholarships are given out to student athletes of color   Venus and Serena Williams are an exception that proves the rule. Their father had to go out of his way to find a means to get them access to the learning tools they needed for the successes they now enjoy.  How many African American youth who would love to be star tennis players are raised in communities of poorer socio-economic means, and dont even have access to a tennis court

The professional world is full of equally complex considerations in relation to disparities in employment opportunities.  Civil rights and Equal Opportunity laws have opened many doors, but those laws just as one means to address the overt discriminatory practices. Laws cant regulate everything. A study in done in Chicago in the early 2000s, in which fictitious resumes were sent out in response to close to 1,500 real help-wanted ads, revealed the truth of a reality that many African American already felt in their gut. What happened Well, the resumes with names like Daron and LaShaunda, names that had a typically afro-centric connotation, did NOT get the call backs, in spite of the fact that all their qualifications were equal to or even better than the Heathers or Adams. With so many jobs coming from small businesses, where bosses make such decisions in the privacy of a locked office (shredding the resumes of candidates they think dont make the grade), how on earth do you monitor something like that

We have made great strides towards racial and ethnic parity, but we still have a long way to go.  We must stay vigilant and educate ourselves on the complex mosaic of factors that continue to make ethnic and racial inequality such an unjust and reality in todays society.

Traffic congestion has evolved to become a major problem in most of the major world cities. With each new day, traffic congestion continues to choke the worlds cities as a result of clogging of roads. Millions of drivers have had to endure long delays to work places or even back home. In Washington DC for instance, at the point where the interstate 95 meets the capital belt way traffic queues stretch up to 5km during the peak hours ( HYPERLINK httpusgovinfo.about.combioRobert-Longley-2430.htm Robert 20051). As a result, millions are lost economically while the environment also suffers. These congestions are not only frustrating but very costly to the economy, needless to mention the environmental impacts. The stop and go traffics waste a lot of fuel. It is estimated that the cost of time and fuel by motorists in the US urban areas alone is as much was 63 billion and could even be more taking into consideration other issues like pollution from idling emissions, accelerating engines among other areas ( HYPERLINK httpusgovinfo.about.combioRobert-Longley-2430.htm Robert 20051). The fluctuating fuel costs are believed to cost an additional 1.7 billion per year. In the UK, the situation is probably worse given that the UK is probably the leading country in Europe affected by traffic problems. However, the question to ask is whether or not the strategies available are effective or not. Traffic Congestion has continued to get worse as days pass by and unfortunately, not only in the UK but across all the major world cities. It has been estimated that in future this could even worsen further. As this is definitely a permanent problem, there has been growing concern and need to control it. This paper will explore some of the possible solutions to traffic problems and further evaluate their pros and cons.

Pricing of roads is probably among one of the best ways of solving the problem of traffic congestion. By increasing the cost for travelling along the more congested routes especially during peak hours would discourage motorists from travelling on the roads unless unavoidable. Motorist would be forced to reschedule lees urgent trips to other times when the road toll charges are less costly. This system would not only benefit in decreasing traffic congestion but will also increase revenue collection by the government. This revenue could then be used to develop other alternative means that would be beneficial in reducing traffic congestion. In London, traffic congestion ahs had great achievements. These include 30 average drop in congestion, 37 average increase in traffic speed, 20 decrease in fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emissions and 12 drop in particulate matter and nitrogen oxides (Publications Archive 20071) Congestion pricing can however not go un-challenged. This system is likely to affect the low income earners negatively as at times they would have to reschedule their plans even when necessary due to increased toll fees ( HYPERLINK httpusgovinfo.about.combioRobert-Longley-2430.htm Robert 20051). This would lower the mobility of the poor even in instances where they are urgently needed to attend to issues they consider important. As much as the long term effect might counter this through use of the toll collections to develop alternatives, it is bound to face stiff opposition from the low income earners. To avoid increased stoppage in charging of the toll fees, use of electronic means in charging the fees will be necessary.

Development of alternative means of travelling within the cities is also a viable option to solve the problem of traffic congestion. By developing means that will reduce commuter trips into the CBD using cars, traffic congestion will be greatly reduced. A variety of incentives and policies which would divert transport to other alternatives could be the way out in this case. The alternative modes may include switching rail transportation, walkingcycling, and flexible working hours among others (World Urban Forum III 20062). These would only be effective if policies were formulated that discourage travelling by cars. Additionally, the policies should create measures that will reduce entry of cars into the city. Building of out of town parking facilities may come in handy. This system would not only reduce traffic congestion enormously but will also increase the efficiency of managing the transport system of the city and concurrently reduce the number of accidents within the city. This would also ensure that the city is free of any unnecessary obstruction, clear and safer. However, it must be acknowledged that some of these alternatives may be cumbersome to the commuters as they would have to pay parking fee and further pay more fare to have them transported into the CBD through other means e.g. by train. The central parking locations outside town may also be a recipe towards inviting crime to those locations but most significant set back would be the need to acquire more land to build ten out of city parking facilities. It would also be important to mention that through reduction of traffic jam involving cars, human traffic jam may in turn emerge. This would however be countered by having trains to transport people into the CBD.

Improving of the road networks to meet the emerging challenges is another alternative ways of minimizing traffic congestion. These include building of bypasses including inner ring roads and outer ring roads, construction of urban motor ways and finally construction of bus lanes (Christopher 20081). Bypasses are useful in eliminating unnecessary entry of cars into the CBD. Cars that have little business within the CBD may use the bypasses to reach their destination thereby avoiding the risk of piling up traffic into the CBD. The inner ring roads also offer opportunities for motorists to avoid congestion within the citys streets there by easing congestion. Building of urban motorways that allow for more lanes, fly overs among others offers a better alternative in easing of traffic congestion. The result of this would be reduced accidents, free flowing traffic thus saving time and resources, ease of managing traffic within the CBD and even reduced crime rates. Building of bus lanes will further allow more people into the city with a single means. Commuters can leave their cars in the outskirts and come together into buses to enter the city. This will ensure fewer vehicles into the city with more people. However, this would come with great cost implications that the governmentstakeholders may not be willing to undertake. Additionally, the by-passes would require acquisition of land around the city which may impact negatively on the owners existing investments.  One thing that is clear is that through redesigning of the city and further modifying the transportation system could offer the long term desired solution (Brian 20028).

In conclusion, its important to note that yes in deed, these measures would come with challenges, but on the other hand the traffic problem cannot be left unattended to any longer otherwise the cities may soon come to a standstill. Both stakeholders must therefore be ready to make sacrifices in order to build future safe and easily accessible cities. Easing traffic would save the country a lot economically as well as in various other sectors like health. In essence, a success in easing traffic congestion would have a rippling effect through all sectors of the economy.

What are Amanda Jackson s problems
Joana Stewart has been the principal of Twin Pines School for 25 years already and Amanda Jackson is under her employment as the art teacher of six art classes a day. Amanda is new to the job and she is still learning the basics of being a teacher, but she is really enjoying her new role. Everything was running smoothly in the Twin Pines School for Amanda until she discovered that the school principal is an alcoholic. She tried to ignore the behavior of Principal Stewart until one snowy February afternoon when the very drunk principal offered to drive home Clifford, a first-grade boy. The thought of an old woman driving under the influence of alcohol on a heavily snowing afternoon bothered Amanda. This is definitely the problem that she had to face.

What should she do
In my opinion, Amanda must continue insisting to the principal that she will be the one to take Clifford home because she is aware of the drunken condition of Mrs. Stewart based on her smell and slurred speech. If Amanda will allow Mrs. Stewart to do as she wishes, they might meet an accident on the road and this may cost them both their lives. Hence, regardless of the fact that the principal was firm on her decision to drive Clifford home, as a concerned colleague and as a second parent to all students, Amanda must not allow such kind of situation to happen.What are the implications of the actions you suggest

Amandas action suggests that she is very concerned about the welfare of the principal and the student as she is doing it with her job on the line. Since Mrs. Stewart is very drunk, she could be easily agitated, and Amandas insistence to stop Mrs. Stewart from taking Clifford home may annoy her that she may arrange for Amandas transfer to another school. In the worst case scenario, she may fire Amanda from being an art teacher and ban her from applying to the allied schools of Twin Pines. Hence, in a sense, this implies that not only is Amanda caring about the welfare of others, but she is also very brave.

What legal issues are involved
In the event that Amanda allows Mrs. Stewart to take Clifford home and the two meet an accident, she will then be legally liable to Clifford s parents and the whole police force for the non-exertion of proper meditative efforts to prevent the occurrence of the said accident. Another legal issue that will be involved will cover the fact that Mrs. Stewart is drinking alcoholic beverages during office hours. These two cases are likely to be the consequence of Amanda s dilemma.

It is no secret that the projection of beautiful women on the media constantly plays itself in the minds of innocent teenage girls as they grow up. It affects their perception of beauty and gives them a figure to aspire to falsely creating an image of what may be considered beautiful by the world. These tall seemingly desirable women with perfect figures are depicted amidst such a sense of awe that onlookers who do not know better are persuasively subjected to stigmatizations of beauty which may have a negative effect on their personality.

Numerous studies exist that buttress this notion and suggest that the media is inclined to present children with ideals relating to what is and is not considered acceptable by the society. A good example of that is smoking where recent figures report the number of women smokers in the world to be 12, a number that is seen to rise to 20 by 2025 as an indirect result of marketing efforts which often show attractive, modern-looking women smoking (Associated Press, 2006).

Though other factors such as work stress and the gender race may also come into play in this figure, it can easily be deduced that mass media has a profound effect on women. Men, on the other hand, follow a different pattern of influence and may not adhere to similar lines with respect to what is portrayed in the media. It is worth exploring whether men have succumbed to the trends of body image and what is presented to them as beautiful in a negative or positive way.

Concept of Beauty
The concept of poor body image does not necessarily stem directly from the media frenzy of today. It more or less has taken root in every culture throughout history. People have had a distinct apprehension of what is definably appealing and considered good-looking in every period as time has progressed. Initial propagations may have been done by Kings, their jesters, and members of the elite class but their always was an innate appreciation of beauty.

Rich texts of history go to great lengths in describing chiseled males with shapely noses and high cheekbones as womanly objects of desire. Shakespeare himself indulged in such displays of articulacy when it came to describing individual male or females which he considered as beautiful. Given the popularity of his works, he may himself be responsible for indicating to the public what may or may not be regarded as acceptably appeasing to the eyes. However, where his depiction of ideologies differs to those that are widely circulated today is in the level of artistic flair.

Later unscientific years also gave rise to unfavorable fashionable trends. The 19th century for example, saw the advent of the corset, being considered modern and fashionable where as in reality it brought with it a wealth of breathing and digestive problems (Fox, 1997).

Body Images through Media
In todays world body images are thrust upon onlookers in as vivid a way as possible. No longer are they a result of subtle innovations in the broadcasted advertisements or soap operas but are as clear as a bikini-clad woman in an aftershave ad or a man with a chiseled physique publicizing a deodorant. These set a preconceived notion of beauty in the minds of the audience thriving upon their obsession with beauty. This obsession has its roots in how the society treats attractive people. It is indeed a fact that those that are considered fortunate looking are treated favorably as they grow up (Squidoo, 2010).

Consider the school environment, where attractive children are generally more popular, and are given more priority both by fellow classmates and teachers as well. The teachers have a distinct pattern of giving the cuter children more attention than the rest and pushing them harder at the same time, expecting more out of them and in turn driving them towards better grades.

In the work environment, attractive candidates seem to score better jobs with better pay and are generally kept at the forefront with jobs like brand ambassadors and receptionists one US study found that taller men earned around 600 per inch more than shorter executives (Fox, 1997). Whats more, figures suggested by the Social Issue Research Centre suggest that attractive people are found guilty less often and have shorter sentence terms.

Such notions exist parallel to the societies we live in and no community is completely unbiased in its treatment of those fortunate looking and those unfortunate looking. As a result, stigmas are formed about beauty, and people regard things that look good generally better than those that appear less attractive.

Childrens storybooks are a good example in this regard where the princess that needs to be rescued is always beautiful and requires a beautiful prince to rescue her where as the witch that cursed her is always ugly with a crooked nose and a big mole on her cheek (Fox, 1997). Those are complemented today by the likes of popular soap operas such as Bold and the Beautiful, Ugly Betty, Project Runway and the numerous beauty pageants that seem to accompany them.

Effects of Body Image on Women and Men
However, those are targeted squarely on the female population which outnumbers the male population. The female gender is much more susceptible to such stigmas. Research suggests that women criticize themselves much more than men and analyze themselves in the mirror a lot more acutely in virtually all cases. The beholder here sees nothing beautiful in the reflection in this case and always manages to find faults in their physical attributes so much so that around 80 of the women who see themselves in the mirror are said to be dissatisfied with their physical status (Fox, 1997).

Men on the other hand barely ever get affected with what they see in the mirror. They are likely to be satisfied with what they see or may easily choose to ignore it. As a result, the body image they present themselves with is much more superior to women and may actually just be an overestimate.

Their flaws are shrouded by their ego and their conscience over rules any imperfections. The likes of people such as Arnold Schwarzenegger and TNA wrestlers may have induced many to work on their physique and tone their body image but most still remain indifferent.

It is no surprise then that women who resort to better individual grooming than men are more susceptible to body image projections. This has a lot to do with the added scrutiny of women who aspire to be cheerleaders or runway models representing large fashion corporations. The standards they are judged against are seemingly more inflexible than those of men rendering them more prone to physical judgments.

Women are generally associated with beauty, a trait that plays an important part for them to be able to stand out in the increasingly competitive world of today. It also enables them to present themselves better to prospective male partners and hence, they resort to the ideals of facial structures and figures that are set by the media trends of today, described by Naomi Woolf as the The Official Body (Fox, 1997).

The level of exposure that women tend to receive to these ideals start as early as their teenage years mostly through TV, internet, print media such as magazines, books and billboards. This makes being beautiful a priority since every other woman presented in these ads is a showcase of such making beauty part of acceptable mainstream life. Anything less than perfection is considered unacceptable. Contrast this with the life of earlier generations and it is evident that the growing number of borderline lewd commercials and portrayals of extravagantly beautiful women on the media are directly responsible for the displeasure women express with themselves.

The problem is worsened by the seemingly large variety of changes that have been seen over the years of the definition of beauty. History tells us that the influenced women may even be trying to achieve the impossible, considering how standards of female beauty have altered their persona throughout the 20th century, reaching an obscure level of unrealism. For example, in the earlier decades of the 20th century, the physically perfect woman was about 5ft 4in tall and weighed nearly 10 stone (Fox, 1997) where as in the latter half of the same century, the weight requirement for top models and pageant queens in contrast was not starkly short of that considered of the average woman amounting to a difference of 8 between someone considered beautiful and someone considered physically average.

Compare that with the seemingly beautiful figures of today, and one sees a rising trend towards borderline anorexia, where women are expected to be as much as 23 lighter than average, a figure that is somewhat unachievable by a large majority of the female population (95) (Fox, 1997).

Mens Body Image
While men are generally unsusceptible to body image stigmas, some common grooming traits are found to be prevalent in their quest for beauty. Certain features such as hair are of prime concern to the male psychic. Such has been the case throughout history. Hair loss has been a natural cause of concern for males (reportedly 20 of men suffer from it during their 20s) whereas both long hair and short hair have seen their prime and plight.

From the 1840-1860, for example, growing ones hair long was considered part of the fashion trend (Luciano, 2002). Later on, they were frowned upon and considered inappropriate for formal gatherings as America was swept with moderate looks brought about by industrialization. Up until the latter half of the 20th century, the notion depicting long hair as feminine and undesirable remained prominent.

Wavy hair itself did not see much favoritism in the early 20th century as it was either a result of a professional stylist or an extremely wet comb. It was also expected that hair was parted to the side and not through the middle as that was a feminine trait. Throughout this period, the media was adamant at providing products for the upkeep of hair focusing more on hair loss than anything else. Providing shine and gloss was the least of a mans worries (Luciano, 2002).

With regards physical fitness, the earlier part of the 20th century saw commitment to the same by men mostly in preparation for war or military endeavors. America in this era was gripped with industrial change of paramount proportions and young men were increasingly subject to urbanization stress a little too much to care for physical exertion. However, with mounting urgencies of urbanization, exercise became a key ally for a healthy lifestyle as Gilded Age America struggled with the evils of urbanism and sedentary lifestyles (Luciano, 2002).

Pre 1970s, however, opportunities were limited as half the population lived in the Northeast towns which did not have the requisite incentives. In due time playgrounds, YMCAs, and sports programs designed to make exercise an acceptable part of city life surfaced. They helped reinvigorate much of the lost concern for healthcare.

Body building did not come about up until the turn of the century, where strongmen were seen to engage in muscle building in order to represent what America stood for.  It was a matter of national pride and international representation more than anything. Men bulge their biceps and showcased their strengths in public only as a spectacle and became mostly confined to carnivals, restricting their spread to other classes of the society.

These trainers were more akin to weight lifting than cosmetic body building, and thus the latter did not get prioritized until much later in the century. While people struggled during the 20s to come out of the stigma associated with body building that deemed it just a hobby, Bernarr Body Love Macfadden launched his physical fitness magazine. This was the first publication fully devoted to health.

1939 saw the inauguration of Muscle Beach in Santa Monica, California which took the fad to another level leading to the launch of the Mr. America contest the same year. However, muscle building and body toning still went unheeded by sponsors and prize money never exceeded more than a few thousand dollars all the way up to the 70s. Arnold Schwarzenegger only won 1,500 as Mr. Olympia in 1976.

Misconceptions about muscle building were gaining momentum through this era. Gluttony was the central focus and the media went through its phases advertising against it. Vegetarian diets were advertised as preferable but hardly ever adhered to. In the 20s, Hollywood sprung into action with movie stars who were young, healthy and presented an aura of sex appeal.

Since movie making had shifted from the East Coast to California, physique became all the more popular and being slim was an essential part of being on film, because cameras automatically added twenty pounds to actual weight (Luciano, 2002). Movies brought slim and healthy aspirations to the common citizen and American men began associating healthy lifestyles and perfect physiques to success.

The wealth of advertising and national health-campaigns has made obesity a thing to fear. The phobia of fat has developed into such a prejudice that people who are obese, especially if they are of the female sex, develop a very poor body image so much so that it is linked to health concerns such as anxiety and depression. Women who are obese tend to develop worse chronic illnesses that have causal links with depression. Such a trait is only found in societies with fat-phobia and those that do not exhibit this phobia are found to have normal healthy women. Thus, the aggressive health campaigns may have in turn led to another problem of social depression (Fox, 1997).

The Impact of Body Image
The excessive bombardment of images of perfect women and beauty queens to women has led to an era of excessive aspirations. Ever since the advent of anesthesia in the later decades of the 20th century, voluntary surgery has become a reality and there has been a new surge in the number of people opting to change their appearances in order to look like their ideals. Aesthetic surgery is the route dissatisfied women (and in some cases, men) tend to take when opting for alterations in their nose, lips, eyes, or any other body part that may keep them from meeting their pre-requisites about beauty.

The process of nose reconstruction has taken a fresh wave of eager women in its grip and countries like South Korea, Brazil, and Israel have joined the originally thriving Indian aesthetic culture in its ventures regarding eyelid restructuring, buttock lifts and tummy tucks (Gilman, 1999). Argentina has emerged as the leader in the frequency of silicone implants becoming the highest provider of such aesthetic procedures.

This frenzy regarding aesthetic beauty has gripped the globe in its paws simply because of the ever increasing demand to look beautiful or at the least aesthetically pleasing to others. Such procedures have formed a culture of their own as Gilman relays a nose job while originally a way to help patients with breathing problems is now served as a sweet-sixteen birthday present (1999). Procedures such as the removal of male breasts and excess fat from ones thighs all help enable those who undergo it become acceptable members of the society, serving to promote the stigma that has become central to the media-centric world of today (Gilman, 1999).

Applying Sociology Theories
If the influences of advertising media on the body image were to be considered in light of the feminist theory, then (Rivers, 2008) elaboration of women in media stands out when he refers to women with regard to how the news media manipulates their anxieties. Women are placed in a constant state of perplexity in which they are convinced that they will not succeed in life unless they adhere to specific criteria in terms of their appearance and mannerism altogether.

Another sociology theory that can be observed to be at play here is the gender theory. The discussion supports the traditional interpretation of the gender theory in accordance to which the social acceptance of the roles of males and females in a society is determined as a result of the perceived attributes with regard to factors that are fundamentally physical (Welsh, 2001). It can be observed that the media does indeed put men and women in a position where they have to mould their appearances in accordance with a pre-established standard that is created with no consent of theirs.

The gender theory is strongly applied in advertising media where men and women who do not adhere to the expected dimensions in terms of their body are given very little or no room for progress or prominence. Therefore, the roles of men and women in modern day society as influenced by the media are not ones that compliment their nature, but are ones that have been taught to them through generated learning.

When considered in light of the Symbolic Interactionism theory, the central idea of the discussion is further asserted through the fact that man and women tend to make use of the standards and thresholds that they have been taught when carrying out self assessments (Andersen  Taylor, 2007). The media, being present in society and influencing society in every possible dimension, exposes them to an illusion based on unreal and impractical standards. Considering that this illusion is subjected to continuous reinforcement through repeated exposure, it comes as no surprise that the men and women alike generally begin to consider their bodies less than adequate.

The media therefore makes people feel increasingly self conscious. In order to satiate the feeling of being less than adequate, men and women begin to chase after products and services that promise them that satisfaction (Luciano, 2002). What is imperative to note here is that by doing so, the media generates the cause of the restlessness while promoting the solution to the same.

Conclusion
While it is apparent that individuals today are increasingly provoked to meet rising standards of beauty by the media, it is also evident that such vulnerability is more common in women than men. Men have the ability to dismiss small imperfections such as a crooked nose, a sixth toe, baldness, and other peculiarities that have a greater chance of being noticed by women. However, women tend to overlook genetic limitations and other inhibitions and set weight and size targets that may be seemingly impossible to attain (Chambers, 2009).

This results in emotional setbacks creating societal pressure which results in further health and disorders in the young minds of today. Parental roles are exceptionally important in the development of media oriented ideas, thus, more so with women than men. Every other billboard depicts a woman in barely there attire revealing a perfect figure that drives more than a few minds into a dilemma which either concerns their size, height or weight.

Where the media depicts pageants and beautiful people with such vivacity, it also needs to address the downsides of pursuing such unattainable aspirations and paint a clearer picture relating to health (size 0 does not always equal to good health) before the thirst to become beautiful kills individualism completely.

Ethical and moral issues have been a matter of concern in contemporary classrooms. As a matter of fact, there is no single teacher who has not faced the challenge of having to deal with ethically contentious issues within the classroom. Whether element of the designed core curriculum or emanating from the societal context of learner s lives, the listing of issues educators have to content and or deal with appears infinite. (Vangelist, A.L et al, 1999)

Some of these issues comprise chauvinism, pacifism, religious values, historical unfairness, racial discrimination, dishonest and cheating in society and school in addition to teenager rebellion. When confronted with these issues, teachers are faced with a variety of alternatives, and whilst our rejoinders say a lot as regards our individual philosophies as educators, we should as well lean a great deal on both our sensitivity to situation in addition to the needs of our learners. Basically, instructors do not all the time make a decision each day to act in unprincipled ways, although at times we do. Consequently, the question is, how should we as educators act in response when ethically contentious subjects crop up within the classroom Should we take positions on ethical subjects or should we play a more neutral position (Vangelist, A.L et al, 1999)

Making religious references is one moral issue we teachers are faced with in the classroom. It can be intricate to talk on the subject of religion within your classroom although to stay away from the subject all together appears problematical. It is quite difficult for a World Civilization instructor to have a discussion about history without referring to religion. How do I talk concerning the Pyramids devoid of speaking regarding Egyptian religious practice Or Greek myths. In these instances, I am, in reality, conversing regarding religion inside the classroom. I am not, however, inviting my learners to subscribe to any spiritual dogma.

Of course, schools are liable to detach church and state. Nevertheless, the increasingly altering scenery of the American classroom denotes instructors are obligated to correspond to each one of their learners.Religiosity, or devoid there of, is an important constituent of traditions and identity for most learners.Through avoiding the subject of religion, instructors may overlook a chance to instruct their class regarding remarkable element of the school society. Since teachers cannot instruct effectively without referring to religious subjects, they may find themselves in such situation where students are offended by their remarks.

When faced with this situation in the classroom where students are offended with the Christian remarks I make, I would stifle a discussion and go back to the  task at hand  Due to time limitation, I would ensure that I have a talk on the religious subject when I am sure that I have adequate time to have an elaborate and mature discussion.

Secondly, I would refuse to take a stance through adopting an unbiased standpoint in discussion of ethically contentious subjects. One most important cause for this is the position of influence and admiration we over and over again occupy within a classroom, even a classroom that has fashioned into an additionally helpful, democratic society. I would avoid taking a stance in an effort to protect learner s feelings. In addition, I would decline to take an instant stance. This will help students discover the ethical terrain on their own. In addition, I would see to ot that I comply with schools set guilding principles.

Education is basically the back born of development in any particular state, nation and economy. Human work force in any economy is developed when individuals go through training which is only accessible in form of education. Education is associated with different costs and this requires the decision of teachers, decision makers or children. Financial voice of a teacher is often the voice for children when it comes to financial situation in education. The teacher is supposed to analyze any costs that are associated with education and spread such costs among the children. Children on their part are supposed to inform their parents or guardians about the evaluation and thus make payments (George, 2006). To achieve anything, good an individual should be ready to make sacrifices thus for children to get quality education they are supposed to finance their education. Teachers decisions are often considered to be right and the amount pad by children is equivalent to the service they provide.

Financial situation in education creates an avenue for making  various decisions that make individuals to learn lessons One major lesson from financial situation in education is that for students to prosper  in life especially education sector, they are supposed to dig deep into their pockets. Teaching is an occupation and the teacher is usually the first beneficiary through salary. During the period of financial crisis, the level of education in various parts of the world went down due to lack of finance. This is a clear reason to show that without finance education will be adversely affected (George, 2006). The teacher should analyze the costs incurred in education and then share the costs among students and this will help to run the school in an effective manner.

Criminology encompasses different areas of study that looks into why people commit crime and ways how this can be mitigated.  Theories of crime tend to look into factors that drive people to commit crime including the biological, psychological, and sociological factors.

Biological and Psychological explanations of Crime
Crime can be explained through biological and psychological explanations.  Under biological explanations studies by Lambrosso and others have shown that people commit crime without individual knowledge.  This means that engagement in crime is an action that is driven by forces beyond individual control. This has been explained by defective genes, skull structures, and other factors like hormonal values which are usually inherited from generation to generation (Mednick et al., 1987). Under psychological explanations, it has been shown that engagement crime develops from childhood to adulthood owing to psychological factors (Siegel, 2008). For example, engagement in crime can be caused by personality disorders which lead to development antisocial behavior. Psychological causes of crime is usually explained by different theories like motivational theories, learning process, inhibition, and many others.  Biological and psychological explanations of crimes forms the bases of wider understanding of why people engage in crime as there are a number of theories which are developed under the two broad perspectives.

Social, Cultural and Economic Sources of Crime
There are social, cultural, and economic reasons why people engage in crime.   Social factors show that some individuals living in particular areas, like low income areas, are at a higher risk of engaging in crime compared to others (Siegel, 2008). Research findings shows that the immediate family surroundings like family, friends, school, and others have a lot of influence on whether an individual engage in crime or not. Social causes of crime are supported by social theories like social control theories, social learning theory, strain theory, and many others.

Apart from social factors, there are cultural factors which may influence individual to engage in crime. Cultural factors are based on the sub-cultural participation in crime. There are subcultures like youths who may be prone to crime than others (Siegel, 2008). For example it has been shown that lower class youths who are exposed to values like toughness, fatalism, and many others a have a higher likelihood of engaging in crime.

The most prevalent factor that has been singled out as a major source of crime is economical factors. According to crime statistics, it has been shown that crimes are more prevalent in low income areas as most people tend to engage in crime as an economic activity (Siegel, 2008).  In low economic areas, high rate of poverty and unemployment drives most people to engage in crime.

Learning to Commit Crime
Despite the ranging debate on whether individuals are inherently criminals or whether they engage in crime due to social influence, it is evident that at one time, all criminals learn to engage in crime (Siegel, 2008).  Under the social learning process, it has been explained that people tend to learn to engage in crime in a similar way they learn conforming behaviors. Learning takes place through association and exposure to people who have criminal record including intimate friends and family members.  Individuals may learn through observing others engage in crime and after the learning process, reinforced criminal activities tend to be repeated.

Conclusion
Criminology encompasses different areas of study. As a subject, both in theory and practical application, criminology looks into factors that drive people to commit crime. People commit crime due to innate biological factors like inherited genes and due to social factors like social influence, economic conditions, and other factors.  People tend to learn how to commit crime through observation, association, or exposure.

Organized crime or unlawful associations is a worldwide  group of extremely centralized ventures run by criminals for the intention of engaging in unlawful doings, most frequently for the intention of creating a financial income. The Organized Crime Control Act (U.S., 1970) describes organized crime as The unlawful actions of ... an extremely organized, disciplined organization ....One example of organized crime prevalent in the United States is the Balkan organized crime. (Pace, D, F.  Styles, J, C., 1975)

The word Balkan Organized Crime. pertains to organized crime groupings instigating from or working within Bulgaria, Albania, Romania, Bosnia-Herzegovina, the former Yugoslav State of Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, Croatia, Kosovo, and Serbia. Balkan organized crime is a rising risk within the U.S. whilst a number of groupings are dynamic in diverse towns across the state, they do not hitherto exhibit the recognized illegal sophistication of customary La Cosa Nostra (LCN) or Eurasian associations. Nevertheless, they have attested themselves competent of acclimatizing to increasing illegal marketplaces in addition to becoming occupied in innovative doings, much similar to the historical expansion of other organized felony groupings. (Pace, D, F.  Styles, J, C., 1975)

Essentially, lots of years of socialist ruling led to black marketplace actions within the Balkans, although the impact of these actions was restricted to the area. After socialism subsided at the end of 1980s and at the beginning of 1990s, it showed the way to the growth of Balkan organized offense actions. Illegal marketplaces once closed up to Balkan groupings unexpectedly unlocked, and this lead to the formation of a worldwide system. Within the Balkans, organized offense groupings penetrated the novel sovereign organizations, further mounting their profit prospects. (United States. Presidents Commission on Law Enforcement and administration of Justice, 1969)

Balkan criminal groups have been dynamic within the U.S. ever since 1985. Initially, these associations were occupied in low-level felonies, comprising ATM robberies, house invasions and bank burglaries. Afterward, racial Albanians allied themselves with the reputable LCN relations inside New York, operating like low-level members. Since their population and presence have turned out to be more recognized, they have developed to control and direct their own associations.

Basically, there is no solitary Balkan Mafia, ordered hierarchically similar to the customary LCN. Relatively, Balkan organized crime groupings within this nation converted their clan-like organization to the U.S. They are not plainly organized or distinct and are in its place grouped around a vital head or heads. Organized crime statistics uphold ties back to the Balkan area and have set up close-knit societies within several towns across the country. (Pace, D, F.  Styles, J, C., 1975)

Albanian organized felony actions within the United States comprise, cash laundering, drugs trafficking, gambling, human being smuggling, extortion, brutal eyewitness coercion, burglary, attempted assassination, as well as massacres. Lately, Balkan organized crime groupings have developed into more refined felonies comprising real estate deception.

Consequently, organized crime activities have had a lot of impact on the society worldwide organized crime is a menace to nationwide safety in the Post-Cold war age, is a risk to worldwide economy in addition to the political impact it has had on political organizations, particularly the delicate novel organizations of administration found within the former authoritarian or socialist regimes. In an effort to regulate organized crime, the Organized Crime and Federal Legislation put forward and enacted federal rules against organized offenses, comprising the Rico Statute, a fragmentary certification in sequential order which was compiled by Klaus von Lampe, in addition to the Prevention of Organized Crime Act, 2004 (Act No. 29 of 2004). (United States. Presidents Commission on Law Enforcement and administration of Justice, 1969)

A social institution is just any group that has members who are related or bound by social relations. In every social institution, the main aim is to socialize the members in the group. The social institutions are managed well by many laws and rules that direct the affairs and how people interact. Sociology provides theories that explain how this is done. Some of the major Sociological theories that are going to be tackled in this work are Functionalism, Conflict and Interactionism. This work therefore will involve discussion of issues that will be drawn from the theories, tackling the family as a social institution.

Thompson (1979) Functionalism is a school of thought in sociology that claims that either every thing or everyone in a social institution serves a purpose or plays an important role in the social institution. According to this theory, each one of all the societal aspects acts interdependently as it contributes to the functioning of the society as a whole. Basing on this theory, in a family every member of the family has a purpose regardless of how the rest of the family members view them or the position they have in the family. Basing on this theory, there has to be a consensus in the family where all have to agree on the way things have to be carried. Functionalism theory poses different question when trying to understand the theory. One will be compelled to ask themselves how will this work, in a family if both good and bad acts both serve good purposes in the society.

According to Bohm (2001) even the negative aspects in a family of any social institution serve a purpose. For example, the act of deviance can be used as a way of reaffirmation or clarification of norms in the family and the society at large. Other good aspects that can be drawn from this vice are through such an act as deviance, status quo can be challenged and also family unity can be enhanced. This is because, when such acts occur, it means that in the family there is something that is not right with every one. Going to the root cause of the problem means dealing with things that will call for a positive change that will impact the whole family in a positive way.

Functionalism theory as it is applicable in a family can affect the way people view various aspects in the family or the society as a whole. Within the family, Functionalism brings together people into a consensus based on the way they perceive other societal issues that surround their family. This is because the family as a unit has a common way of thinking and perception based on their common family norms and values. The society also due to the degree of change caused by Functionalism in the family, might perceive the family in away that is determined by believes that adherence to Functionalism theory has fostered on them. For example the society might view family aspects like divorce as being caused by break down of family due to failure in performing common things that bring unity in the family (Mooney et al, 2008)

Conflict theory on the contrary poses as a school of thought that is based on issues of inequality in a social institution. Gumplowicz (1980) defines this theory as the theory of violence that has much association with Marxism that Karl Marx wrote based on his class struggles. This theory mostly touches and focuses on the most conflicted and the negative aspects of a social institution. There are several kinds of conflicts that can occur in a social institution for example, social conflict, economic conflict which are all diverse in themselves. This theory according to Mooney et al, (2008) views any social institution as an institution that is made of different kinds of people with different interest, wants and needs that they compete for. Based on this theory, in every social institution, there have to be people who have more power than others and there fore they assume controlling roles in the society.

This theory is applicable in a family as a social institution, in that, different roles those different members of the family assume determine their influence in the family. The way and manner in which family members view each other is determined by the amount of influence each member has in the family. Also, the different roles played by each family member can be a determining factor of how the whole family as a system works. For example based on the duties that are defined by the conflict theory, mothers in the family are responsible for the day to day running of the family, fathers due to their nature of being the bread winners and a source of security due to their commanding nature, act as the heads of the family (Mooney et al, 2008)

This theory has also a big impact on the social change within the family as an institution. Basing on the roles which are shaped by power of control, that each member has, one member of the family, lets say, the head of the family can determine and set a social standard of behavior that all in the family can adhere to.

This theory also influences how the members of the family as a social institution view the society. Norms and believes of the family are shaped by the influence and the authority that the heads of the family have on the members. These family norms and behaviors influence how the family associates or competes for resources with the rest of the members of the society. There character and actions determine the way the family is perceived in the society.

Interactionism theory according to Mooney et al, (2008) is a theory that deals with the details or the symbols that are in the lives of the people. This theory studies individual and the way they carry out their affairs within a social set up. As this theory is based on the interactions of the people, it draws its details from reactions, like mannerism, body language and how people react toward each other when they are together face to face. This kind of interaction determines the effectiveness of communication between the two involved parties.

A family as a social institution draws much of its success on this theory. Communication effective communication is very vital for the well being of any group. In a family, actions and words of a member of the family acts as symbols that determine the way the family members treat each other. This is because what some one sees, according to their perception determines their actions. Body languages, manners and words all act as symbols that determine the reactions and responses towards each other, thus, this also guides people on how to treat each other and how to react in different circumstances.

Interactionism theory will affect the views of the family members in that. Since there are aware that their symbols which are Body languages, manners and words determine the way other people perceive or take them, they will be cautious of how they interact with each other. This shapes the overall behavior of the different people in the family. This theory can affect social change in that, the behaviors or the patterns of change of behaviors will be determined by the reactions and the way how people react towards each other.

Basing on a family as a social institution, this theory affects the societys views in general. A society or community is comprised of different family units. These units collectively form the societal social behavior. Interactionism theory attributes from the different families therefore mould the general societal views.

Even though all the three discussed theories of sociologist can be used to explain ways and aspects of how people interact with each other in a social institution, they are different in the way they tackle the different issues in a social institution. This is because they perceive societal issues differently basing on different social institution issues that affect the members of the social institutions

There are several illnesses that are related to smoking and several measures have been taken over time by various organizations and governments all over the world in order to reduce the number of smokers and hence cut down on the cases of sicknesses arising from smoking tobacco. There has always been a heated debate as to who should actually be blamed or held responsible for the diseases that are caused by smoking. Some people argue that it is the tobacco companies that should be held responsible since they are the ones that are involved in the manufacturing and advertising of the tobacco products. However, others feel that the individuals who smoke are the ones to blame for the illnesses they suffer from as a result of smoking tobacco. The governments also do not escape the blame since they have the machinery and the powers to control and regulate the tobacco industry in their respective nations. But looking at the issue at hand critically, it is clear that the individuals are the ones who should be held responsible for the diseases they suffer from as a result of smoking tobacco and the tobacco companies should never be held accountable for such illnesses (Banerjee, 2007).

Tobacco companies should not be blamed for the deaths and illnesses resulting from smoking of tobacco.

Argument against the tobacco companies being held responsible
The tobacco companies are never involved in acts that force individuals to smoke their products. It is the people themselves out of free will who choose to either smoke or not. Holding these companies responsible  for the diseases caused by their products would therefore amount to missing the point as it is evident that the people to blame are the smokers themselves who with full knowledge of the consequences involved usually go ahead with the habit of smoking. If the tobacco companies were engaged in some form of coercion or undue influence, where the free choice of individuals is interfered with, it would be right to blame these companies for the diseases that are caused as a result of smoking tobacco. In fact, the general public is usually informed and educated about all the dangers of smoking tobacco. They therefore do not expose themselves due to lack of the necessary information but they are driven by other factors which can definitely not be blamed on the tobacco companies (World Health Organization, 2007).

The will to quit smoking is entirely in the hands of the smokers themselves and the tobacco companies are not involved at all in influencing people to either start or quit the habit. The tobacco smokers who are addicted to it have other alternatives at their disposal which can greatly assist them in quitting the habit but they choose not to use them and instead go on with this habit which makes them highly vulnerable to various illnesses that are related to smoking tobacco. Smokers can use resources such as replacement therapies of nicotine which are very effective in assisting smoking people to quit this dangerous habit which eventually results to a lot of suffering. However, the citizens use their freedom by making decisions that are highly informed to go on with smoking. It is therefore irrational to hold the tobacco companies responsible for the illnesses that are caused as a result of smoking the stuff while the bulk of this blame is entirely carried by the smokers themselves (Diehl, 1969).

On each and every packet of tobacco, virtually all the tobacco companies across the world indicate that smoking is a harmful habit which eventually puts the life of the smoker at risk. Smoking does not in any way jeopardize the perpetual life of the tobacco companies, but the health and life of the individuals who smoke. Furthermore, the individuals whose health and life are put at risk as a result of smoking are further informed of that fact. This therefore implies that it would not be in order to blame the tobacco companies for the diseases that result from the dangerous habit. They could probably have been held responsible if they do not usually make any effort in increasing the knowledge of the public concerning the dangers involved in smoking tobacco. But they have put a lot of effort towards this end whereby they even hold workshops in conjunction with other stakeholders such as non governmental organizations and ministries of health in order to ensure that the public are fully aware about the dangers that are involved in smoking tobacco (Banerjee, 2007).  

In the tobacco trade in any country, the government usually acts as a middleman who is very hypocritical between the consumers of tobacco and the tobacco companies. This enables them to derive huge profits from this industry which results to the dangerous habit of smoking. Being implicated financially, the governments are therefore to blame for the illnesses and deaths that arise due to smoking. Furthermore, the governments have the powers to control and regulate the tobacco industry in order to ensure that the number of smokers in their respective nations reduces as much as possible and therefore make huge strides towards fighting the tobacco menace. The governments have instead failed in using their powers effectively thus exposing their citizens to the dangers of smoking tobacco. This makes it wrong for anyone to blame the tobacco companies for the illnesses arising from the habit of smoking. It does not make any sense for the governments to expect the tobacco companies to regulate themselves and thus make any meaningful achievements in the fight against tobacco related illnesses (Diehl, 1969).

The tobacco companies usually warn the cigarettes distributors and retailers to ensure that only adults should be allowed to buy cigarettes, the minors should not be allowed to buy these products under any circumstances. But despite the good intentions of the tobacco industries of ensuring that people are not introduced to the habit when they are still young and have no capacity to be well informed of the smoking dangers that lie ahead, minors still access these products and consume them. The tobacco companies cannot be held responsible for people who are initiated into the habit while they are still young because the tobacco companies can only issue warnings, at the same time having no powers to ensure that minors are not introduced to the habit at a tender age. This is the role of the parents to such minors who should take good care of their children and ensure that they are not engaged at all in addictive and dangerous habit that is likely to greatly risk their lives. The governments also have a role to play in preventing the minors from being introduced into this habit. This is because it is the government and not the tobacco companies who have the necessary powers and structures to ensure that these products are only sold to the adults and that they are never available to the minors. Since it is clear that the tobacco companies do not have the right powers and structures to enable them ensure that these products are only sold to the right people, it would thus be wrong to put the blame on the tobacco companies (Banerjee, 2007).

The tobacco companies just like several other organizations are in business to maximize profits. They cannot achieve this objective by ensuring that they sell as few tobacco products as possible, but have to promote their products so that they can enjoy increased revenues. Moreover, the tobacco industries are involved in a business that is legal and the governments have their own reasons for ensuring that this business has remained legal. They therefore promote products that are legally accepted by the government and through extension by the society. The acceptability of tobacco products cannot be blamed by the governments and the societies on the tobacco companies but on the societies themselves. The tobacco companies should thus not be blamed for the illnesses resulting from smoking tobacco since they are engaged in a business that is accepted by both the government and the society. In this case, it is the norms of the societies that should be held responsible for the menace arising from smoking tobacco (Diehl, 1969).

Arguments for holding tobacco companies responsible
The tobacco industries should be held responsible for the illnesses resulting from smoking tobacco since these companies usually engage themselves in evil techniques for marketing and promoting their products in the market. They do this despite the fact that they are fully aware of the lethal and addictive properties of tobacco. They use techniques that are aimed at increasing a smokers rate of becoming addicted to their products and thus remain their loyal customer for an extended period of time. This practice is very unethical on the part of the companies since they make such decisions in order to increase their market share without considering the effects of such decisions and actions to the consumers of these products (Rabin  Sugarman, 2001).

Even though the supporters of the tobacco industry should not be held responsible for illnesses that are caused by smoking tobacco, argue that it is the individual smokers who choose to either smoke or not, the tobacco industries indirectly influence the decisions that are usually made by the smokers. In their advertisements, they usually portray these products as ones that are very essential in enhancing ones strength and power and thus become more superior to those people who do not smoke. These are attributes that are very attractive to the teenagers who are likely to use any means to get a puff of tobacco in order to achieve the great benefits that are allegedly contained in the tobacco products. The tobacco companies are aware that such people are less interested in the risks of smoking and will pay no attention at all to the warnings that are usually written on the packets of cigarettes. Due to the highly addictive nature of tobacco, the tobacco companies are aware that once the teenagers are introduced into the habit by the misleading adverts, they will remain loyal consumers of their products for a long period of time. The tobacco companies are therefore to blame for the illnesses which result from smoking tobacco (Rabinoff, 2007).

The tobacco industries usually pack the tobacco products in relatively small packets making them to be highly affordable to virtually anyone irrespective of ones income. By doing this, they ensure that cost does not act as a measure for making people shy from smoking these products. To make matters worse, the most tobacco industry manufacturers usually introduce certain chemicals in their products which usually have the effect of making these products more addictive and thus when one is hooked by this dangerous habit, chances of quitting are very slim and one has to continue smoking more and more tobacco products due to the resulting addictiveness. These facts make the tobacco companies to be held responsible for the illnesses that arise from the habit of smoking tobacco (Rabin  Sugarman, 2001).

Conclusion
From the above discussion, it is quite clear that the tobacco companies should not be held responsible for the illnesses which result from smoking tobacco. In fact, most of this responsibility is carried by the individual smokers who usually make very informed decisions to engage themselves in a habit that puts their health and thus their life at risk. The irresponsibility of the individual smokers should not be transferred unjustly to the tobacco industries. Furthermore, the governments have all the powers and structures needed to reduce the habit of smoking in their respective countries. They have however failed to put in place effective measures that can be very effective in reducing this harmful habit. Basically, the responsibility of the illnesses that arise as a result of smoking should not be blamed on the tobacco companies but on the smokers themselves, the governments and the norms of the societies which make tobacco one of the accepted products.

Nation-state
The modern nation-state is a historical phenomenon. Its notion as a framework of modern polity has its roots in the late Enlightenment and early Romanticism. The existence and advent of the nation-state therefore is ascribed to the interaction of political, ideological and economic forces in which national issues played a prominent role (Teichova and Matis, 2003). Modern nation-states possess various characteristics which include a rising sense of nationalism, ability to rule themselves hence independent with an organized government that has a developed state bureaucy which handles the running government, a population with different ethnicities though sharing the same nationality and a vibrant economy. A nation-state moreover is associated with a particular group of people from whom it derives its claim to legitimate existences. It has national symbols, a flag, a national anthem and range of national emblems (Teichova and Matis, 2003).

A nation is defined as an extensive aggregate of tightly-knit culturally homogenous group of people within a country who share a common culture and occupy a definite territory though they lack sovereignty and authority. The Kurdish nation constitutes the largest ethnic group in the world without a state. The Kurds share a common cultural heritage which is rooted in the worlds oldest culture despite the fact that they are distributed in the mountainous regions of four Middle Eastern countries of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. Majority of Kurds are Muslims belonging either to Sunni or Shia Islam and share the Kurdish language which belongs to the Indo-European Family. However, due to lack of statehood, they lack authority or sovereignty as they are under the respective governments in the countries that they live in. Despite repeated efforts at suppressing the Kurdish nation, major institutions have emerged aimed at representing their interests. These include the Kurdish parliament in exile and the Kurdish National Congress (Bruinessen, 2000).

A state is defined as a self governing political unit with a distinct territory, sovereignty and authority though this authority is manifested through the ability to use force hence lacks a cohesive identity among its people. The Republic of Iraq is a self governing political unit with a parliamentary democracy which consists of an executive, judicial and legislative branch. Its sovereignty is evidenced in its constitution that was amended in 2005. Though it possesses authority, this authority is manifested through the use of force as witnessed when Iraq invaded Kuwait and the subsequent coercion of Shia Muslims in the South and Kurds in the North who were against Husseins government in the 1990s. Iraq as a nation lacks a cohesive identity due to constant outbreak of violence between the Shiites and the Sunni. However, Iraq belongs to various international organizations e.g. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and United Nations hence it is internationally recognized by other nations and adheres to international treaties. (Affairs of Near Eastern, Bureau, 2010).

Japan is recognized as a nation-state. It has well defined borders and territory occupying a group of islands of Hokkaido, Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu. At the same time it is situated between the Sea of Japan and the North Pacific Ocean, East of Korea, China and Russia. Additionally, Japan has principally the same type of people, the Japanese, who are organized by their cultural background and race (Bouissou, 2002). 99 of Japanese people speak the Japanese language which is an agglutinative language. Buddhism is practiced though it has currently been infiltrated by Confucianism, Taoism and Christianity. Its unique culture distinguishes it from other countries with the traditional Japanese clothing known as kimono and its traditional sports established during the Edo period which include Jujutsu, Sumo and Sojutsu forming the most dominant feature. Japan has a national anthem and flag known as Kimigayo and Hinomaru respectively. Japans government is made up of two chamber legislature or parliament i.e. the Diet which comprises the upper house, the House of Representatives, the house of councilors and the lower chamber (Bouissou, 2002).

The United States fits the criteria of a nation-state since it is no longer a colony after the success of the American Revolution. It is a nation-state in that it rules itself through an organized government that consists of the judiciary, executive and legislature. Moreover, it is organized into three distinct levels of federal, local and state government. The United States has a large territory which consists of the fifty states together with other areas like Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. It population of over 300 million is made up of people from different ethnic backgrounds and orientation although they do share a common nationality.

Other than the fifty states, the United States has other territories which include Virgin Islands in the Caribbean Sea, Puerto Rico and American Samoa and Guam in the Pacific Ocean which are administered by an elected or appointed governor or elected legislature. It fosters these territories through the constitution which gives Congress and the President control and power to make rules and regulations that respect the territories. Additionally, the United States upon occupation, cession, growth or accretion of a new territory, ensures that territorial laws do not violate the citizens fundamental rights of freedom of speech and equal protection (Robert, 2002).

Sovereignty is the supreme, uncontrollable and absolute authority possessed by any independent state to do any thing without accountability over an exclusive population and territory. This power is vested in government through a legal conveyance from the people (Shanks, 2001). In the United States, this legal conveyance is implemented in the constitution through the legislative, judicial and executive branches which enables it to make laws, execute laws both at home and abroad and apply the law to particular facts when administering justice. United States nonetheless fosters its sovereignty by controlling access to citizenship through extending regulatory control over naturalization and immigration (Shanks, 2001).

A common culture does not necessarily mean that people are the same because differences exist in all communities starting with the family (Jay, 2010). However, in the United States, the idea of a common culture is fostered by various elements which include individualism where people are judged by individual achievements rather than belonging to a particular group, capitalism in which wealth and property is accumulated by individuals enabling them to earn respect and power, a consumerism culture that runs on advertising where a belief in fashion is the key, monolingualism whereby Americanized English is used as the main language in every sector of the economy, religiosity since Americans are more religious than Western Europeans with Christianity being the dominant religion and secularism where there is separation between the church and the state hence individual rights are not predicated upon ones religious affiliation (Jay)

 The officially stated objective of the United States as stipulated in the Foreign Policy Agenda of the U.S Department of State is to create a more democratic, secure and prosperous world for the benefit of the people of America and the international community. After the September 911 terror attach, America has been involved in the fight against terrorism through its various agencies. Its foreign policy also aims at securing borders and creating an atmosphere of democracy hence was involved in an attempt to stop the spread of communism in Grenada.

Countries are eligible to join the EU on condition that they are democratic, run a market economy and can handle the rights and obligations of membership. Currently, EU has more than 27 members which are Italy, Britain, Hungary, Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Malta, Luxembourg, Slovenia, Germany, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, France, Denmark, Bulgaria, Croatia, Austria, Belgium, Turkey, Cyprus, Lithuania and Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Other potential candidates include Albania, Herzegovina, Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro.

The modern-day European Union came into existence after World War II in response to the social, political and economic devastations that resulted from the nationalistic division within Europe. The following events led to the creation of the European Union. In 1950, Robert Schuman the French Prime Minister, made a proposal urging for the integration of the coal and steel industries in Luxembourg, France, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium and Germany in rebuilding Western Europe after the war. This led to the Treaty of Paris being signed by the six countries creating the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSE) (Rasmussen et al, 2008). In 1957, the same six countries signed the Treaty of Rome creating the European Economic Community (EEC) to oversee the integration of the nations of Western Europe. Trade barriers were removed between them as they moved towards the creation of a common market.

In 1967, EEC merged together with the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) to form the European Community (EC). Between 1973 and 1986, the enormous success of the liberalized trade and internal market policies resulted in the entry of Ireland, Greece, Denmark, Spain, Portugal and the United Kingdom (Rasmussen et al, 2008). In 1986, the EU governments signed the Single European Act that enabled the creation of a single market in which services, people, goods and capital could move easily. In 1992, the European Union (EU) was finally created through the signing of the Treaty of Maastricht. This process was accelerated by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent unification of Germany in 1990. New forms of cooperation were introduced on issues dealing with home affairs, defense and justice (Rasmussen et al, 2008).

The European Union contemporary function is to integrate its members economies into a single, united free-trade market that has a common currency, a central bank and removes restrictions on movement by encouraging the mobility of labor, capital, goods and services among its member countries (Rasmussen et al, 2008).

The European Union has created its own foreign and security policy which enables it to speak up with regard to world affairs. The common security and foreign policy aims at strengthening the EUs ability to act through the development of civilian and military capabilities in conflict prevention and crisis management (Rasmussen et al, 2008). In 1998, the EU successfully brokered a truce to end the fight between Georgia and Russia. EU observers monitored the situation while at the same time provided humanitarian aid to people displaced by the fighting. Additionally, in December 2008, EU provided protection for ships from pirates along the Somali coast through a Marine Operation.
Nations engage in foreign policy through policy making where various strategies are used which include signing treaties, use of diplomatic principles and forming allies with other nations and consulting them on various issues which have great impact. Often these treaties are based on the beneficial outcomes of the foreign policies (Kwiatkowski, 2008). As much as foreign policies have positive intentions, they however produce unintended consequences. This is especially so with American foreign policy on Iran and Afghanistan that has resulted in the deaths of civilians, soldiers, internal and external displacement of citizens and widespread insecurity. This has led to a rise in resentment and suspicion against America that is perceived to have pushed for nationalistic interests that disregarded its effects on other nations. (Kwiatkowski, 2008).