Sociology

The issue of whether to control gun ownership or not has resulted to heated debate in the level of state, national and global. The paper is an argument in favor of gun control in respect to the three levels and the laws that enabled the control of guns to be effective. The state is responsible for control of gun ownership through implementation of gun ownership laws.

State
Individuals in a state are not suppose to own guns except the authorized security bodies such as police, military and any other licensed official. Any other individual in a state in possession of gun does so illegally and is bound to face the law. The Second Amendment by Supreme Court in United state is a clear sign that State is concerned with control of gun ownership as a way of reducing the rate of claim. Control of gun ownership is an advantage to the state because the rate of crime is reduced with a certain percentage (Jerremy, 2008).

A study carried out by Justice and treasury departments shows that individuals below twenty years old have caused about 24 percent of reported death cases. This is an assault to human right to life that should be protected by the state. The objective of gun control is to prevent unauthorized individuals from owning guns that result to murder. Control of gun ownership is the role of state which should be done through enactment of strict rules (Debatepedia, n.d). The state through enactment of gun possession laws is doing great in respect to reduction of crime rate. Many cases of death rate associated to gun shooting have declined since the control of gun ownership in different states.

National
The laws about possession of gun vary from nation to nation and the major argument is on private possession of guns. It is believed that guns are used for killing and about 35,000 deaths reported in national level are caused by guns. The control of guns in national level helps to reduce death rates and other crimes against humanity. Guns are the real causes of violence, accidents and genocide. Violence includes fighting of individuals against each other on ethnic lines whereby people shoot against each other. In developing nations this, has been a common practice especially after any dispute in election (Jacobs, 21). Laws that control individuals who are supposed to possess firearms lead to reduction in the rate of violence within nations. National safety council data show that death caused through shooting has reduced for the past years since the incorporationof tight rules about possession of guns.

Accidental death that results from illegal possession of guns can be reduced though regulation of the people who are supposed to own guns. Nations have the role of ensuring that every gun in a particular nation is registered and the person in possession is legalized. Suicide level is reduced within a nation when the control of guns is emphasized and this is achieved through security laws.  The control of guns in the national level advocates for reduction of crimes such as drug trafficking, murder, mayhem and violence. Law offenders usually want to protect themselves from attack by law enforcers and this is the reason that has led to illegal possession of guns (Utter, 15). When these crimes are reduced, control of gun is efficiently achieved. National laws such as confiscation of illegal guns have helped several nations control illegal fire arm business. The confiscated arms are usually burned so as to avoid them from getting back to the wrong hands.

Global
The entire world has a role of ensuring that the business of firearms is on the right legalized personnel. The extent to which illegal firearms have had impact on the lives of many individuals is the major reason behind the control of guns. Every individual in the world is responsible for protecting the life of other individuals. The legal system has been instrumental in this particular field of gun protection (James, 2007). To control guns means safeguarding of individuals right to life. The press as a global body has helped extensively in the fight against illegal gun possession. The media reports instances of crime as is caused by guns and this has aided people all over the world to overcome such challenges.

The business of firearms is at the advanced stages where individuals can get guns from the market without strain. This has led to movement of illegal guns from far Middle East to other parts of the world. Government policies such as use of gun detectors have been installed along the borders so as to detect any gun smuggled from one country to another. The detection process has led to reduction of the number of firearms that contributes to increased levels of crime within the streets. Global Gun Control Act has aided many countries to undergo an easy process of tracking illegal firearms through determination of the real purchaser of the gun, model and serial number (Jim, 2008). The law prohibits illegal ownership of guns and this has led to reduction of domestic violence and other related crimes.

Failure of gun control
Gun control has led to reduction in the rate of crimes and violence through enactment of weapon laws and regulations. The enforcement of such laws is   faced with certain challenges due to complexity of the legal system in different nations, states and the entire world. The level of crime in a given country is not measured by the number of guns in the wrong hands. Laws governing control of guns may not be effective in certain aspects and this has led to increased levels of crimes. Some laws such as preventing citizens below the age of 20 years did not help to reduce criminal activity because other individuals in possession of guns caused accidental death and murder (Russell, 2009). Other particular laws that restrict gun ownership are a disadvantage on citizens against armed criminals.

Self defense is a very important element in the life of individual and laws that restricts possession of guns makes individuals defenseless thus it is a way of exposing lawful citizens to risk of crime. Laws governing the control of guns do not work in the modern worlds because of corruption and easy smuggling of firearms from one country to another. The control laws are economically costly and this means that many nations are not in a position to afford such costs. The cost of incurred as result of gun deaths amounts to 6 billion per year in Canada an estimate in other global nations. This has been the major problem in the past and has seen many individuals possess guns illegally (PBS NewsHour, 2009). Failure of control rules in the past has led to illegal possession of firearms thus high rates of violence, murder drug trafficking and other crimes.

Globalization is one topic that has generated heated debates from different parties. Some advocate for greater economic integration across borders while others are against the same for they feel that economic integration will interfere with the running of corporations. Recently, the global economic crunch caught almost the whole world unaware but this is slowly easing up and a number of countries are anticipating to record economic growth in the near future.

The issue that is currently at hand is that, economic growth may be achievable in the short run but, is it sustainable The paper will basically look into how countries can achieve sustainable economic through the reduction of state regulations and how governments should protects their corporations and other stakeholders in the business. In addition, the paper will focus on how countries can achieve sustainable economic growth by promoting cultural and social integration (Jameson, Miyoshi, 1998). In simple terms, the paper will look into how governments can make the business climate favorable and make use of it, as a means to achieving global economic stability.

The first step towards achieving global economic stability is by ensuring that countries unite and get rid of the neo-liberal economies. The world today is continuously changing due too rapid global communication and the advancement in technology thus there is need to alter the way that people relate with each other if at all economic growth is to be sustained. This can be properly understood by using the comparative advantage theory which states that countries should be allowed to produce the good and services that they can rely benefit from. The theory further states that the global economies should be allowed to invest in the sectors that they can mutually benefit from (Nash, 2001). In light of this, it is now worth discussing how government can reduce trade regulations within the borders by making use of the comparative advantage theory. Most of the economies across the globe do regulate and control the activities of the financial institutions within their jurisdiction. This does limit international capital flows. In this globalization era, it is important that such jurisdictions conduct a cost benefit analysis which will definitely turn to be beneficial to operate in a deregulated environment.

Though it may result in a financial crisis, operating in a less regulated market allows for the high risk taking which further translates into high returns. Operating in a less regulated market gives room for better allocation of capital. A research conducted to evaluate this showed that in the developing economies financial liberalization is not all that beneficial since it leads to financial fragility and often results to a crisis (Ted, 2002). However, the research prompted for a more intensive study in more than 52 economies which showed that financial liberalization leads to GDP growth and boom bust cycles which lay the foundation for economic sustainability.

Most of the countries which are involved in the international trade have regulations about how they conduct business with their partners. A large percentage has laid the restrictions in a way that they can benefit more than their trading partners. For instance, the countries may impose tariffs and quotas on imports thus regulating the amount of goods from a particular country. If economic sustainability is anything to be achieved in the short run, then structural reforms will have to be instituted for us to fit in the dynamic environment. For instance, proper monetary policies between the trading partners should be put in place. Also, trading partners should not focus much on the balance of payments as long as there is mutual benefit between global economies.

Certain jurisdictions have some many bureaucratic procedures especially when one may wish to work as an expatriate in another country or one may chose to invest in another country. This has been a major drawback to economic sustainability. To solve this problem which has for long held the global economies down, such restrictions and procedures should be scrapped and this will go a long way in encouraging the potential investors who will further contribute to the financial sustainability of the global economies (Hedley, 2002). The global economies should also seek to ensure that they preserve the integrity of the banking system and the forex bureau. Taxes imposed on such institutions should be customized to fit into the budgets of the investors who would wish to do their business across the borders.

Recent surveys have shown that the cost of doing business in a numbers of jurisdictions is too high due to the number of legal formalities that one has to undergo through. However, this trend is slowly fading away since countries have realized that there is need to promote a favorable business climate. To achieve a favorable business climate which can attract both foreign and domestic investors, governments should consider giving tax concessions and holidays and lowering the corporate tax rate.
Similarly, companies have a role to play in ensuring global economic sustainability. In that, they can also consider minimizing their tax obligation by transferring their profits to low tax countries. By so doing, the global economies will be left with no option other than to ensure that they favor the potential investors. This paper should serve as a wake up call for the jurisdictions which still have the bureaucratic procedures in their operations. In the underdeveloped and the developing countries, there is this notion that promoting globalization does interfere with the national sovereignty of a country. However, this is not the case since surrendering some of the sovereignty and submitting to what globalization has to offer does promote both economic growth and sustainability (Wenar, 2003). This was evident in 1997 when most of the countries gave up the political sovereignty and they were able to gain from what the IMF and international donors had to offer.

In the same line, balancing sovereignty with globalization will ensure that there is economic growth since there is guaranteed flow of information across the borders without having to go through a number of complex procedures. Also, the balance between sovereignty and globalization will strengthen the capital base of the financial institutions and this will be a basis of availing capital to the potential investors who may be having the will but lacking the ability to engage in a particular business. Freeing up of the money across the borders would also go a long way in ensuring that the theoretical promise of the benefits from globalization becomes a reality. In support of this, report from the IMF indicate that the capital inflows to the developing countries with little regard for their sovereignty have so far tripled and this has laid the foundation for the economic growth and sustainability that is noticeable in a number of developing countries (Keighrm, Lwery, 1998). Giving up the national autonomy will also ensure that there is market liberalization. In this context, governments will have promoted competitiveness in the market. In that, governments will have stopped protecting the business community who normally enjoy subsidies and tariffs but they do not transfer the same to consumer.
However, researchers from the IMF have also shown that liberalization of the capital accounts is not all about the economic stability and growth. They cited that liberalization does increase countries vulnerability to crisis which may not themselves be part of. In simple terms, the researchers state that market liberalization brings with it a risk of contagion.

Governments should also reduce the restrictions that are normally present especially after tertiary education. It is often difficult to secure employment in a country different from your birth country. This is normally due to the fact that there is no international recognition of some of the courses which are offered in some jurisdictions. This essay should serve to inform the employers that they could be locking out considerable amount of labor force which may prove to be of much value to their organizations and countries at large. Also, there is the problem with the bureaucratic procedures involved when one wants to traverse from one country entry point to another (Tabb, 2004). The border points have so many procedures which often discourage potential investors. Thus, I find it necessary that countries should have a keen but flexible control over the flow of capital across the borders.

That not withstanding, dual citizenship is also an issue that needs to be addressed if economic sustainability is to be achieved in the long run. This is mostly a problem with the developing countries that have the restriction. They ensure that if one has shown the intention to reside in a different country other than the country of origin, then one is required to denounce the citizenship of his or her country since dual citizenship is not recognized.

The full benefits of globalization can also be achieved by ensuring that there are flexible environmental regulations. In line with this, companies are finding it hard to conduct business in global economies because they find it costly to adhere to the strict regulations from the environmental groups. For instance, there is the regulation that the polluter is supposed to meet the cost of environmental cleansing (Dowlah, 2000). By re-adjusting such regulations, potential investors will not find it to be expensive to conduct their business in their preferred region. However, despite the fact that countries are achieving economic sustainability through the promotion of industrialization, the costs associated with it should not outweigh the benefits that the entire country will reap from the same.

Some countries have this idea that has so far been overtaken by events that embracing information technology is not beneficial to the economy. This is mostly in the developing and the underdeveloped countries who feel that IT might contribute to brain drain and the proliferation of the wrong information. However, this is not the case since ICT is a general purpose technology which is so far indispensable in whatever industry that one may be in. The ICT sector has become an important global market since it is solely in charge of the distribution of hardware and software (Jan, 2004). The industry is also in charge of provision of internet services which is so far driving most of the economies and promoting to the sustainability of the same.

Through de-regularization of the ICT, any global economy is guaranteed of increased labor productivity. In that, automation and networking of global services will ensure that there is increased labor productivity since production will be at a faster and a more accurate rate. However, the benefits that arise from the automation of the entire global production service have not been realized in some dev eloping and underdeveloped countries. This is due to the fact that the countries have to rely on imports and even after importing the goods, they often lack sufficient human capital which will match the ICT revolution.

Economic sustainability can also be achieved by restoring and upgrading the market confidence of investors. Governments should seek to ensure that there is transparency and integrity in the business environment which should be subject to some flexible regulations. Dissemination of information regarding the global market policies should be made more flexible in a manner that even the foreign investors can easily understand the kind of environment that they are operating in. Of importance in the developing and the underdeveloped countries is how one can establish rules and policies that can assist industries and companies (Guillen, 2001). This is mainly achieved by ensuring that there is state protection especially to the infant industries.

Economic growth and sustainability in a country can be achieved by ensuring that the corporations or the infant industries within the jurisdiction in question are protected from unfair competition. This has even attracted attention from the UN circles who also share the same opinion. They cite that, though it could be a misguided old model blanket protection, legitimizing protection for the developing industries would be a way of ensuring that the developing countries are in a capacity to nurture the development of the industrial sector. Protection of the small companies is warranted since they lack the capacity to go head to head with companies which have been in the industry for long and have mastered the art of trade. It is worth understanding that, the infant industries that are common in developing countries offer dynamic learning effects which are normal external or beyond the company or industry. On the other hand, the foreign industry is normally mature and has enjoyed the economies of scale in the past (Brysk, 2002). The foreign industries do provide substitutes to what can be produced within the borders. Due to this, there is need to come up with policies that will protect such industries from such competition. This can only be achieved by ensuring that the subsidies, tariffs and quotas are in place.
 However, it is not always guaranteed that economic growth and sustainability can be achieved by ensuring that the infant industries are protected. This is normally the case because the so called infant industries do not seem to grow or learn from the operations of their foreign counterparts. In that, the industries may chose to remain at their infancy stage even after they have developed the capacity to compete with the foreign industries. In light of this, it is always necessary that planners of such policies evaluate the compatibility of both the domestic and foreign investors.

Some economies are known to use quantity restriction as a way of giving protection to the infant industries. However, researchers have shown that this is one method that does not in any way contribute to the economic sustainability. Instead of this, the market analysts do recommend the use of tariffs and quotas to protect the infant industries. They further advise that imposing quotas on the foreign investors is more beneficial in protecting the infant industries since it nets out any loss of revenue that the government in question might have incurred while administering the quota system (Smith, 2005). The question that now arises is on how to determine that an industry or a corporation is at its infancy stage and should enjoy state protection. This can be measured against the amount of assets that a corporation may be having in its custody, its profitability over the years and the number of years that the corporation has been operational.

Another area that must go hand in hand with global economic growth and sustainability is the issue of culture. Through globalization, there is the possibility that in the near future most of us will have faded memories about our cultures since the cultures that we once held dear are being outdone by the emergence of a global culture. Internet, fax machines and the use of satellites are sweeping the regional and cultural barriers that existed in the past. The African societies are against the emergence of the global culture since they feel that it is dominated by norms and values that promote the western ideas of capitalism (Compton, 2000). Even the local dialect have been overtaken by the global culture since almost everyone is speaking in the global language (English) which may in the long run overtake  all other languages.

Lifestyle have not been spared since we have witnessed a transition in the eating habits and the dressing codes. This has been an issue with the developing countries who now have to bear with the their youth will have to spend a large percentage of their time glued to the TV screen and have to watch the soaps which are a source of information about the Western way of living. Actually, it is not out of the norm to witness some of the African societies trying to emulate the western world way of living. By saying this, I should not be understood as to having anything against the western cultures. Actually, I am for the Western culture because during this globalization era it is either you respond to the change that is happening around you, otherwise the change will definitely work against you.

Thinking within this line, governments should look into ways in which they can organize trade fares which will involve the participation of different countries. This will facilitate the learning of new ideas about how to invest and manage finances. It will also open up different cultures to one and other and this will definitely give room for future inter-country marriages. As a result of this, there will be mutual economic growth for either country and that will contribute to the economic growth and economic sustainability (Beck, Winter, 2003).

At this point, it is important to conclude that economic growth and sustainability can be achieved by reduction of the regulations that are normally present in many jurisdictions. From the essay, it has deduced that we can reduce the regulations within our jurisdictions by ensuring that we reduce the corporate taxes being charged on the companies and compromising on our state sovereignty. It has also been shown that promoting market liberalization and strengthening the capacity of our financial and capital market does help in promoting economic growth and sustainability (Tabb, 2004). Also, it is worth notable that if the restrictions by the environmental groups are reduced then this will definitely promote industrialization which will translate to both economic growth and sustainability.

Moreover we have shown that embracing the global culture will go a long way in ensuring that there is economic growth and sustainability. Elimination of the bureaucratic procedures and ensuring that the monetary policies are able to accommodate the foreign investors also assist in ensuring that economic growth is sustainable in the short run. Also, economic sustainability can be achieved by ensuring that corporations are protected from foreign unfair competition. From the essay, we have deduced that the ways to protect such corporations is by ensuring that they enjoy quotas, tariffs, subsidies and quantity restrictions. Finally, the essay has shown that by flexing the regulations which are often imposed on the ICT industry, and then this will go a long way in ensuring that economic growth is sustainable.

The scientific method of inquiry, which is mainly represented through experimentation and logical analysis (Ritchie 2001 4), is certainly not a concept that has been existent since the earliest points of history. As a matter of fact, prior to establishing such a logical processes of determining truth or defining explanation, the perception of humanity is mainly focused upon matters of faith. To further expound, prior to the Age of Enlightenment, the major points in history that came beforehand highlighted a transition of faith as from the fall of Rome and its deities and to the eventual rise of Christianity (Bishop 1996 8). As one may appropriately assume, matters of life in relation to actions, thoughts, fulfilment, reason, and philosophy would have all been based upon the teachings of the Church during such a period. Eventually, individuals realized the potential of human knowledge and began to consider alternative means of rationally comprehending the occurrences in nature (Porter 2001 2). Therefore, given such a shift from faith to human logic, the Enlightenment is indeed the main phase in history wherein the basic concepts of scientific means of inquiry have been formed.        

Inquiry Prior to the Age of Reason
As aforementioned, prior to the Enlightenment an emphasis upon faith and religious beliefs directed the thoughts of the Western world. In particular, among the greatest icons of the early Middle Ages include grand cathedrals made with strict attention to symbolic detail and majestic design as well as rules driven by the influence and support of the clergy (Perry et al. 2008 265). Taking such details into consideration, it would be appropriate to state that such a period in history would be most associated with the peak of the Churchs power. In relation to this, it would also be proper to assume that during such times the influence of the papacy to every aspect of life was greatest. As a matter of fact, even pursuits to broaden the level of understanding regarding various phenomena was also affected by the rules set by the Church particularly, albeit the fact that a scientific movement was present during such a period, as represented by Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon throughout their efforts to further comprehend and utilize nature, it is undeniable that most concepts were still imbued with theology (Perry et al. 2008 265).

In essence, albeit rather distinct from modern manifestations of science in concept and in practice, the emergence scientific pursuits during such a period may be regarded as a proof to the changes that would follow. In fact, challenges to the absolute power of the church would soon arise. Among the most notable of such would be the conflicts between Pope Boniface VIII and Philip IV of France. Specifically, Philip consistently disregarded the laws and reasons of the Church in his actions and did not consider the clergy as immune to his rule (Perry et al. 2008 278). Eventually, as the Middle Age progressed, the focus upon the universal applicability of the knowledge from the Church became overshadowed by the emerging emphasis of non-theological reasoning. William of Ockham was among the first to conceptualise a separation of theological though and natural reason implying that the natural world could not be completely understood through theology as faith cannot be appropriately assessed through natural logic and reason (Brett 1998 46). While the historical developments and shifts in the manner of inquiry may still not be within the Age of Enlightenment, discussing such beforehand is vital in explaining how the scientific method came to be.

Changing Consciousness in the Age of Enlightenment
From reasoning through faith into learning more about the natural world, individuals became aware of the possibility of gaining a better understanding of the world through a scientific manner of thought. However, it is for a fact that during the initial phases of the Age of Reason the concept and potential of science was still not completely realized furthermore, science related pursuits were merely regarded by many as superficial and would not suffice as a means of supporting ones self financially (Outram 2005 94). Therefore, it may be appropriate to say that during such a period in history, science was still considerably underdeveloped as the society still have not grasped the benefits of scientific pursuits. It is during such a phase that the most important characteristics of science, which are vital for its present day success, are still being formed and debated. To further explain, despite the lack of institutions or groups that are dedicated to science during the beginning of the Age of Reason, discussions pertaining to the essence of science and the necessity of unbiased analysis have already been present among certain scholars and philosophers (Outram 2005 94).  

Without doubt, the modern manifestation of science is directly related to procedures wherein rational thinking is maintained, which as aforementioned was still in the formative stages during the Enlightenment. Regardless, the different pursuits to develop additional knowledge in relation to various subjects and areas have been the highlight of the Age of Reason, but without the aforementioned increase in scientific awareness during the previous century, the Enlightenment would not have progressed as it had (Fritzpatrick et al. 2004 10). Through such efforts and progress in knowledge, perceptions and opinions regarding the relevance of science improved as years passed. In this sense, it would be appropriate to assume as well that instead of a using and discussing single aspect of truth based upon theology, the philosophers or scientists who existed throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were able to further classify knowledge to allow for more detailed analysis and in such have also highlighted the role of education (Louden 2007 35). Areas of knowledge as diverse as mathematics and history all benefited from the emergence of the new scientific philosophy. In particular, a new process referred to as the mechanical philosophy allowed for previously misunderstood phenomena to be uncovered and understood through a universal means (Brown 1996 24).    

Scientific Thinkers and Philosophers
The scientific method of inquiry, as it is known today, may be regarded as a refined form of the mechanical philosophy wherein previous hierarchies of power associated with the divine are no longer taken into consideration and reasoning is instead applied (Dupre 2004 25). In relation to this, if such a means of inquiry and discovering the truth regarding natural phenomena were not applied by scientists and philosophers during the Enlightenment, then it would have been possible that the modern scientific method of inquiry would not have been appropriately developed let alone existed. Hence, while it has already been made clear from the previous points of discussion that the changing perceptions regarding logic and reason prior and throughout the Age of Reason is fundamental in the progress of science, which of course is vital in the formation of the scientific method, it still has not been thoroughly explained how the present day scientific means of inquiry came to be through the occurrences in the aforesaid period in Western history. In this sense, it would be most proper to delineate the efforts of the individuals who undoubtedly were essential in how the modern scientific method was established specifically, the pursuits and perspectives of both Isaac Newton and John Locke should be discussed.

Isaac Newton and Empiricism
Isaac Newton, who of course is widely known in modern society, is among the first scientists who highlighted the necessity of determining validity through tangible information and empirical means (Kleiner 2008 757).  In relation to this, it would not be difficult to take note of the similarity between Newtons empirical views and the modern means of experimentation. Despite the fact that the presence of numerous specializations in science in todays society indicated distinctions in terms of specific practice and methodologies, it would still be appropriate to state that central to each scientific study would be the core considerations of experimentation (Gauch 2002 2). Such core concepts and requirements are reflected through Newtons concept of how a truth and discoveries should be arrived at. Thus, in order to further explain the importance of Newton to the development of the scientific means of inquiry, it would be necessary to discuss some of the experiments that Newton accomplished throughout his life which may be regarded as the reasons for attaining worldwide recognition in science. As a matter of fact, the analysis of the reliability of the scientific method is often associated with the manner in which Newton completed experiments and formed conclusions (Scheurer and Debrock 1988 123).

During the enlightenment, one of the most concerning aspects that hindered the perceived reliability of science was the lack of rational understanding regarding the natural processes of physics and dynamics (Westfall 1994 159).  Hence, appropriate scientific concepts regarding planetary motion, and most importantly gravity, were still nonexistent prior to Newtons pursuits of computation and experimentation. In relation to this, Newton conceptualized means to elucidate the interactions between mass and gravity through empirical pursuits which brought forth the famous Newtons apple.

Specifically, the experiments of Newton involved the use of apples and other objects so as to show the interconnections between the concept of gravitational pull and free fall to further explain, notions of a universal rule regarding the movement of all objects in the universe became understandable due to such a discovery (Giordano 2009 150). Expectedly though, Newtons concepts were initially not well received by intellectuals, such as Hooke, as initial doubt regarding the concept of gravity and free fall became unavoidable (Djerassi and Pinner 2004 75). It is undeniable that Newtons discoveries became an essential tool for the progress of science, as empirical means of experimentation and explanations through computation, such as in the discussions of Newton regarding the interaction of heavenly bodies (Newton 1966 415), were examples of how scientific proof should be developed.

In relation to this, Newton also successfully accomplished a method for establishing reconciliation among the partly unified yet mainly conflicting findings during his time in particular, Newton wrote the Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy (Gower 1996 69). In general, the rules that Newton wrote of pertained to the essence of conclusions as well as the manner of understanding both tangible and intangible phenomena. Hence, even though observable proof would still be among the most reliable source of information in scientific pursuits, Newton points out that through appropriate mathematical procedures and inductive reasoning such aspects may be accurately and precisely understood and evaluated (Gower 1996 70). In this sense, such concepts of Newton further highlight the appropriateness of associating the development of the scientific method of inquiry to such an individual during the Age of Reason. As a matter of fact, despite the reliance of most scientists upon the presence of observable information during such a period, Newtons perception of mathematics and assessing the unobservable is indeed similar to modern scientific inquiries and the use of the scientific method. In a way, due to the breakthroughs that Newton was able to achieve through the use of a scientific set of rules in experimentation, it may be concluded that his success is essential in gaining acceptance for the unified scientific method of inquiry.

Scientific Wisdom and John Locke
The efforts of Newton and the success of his concepts have affected other notable figures in relation to the methods of achieving understanding. In order words, Newtons accomplishments may be considered as essential in how the scientific method became a widespread practice among philosophers and scientists alike. As noted by various figures in literature, while John Locke was not necessarily concerned with physics but instead has been more adept in the fields of medicine and politics, a strong influence derived from Newtons empirical views may undeniably be observed in Lockes accomplishments (Glausser 1998 4). To further expound, it may be assumed that prior to the Enlightenment, the use of empirical means of analysis was barely a consideration in philosophy and the study of the society. However, upon having written the Essay concerning Human Understanding, Locke was able to initiate a shift of focus in understanding the different tendencies of humans and the formation of human thought (Hume and Millican 2007 xvii). Basically, instead of considering human thinking as a predetermined aspect of humanity, Locke pointed out the possibility of gaining knowledge through ones actions. In this sense, Locke regarded each individual as free from innate ideas upon birth interestingly, Locke was also able to incorporate Newtons Rules of Reasoning in his attempts to further explain the processes of human consciousness and learning (Hume and Millican 2007 79). Hence, albeit indirectly involved with the use of the scientific method in his pursuits, Lockes success in his endeavours may be regarded as an important beginning to how scientific pursuits in politics and social sciences are accomplished nowadays.  

Conclusion
In general, the Enlightenment was indeed essential in the development of the scientific method of inquiry due to several reasons. The emphasis upon science, or natural and mechanical philosophy, as well as the increasing interest upon attaining a greater understanding of the world may is vital in increasing the relevance of science in the Western world.  Of course, throughout the process of attaining acceptance, scientists needed a process in which disputes regarding findings would be considerably minimized and also required a means of enhancing the reliability of the information derived from studies. In this sense, the scientific method of inquiry was formed and eventually, albeit also possibly further improved as time progressed, became a universal aspect in completing scientific pursuits. Therefore, it may be concluded that the increasing significance of science during the Enlightenment gave birth to the necessity of having a reliable means of experimentation, which of course is the scientific method of inquiry.

Social science is the study of human society and individual interaction of human to the society.  In academic scholarships, social science refers to various fields concerned with human society. It involves all other fields that are not covered in natural science. This study is facilitated by scientific disciplines such as anthropology, history, sociology, economics, psychology and political science. Each of the disciplines has a role to the science. Social science is broad as is incorporates any cultural or social aspect of human behavior. Research shows that religious and legal systems are also part of the social science.  Social science used to refer to the science of the society. ( Hunt and Colander, 2008, p. 5).

What are its main concerns
Social science is concerned with the society and the human behavior. It is concerned with changing human life through changes in social life. Each of its various disciplines has a way influencing these changes. Anthropology defines the human biology and humanities. In humanities it seeks understanding of particular events and individuals through existing literature history or tradition. Research shows that just like natural science, social science attempts to understand social phenomenon using different scientific methods.

Anthropology is concerned with the holistic account of human and his nature. Anthropologists are driven by holism to study details of certain individuals. To achieve this, they combine archaeological, biogenetic and linguistic data with the observations made from contemporary customs.  

In economics, social science is concerned with analyzing and describing how wealth is produced, distributed and consumed by human in the society.

Through education as its discipline, social science aims at teaching and learning skills, developing wisdom and imparting knowledge.

Using geography, social science educates on how the environment in which individuals live was developed, how it is managed and the impact of the human activities.
 Using historical materials and literature, social science reveals useful information of the past. (Trigg 2001, p. 67).

How does it make sense of the world
Anthropology developed as a science in the western and has played a major role in complex industrialization thus enabling people from different social background to live together. The study made by anthropologists enable individuals to clarify the constituents of particular cultures, giving them chances to know where a certain cultures starts and ends.

Using social science, economists analyses human behavior, and sort out economic problems by eliminating alternative uses and scarcity.

Through education human make positive judgment. Education is used world wide to pass information from one generation to the other, and in socializing.

Using the revealed historical information the world can take its place comparing where it was then and where it is today.

Political science is concerned with the practice and theory of politics, description and analysis of political behavior and political system. It is also concerned with international relations with regard to both superpowers and great powers. This means that the study of social science educates individuals on the political and historical revolution of various countries and nations across the world.
Sociology helps in understanding the human social action and the world.

How is it useful for everyday
Historians use the historical methods to research and write history, which in turn is used to educate generations of human race. From this history people learn about the past, make comparison with the present and try to make changes for better lifestyles. Without social science a lot of past information could not be known making it hard to            analyze the evolution of the society. The historical information from archives is used by academic scholar. The discipline also enables individuals to respect nature, give it the best in order to get the best from it in turn.

Psychology equips individuals with the knowledge to control and manage a wide range of human activities such as problems encountered by individuals in their daily lives. Other disciplines in social science creates descriptive generization of social groups functioning, or human behavior on specific function, unlike psychology  which is concerned with explanatory description of mental function and individuals overt behavior.

Sociologists use diverse research methods such as historical researches, case studies, social networks and interviews among others to draw critical theory or empirical techniques. The results of theses researches are used by administrators, lawmakers, educators and all other interested individual in formulating public policies and solving social problems. The formulated policies give guidelines on what is expected from each individual for peaceful living. Clearly formulated public policies limit social problem.

Social science gives individuals knowledge on how to make wealth. Wealth is part of daily living. Every individual works hard to meet basic needs and to subsequently make wealth. The science ensures that individuals have idea on how to produce, distribute and consume commodities and services. Lack of this knowledge means inability to produce, distribute and or consume commodities and services.
Social science helps individuals to view all human cultures as one evolving culture. This makes people with different cultures to comfortably live the society.

Education eliminates ignorance and enhances good relationship between individuals in a society. It gives communication skills and enlightens individuals on what is expected of them by others and the society itself. Ignorance is one of the major drawback of growth and development of a society (Williams, 1930, p. 82).

The knowledge on how the environment was developed, and on how it should be managed and our impact on it helps individual to take care of the environment. For example knowing that cutting trees encourages soil erosion, and planting more trees   brings rainfall, more trees will be planted, as a way of taking care of the environment and subsequent growth and development of the society.
According to economists, all human wants are not satisfied due to the scarcity of the resources. This encourages individuals to work hard to increase resources so as to satisfy human needs.

How does an individual relate to the society
Individuals in a society and the society its self supports each others growth and
development. The society keeps evolving to enhance growth of individuals potential. It fosters the growth and development of all individuals living in it. It also supports individual recognition, and empowers individuals economically and socially, ensuring individual fulfillment. As the society continually supports individual fulfillment, the individuals in turn supports its growth and development economically, psychologically, spiritually and culturally. Individuals self fulfillment is entirely based on the ability of the society to overcome its division. This means that a society free from diseases, poverty, war and conflict has a greater chance of fulfilling the individuals. The society creates a large scope of possibilities for individuals. When an individual is born in a certain society, he or she meets influences, values and institutions of the society, and he is expected to function within them. When the society actively supports psychological happiness of an individual, health prosperity and personal development, it means it is actively enhancing its own evolution.

People with different backgrounds and character traits live together in a common society. This means that a lot is required for people with different characters traits to live together giving the best to each other and to the society. Social science equips individuals with knowledge on how to relate with each other and the society. Since both the society and individuals requires each other to grow and develop individuals in the society need to give the best to the society in order to receive the best. This means that the society is constantly and consistently shaped and molded by what individuals give.

A society supports individuals talents. When the talents are well supported, they accomplish, but in most cases the rewards of the talents go to the society rather than back to the talent. For any individual to achieve anything, the society needs to have achieved it earlier.  It is the duty of the individuals in the society to learn and understand social science in order to relate well with the society, since good individual-society relationship mean individual self-fulfillment, and society growth and development.

As the international womens day approaches, many forums and conferences are being held prior to the days celebrations. Highlights of these forums focus mostly on issues which affect women on a daily basis and more so, those which have impacted greatly on their quest for equality in the modern world. It is in this bid that the International Womens Day coalition of L.A., organized a series of forums in the country for women to come together and review these same issues. This paper provides an analysis of one such forum where the issue under discussion was the unraveling of womens power and capacity to instill change in the society with specific reference to gender bias. Moreover, it was also an avenue for the world to evaluate the contributions made towards promoting womens rights.

The forum dubbed Break the Chains Unleash the Fury of Women as a Mighty Force for Revolution was held on 26th February 2010, in L.A at Immanuel Presbyterian church.  The womens forum brought together women from all over Los Angeles, California that represented a vast range of womens organizations and groups among others. It was an event open to all women in the region regardless of any group affiliations. Apart from celebrating the international womens day, this forum was put up by the International Womens Day Coalition of L.A. in a bid to showcase the necessity for the world to give preference to womens rights and gender equality. According to UNESCO (2010), gender equality is the only remedy for sustainable development in the world. Thus, the coalition sought to create an avenue where women are recognized for their achievements and as influential people in the society.

During the forum, key speeches focused on the problem of gender bias with special reference to the workplace. Women were said to face difficulties gaining employment or sustaining the same due to cases of sexual harassment and discrimination. While laws have been put to protect womens rights, it was eminent that further action needed to be taken to cement these laws. During discussions, women acknowledged that they have achieved immense success in dealing with gender bias issues in the workplace, but more needed to be done. Consequently, the forum then focused on seeking the way forward in making gender equality, a reality. From the discussion of the issue of gender bias, there were cited such scenarios of discrimination. For one, most judicial systems have sidelined women and made it adamantly difficult for women to serve as officers in the justice system. It was evident that there are less women judges, magistrates and law enforcement officers in the justice system. Clearly from this, it was crucial to heighten efforts for the empowerment of women as a way of giving them equal opportunities in the workplace.

The issue of gender bias had been selected as the focal point of the forum following previous surveys on women in the workplace. They unfortunately indicated increased rates of gender discrimination against women in the workplace as opposed to popular belief that the vice was on the decline. This fact made the issue a matter of urgency to the womens coalition which is keen on the advancement and empowerment of women. This event was quite significant in pushing the agenda for womens equality forward. It also enlightened women and the nation in general of the plague of gender bias which is threatening to cripple economic growth and development. Furthermore, following this event there has been more forums organized to take place all over the world which will spread the same message of promoting gender equality and appreciating womens strengths. To say the least, numerous activities have been organized in all a majority of countries aimed at empowering women in the modern society.

In conclusion, the International womens day coalition has been at the forefront of enhancing gender equality by promoting female empowerment. Their desire in organizing this event prior to the womens international day was to sensitize the world on this critical issue of gender equality and female empowerment. In fulfilling this desire, their strategy focused on bringing together women in Los Angeles and creating awareness on the issue of gender bias. This was just a beginning to a venture which will go a long way in promoting gender equality in the world.

Mass Education, has served the people with the needed knowledge and skills necessary for living the human life. It took its forms and methods according to the society that it serves. Education is for the people. Education serves it goes with the service for economics. In this paper, the impact of education for economics will be highlighted. As years and society develops, so as the trend for educational philosophy and methods. One of the existing theory that influences mass education is Socialism. Education teaches and offers societal roles like doctor, nurse, engineer, architect, teacher, artist, etc. to address the needs of society and contribute to the economy. The graduates are expected to perform their new societal roles in contribution for nation building. In many ways, Socialism has run the philosophy of education that has shaped the minds of humans (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 125 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism )

However, Society drastically has changed recently. The growing demand for financial knowledge, intelligence, skills, and experience rises. The mass education, currently, hasnt noticed this growing phenomenon, and as we can find it now, is left behind with the growing trend in financial education. True as it is, mass education is not yet ready to accommodate the demands of wealthy parents for their fortunate children.  I have to agree with the reality that the needs of the economy are not the needs of the majority, and meeting economic needs only benefits a small class of people. I agree with the reality, that this trend does yet Im not in agreement with the idea that this trend must continue to take place (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 107 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism )

I agree that mass education lacks a lot of training programs to prepare graduates for the real workplace- the economic world. After graduation, graduates search for work, and find themselves in the business realm. Every transaction is money. But the other side is, after graduation, the wealthy kids, dont search for work. Instead, they operate work and manipulate it with their own minds. It is the Capitalism influence that still infiltrates the business core. Money is just an idea, and wealthy youth have been trained to develop that idea. This mindset has been failed to realize by cunning school directors. The world is changing. Money is the rule of system, and the so called economics. The new need of  economy is to grow more money, and the majority lack the educational training to do it. Only the financially educated individuals realize this new need and they are composed of a small percentage in society. The lack of awareness on the economic trend and how the mass education meets it, impoverishes most people. I have to agree that the mass education system is lagging behind. I am not saying that Capitalism is right, nor does socialism what I am pointing at is that students deserve to know the reality, and deal with the trends  so that they can be more effective participants in the world we live (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 114 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism ).

Who are the beneficiaries of the old mass education system  The beneficiaries are the government and the Capitalists. The government benefits from the old mass education system because it continue to teach students to be a passive economist and an active servant of the country. Precisely, the inability to act on self actualization as the prime mover of ones life, cripples the individual to obtain his maximum ability. The idea of serving and searching for a job is a sign of poverty mentality and learned financial dependence passed on for many generations by educators, who are themselves victims of the blind reality (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 132 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism )

The Capitalist benefits from the old mass education system because it keeps the graduates from applying in their companies. These graduates are willing to be workers for the longest possible time. I am not saying that being an employee is a weak financial move. I am saying that the mindset of being contended as an employee, cripples your innate nature to actualize your capabilities into full blown participant in the greater world competition (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 223 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism ).

I agree in many ways with Jamie Johnson on his message in releasing the documentary  The One Percent . The one percent of total population in the world owns the world. The rest of 99 percent serves the one percent. The ninety nine percent remains willing to be manipulated by few wealthy family conglomerates. The lack of financial education and opportunities to develop it, have caused the ninety-nine to remain in the cycle of poverty for generations. The one percent continues to be wealthy and runs in the generation of family businesses. The government can see this phenomenon. The government uses taxation to get a percentage of wealth. Yet, the wealthy innovates the trend of corporation the wealthy can shun away from the State tax, and divert it into other forms like Foundation. In this way, the rich becomes richer. The poor, unaware of what is happening, remains to be poor. It is noteworthy to comment of Milton Friedman. I can comment that he knows the dark side of keeping the rich wealthy. That is why he is uneasy on the injustices questions of Jamie Johnson. Though the rich can give a percentage of wealth to the poor, it cannot compensate for the large harm that the society made out of his ideology (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 237 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism ).

One more time,  how does mass education serves the needs of economy
Mass education now serves the economy by producing workers. Workers who are willing to take directions and orders from the wealthy corporate leaders. As painful as it is, the reality is that the school turns out to be a factory itself, cloning workers fitted for specific tasks. Nevertheless, there is still hope for education. Educators need to realize and address the growing demand for financial knowledge and training. Educators need to educate themselves and impart ways to deal with Capitalism and resolve Socialism. The two streams of thought are just ideas like money. They can be shaped and used to advance either good or bad. This reality should not be hidden from the students. Academic freedom also involves the right to know the truth and create avenues to express it. The awareness will empower the student to form sound decisions and judgments toward life. It can also help maximize ones capabilities to live a full life (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 248 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism ).

What are the needs of the economy The economy needs active and wise participants in the game. Yes, the economy is like a game, and it is contrary to the perceived notion that school is a serious task. The economy needs superb players in the field of economics who know the mechanics and skills to innovate and execute actions that are globally competitive, and can deal or even transcend rapid changing market trends (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 252 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism ).

Mass education should prepare humans to the real world. The real world involves the demanding economics. It is just about time that wealthy youth like Jamie Johnson should take an initiative to inform or advance awareness on the current one percent gap phenomenon. Economics is just an idea like money. Mass education is also an idea. Both can be fused to innovate an effective move to improve peoples lives. Capitalism needs a little bit of greed to drive the passion ablaze. This little bit of greed can be channeled out to seek ways to renew the mindset of creating equal game opportunities for more people. It is threatening, yet that is what a game is for. The challenge should inspire the wealthy to compete more (Kiyosaki and Lechterv 255 Heilbroner,  Socialism  Hooker,  Capitalism )

The wealthy beneficiary Jamie Johnson of Johnson and Johnson speaks and reveals the dilemma of imbalance. People have the option to act on the information, or remain passive. The choice is always on the people. Those who make the move to improve ones quality of life in a wise way, definitely will be wealthy-- financially, emotionally, cognitively, spiritually, and socially. Mass education is just one way to address economic issues. There are more aspects to tackle, but life, as the driver in the documentary describes, is what is inside you and what you make out of it.

I uphold life and believe that the world is longing to beseech it. Ironically, it is inside of all us, the life itself, it is eager to unfold itself. Mass education and economics along with socialism and capitalism has impacted human lives and continues to unfold for generations.

A human being can be well described as a social being. During the transition of his life from childhood to adulthood, he faces many challenges in life. This is normally evident during his adolescent stage. At this stage of life, a persons growth is characterized by physical needs as well as emotional needs. The improper censuring and catering for these needs for the adolescence has adverse effects in their lives as it could easily lead to drug and alcohol abuse (Drumm, 2006).

Since I am interning at a substance drug and alcohol abuse-counseling place, and lately we have been having a lot of adolescents coming in with drug problems. The agency currently does not have groups for adolescents, they just have them for adults, but I do not feel that it is appropriate for these adolescents since they have social needs for affection, recognition, sense of belonging, as well as self-esteem and self-actualization (Koontz  Weihrich, 2006). This can be effectively achieved through the formation of adolescence social groups. In this group, the adolescents are given an opportunity to be in an open relationship where they can air their views freely. This in turn will help the workers to identify and achieve their core objectives.

Benefits of Groups Intervention with This Population
There are several benefits, which the adolescence can benefit from if drug abuse group would be set up in this community. This includes

Social group workers base their objectives in meeting the needs and wants of the adolescents in the community instead of the diagnosis, they are well able to enhance openness since there is no criticism and this helps the community since the beginning of this kind of group should start with the understanding the felt needs (Malekoff, 2007).

Welcoming and accepting the whole person and not the broken part of him will help the adolescent to know that the groups have not come up to criticize these teenagers but to accept them the way they are (Baker  Myles, 2003).

Accepting all forms of verbal speeches and not only the people who speak in a polite manner and this will encourage them to engage them into these groups in regardless of their linguistic differences (Baker  Myles, 2003).

Delegating authorities to group members as this enables to achieve the desired results since you have made the adolescents to become part of the group. Hence, they have a sense of belonging for the group. This also creates mutual understanding and enhances the growth of the group (Malekoff, 2007).

Developing alliance with parents as the group should teach the adolescents that parents as well as teachers are not their enemies and shows the need for working collaboratively with them, and thus creating cohesion within the members of the community (Baker  Myles, 2003).

Key values of using group approach in dealing with adolescent
Active participation of groups in the society enables the young people to recognize their full potential personally. Although this can only be achieved if the social group creates

Strong value base This supports active participation in the matters relating to the community. This is because the adolescent is in a position of recognizing the relationship between the adolescents and the society.

Attitudinal set that Allows the group members define their situations of their own circumstance freely as this will help in promoting the responsibility to the society by each and every adolescent, and
Conceptual base that uses all verbal skills as well as the non-verbal skills which enables the members to think in a critical way as it allows brainstorming, and thus creating improved quality life (Malekoff, 2007). A group can achieve this by developing a structured program that will encourage the use of diverse languages including slang, which is mostly used by the adolescent group, as this will serve to demonstrate the powers of communicating matters relating to drug and alcohol abuse in the adolescent group.

The Key Challenges in Group Intervention in the Agency Context
Since drug abuse mainly results from people who need cohesion, which can be achieved through the social group setting (Drumm, 2006), the social work groups face many challenges while trying to achieve this. These challenges could include

Assessing the extent of the norms, the roles as well as the status hierarchies that could help the members feel socially integrated, while at the same time helping the group to achieve its goals.
Facilitating the norms and setting up the roles as well as status hierarchies, which give structures in order to eliminate disorganized, chaotic, and unsafe or even anxiety producing interactions (Koontz  Weihrich, 2006).

Facilitating norms, roles and the status hierarchys in-group that that could facilitate the members ability to exercise their own judgment and free will in order to accomplish the set goals as the organization has to determine the extent of freedom and independence within the range of acceptable code of ethics.
Determining the most acceptable behavior that would result to working in a cohesive manner the group, as the group should work in accordance to the code of ethics.

Balancing the group needs as well as the communities needs while determining the attractive norms, roles as well as the status hierarchies for its members.

Determining and assessing the most rewarding method that will benefit each member of the group as well as the group as a whole.

Key Challenges in Group Intervention in the Community Context
Social groups are also affected by the community, and also the society that sponsors the group. This may be affected in a number of ways including

United States being a country that has diverse cultures. The minority group might form an interest alliance campaign on lack of community services for minorities in the locality.

Community may protest against the social group since members are accorded power according to the basis of their social standing in the community, and their position in the agency that funded and supports the group (Koontz  Weihrich, 2006).

Since culture is influenced by the environment of where the social group is situated, social groups tend to share the traditions and heritage of this society and the interaction with them determines how they will involve the social group. If the community does not interact with the drug abusers, neither will they interact with the social group.

Considering the community values as well as their traditions before deciding on an action plan. The image of the group may be judged by the presence of powerful individual in the group and base their argument within the context of value of the dominant community members within the locality.

If the mission of the social group is in conflict with the communitys value, it is unlikely to receive support and therefore it should rely on conflict strategies in order to achieve its objectives. This could include being vision focused instead of being solution focused, and being aware that the processes of change are the processes of development and arise from continuous interaction of diagnostic process. This diagnostic process may include some or all of the following

Creating of awareness of the drug and alcohol abuse and information of how it emerged.
Implementing a future design process by developing visions and a plan of approaching the challenge (Northen  Kurland, 2001).

Changing attitudes toward the problem of lack of cooperation from the community.
 Spreading new knowledge to the community on the importance of refraining from drug and alcohol abuse as well as negotiating with the community dominants, and
Implementation process to be done afterwards for not only the negotiated solutions but also reinforcing goals as well as the social groups targets and (Stacey  Graffin, 2008).

Key Challenges in Group Intervention in the Client Context
These can be experienced in the early stages of group formation as the clients are expected to identify themselves. These challenges could include
Identification whereby the status awareness can lead to indifferences among members themselves as well as their leader.

Low feeling of safety as well as anxiety,
Tension or conflict development due to gender, ethnic, culture as well as linguistic differences in the group (Parsloe, 2002)

The worker should therefore help the group to resolve conflict by helping the adolescents develop norms that emphasize the importance of respecting each other and finding a common ground of relating with each other in a cohesive manner.

The Types of Group Approach Proposed
I would propose the Time limited group and mutual aid groups since they are long term groups in terms of duration of service, the knowledge gained by the adolescents is through personal experience. The type of leader chosen is from among them, the focus of meeting is mutual support of everyone, hence making each and everybody feels as part of the group, and makes decision-making, the members of the group decide evaluations (Northen  Kurland, 2001).

Planning Proposal for Moving Forward
The group workers should first of all assess the degree of drug abuse as well as other abuse and adolescence problems, and examine the level of the risk factors in the community. The group should then assess the communitys readiness for cooperation with the social group in order to educate the adolescents first before commencing on prevention measures. The group should hold a meeting with leaders of youth organization in the community, as this would aid the group in gaining coordination plans and ideas for short term as well as long-term plans.

The administrator and the staff should have a program indicating on how to carry out their strategic plan, how to develop their skills in handling adolescents. The strategic plan could also involve fund raising projects paying visits to other social groups, as this give them a wider knowledge of how to manage an adolescent social group.

A common ground of relating with each other in a cohesive manner for the client should be sought after. This can be achieved by first carrying out a needs assessment for these clients and educating them according to their needs, and at the same time encouraging them on the benefits of working as a group with common purpose and objectives.

The book authored by William Domoff, Who Rules America is the detailed description of the power and political structure in the United States of America. Its last edition carries additional information regarding the growth of President Barack Obama and the people who supported and financed his campaign. This put in to detail the threats and challenges to the corporate and social class.  This reviews the American power structure both at local and national level. He correlates the power theory to the class dominance theory in America. The author builds the argument for power dominance through the dominance of owners and managers of large income producing properties like corporations, banks and agribusinesses. Narrowing his argument to the local level, Domoff argues that the power and politics at this level is dominated by the land owners and businesses related to real estate. This nexus of land owners and corporate giants at local and national level respectively, rules indirectly by participating in the political canvassing and ultimately through appointments to key decision-making positions. Most of the American economy is dominated by big corporations, and these corporations jointly constitute a corporate community. Both at economic and sociological level the corporate community have ties like the ownership of common stock and experience of corporate executives and hiring of common legal and consultation firms. The corporate community has common agenda i.e. profit maximization and same enemies like labor unions. Thus these joint ventures compel them to constitute a corporate community.

Connecting the details and filtering his argument Domoff says that numbers of large corporations are privately owned by same family or its group. He writes in his book, In 1976 Forbes estimated that there were over 350 such companies with sales above 100 million a year (Domhoff, 2005, p. 59). Most of the organizations have owners who directly controlled the organization. This correlation between the ownership and direct control lead to certain vested interests.  The concluding finding on the corporate organizations and certain class owning them and landholdings show that corporate community consists of large business tycoon families which have their own vested interests. This upper stratum of the people actually rules the economy in general and country in specific by funding the electioneering and after that affecting the policy making process either directly or indirectly. Basically this corporate class has used its economic power in the defensive mechanism by hiring experts and corporate executives.
This phenomenon reveals the fact that corporate executives intervenes the upper class through their expertise in the business. This cohesion of corporate class with upper class results in both social and economic cohesion. Thus through this the upper class exercise their power as they have the liberty to invest and withdraw money at any juncture and at any source. Above all they can fire any employee giving them a lot of liberty and influence at the most of the American people dependent upon the salary. They also influence over both elected and appointed officials, for the growth and stability of a city, state, or the country.

Domoff without appreciating the class structure interpretation given by Karl Marx tells that there is a social upper class with a lot of implicit control over the governance and administration in the corridors of power. Thus this class can be rightly said the governing class of the US. This ruling class is divided into two different divisions that can be rightly viewed form the existence of two main stream political parties. The fact shows the inherent class consciousness among the governing class and to save their over interests they fund the electioneering of the presidential and other candidates. Apart from this they lobby with in the party structure for their vested interests.  

This social class of the rich people treats other rich as their equalizing social class. By studying the institutions that have membership of these elites like the social register, the clear cut division and differentiation of class structure in the America has been shown. This has been the most clearheaded analysis of the power corridors of America. He also gives the neutral definition of the social class as the people who freely intermarry.

Moving ahead this concept brings in the cohesiveness among the ruling elite. That becomes in the form of intermarriages especially. Apart from this they in the form of joint business ventures. This cohesiveness is good for the power structure of the power corridors and structure of the America. But this proves to be havoc for the public in general. As to safe guard their own vested interests the upper class can go to any extent to save their vested interests. Over all this cohesion is necessary to maintain a social class. Thus it can be argued that the ruling class in order to save their interests can influence the governorate by any means. The interwoven values and ties among them help to do so regardless of which party is in government.  

The Domoff gives independent chunks of the ruling class present in any city and favors his argument with the help of club membership and enrollment at schools. This idea seems bit weak while describing the aristocratic class.   The next step is not as properly researched that the ownership and control of major businesses is the most secret aspect of American society (Domhoff, 2005, p. 38).
The data shown is indecent. Apparently, most business corporations are run by their board of directors. These directors are largely upper class and often have membership of seven or eight boards. It is the essential tool with which monopoly was defeated by capitalism, the directors of major corporations and foundations are approximately the similar people, and a small number of rich families have huge amounts of shares in different companies. This system in reality gives the ruling class an interest in sustaining the economic system as a whole instead of owning single industry and safe guard individual interests and values.

The documentation of the interlocking directorates shows that major corporations have boards that share not only clubs and universities, but in many important cases are actually made up of many of the same people. To show how intertwined these entities are, a study of 311 men directing the major insurance companies found that these men also sat on 1,844 corporate boards as well, including many of the largest  (Domhoff, 2005, p. 54).

On the other hand he mentions the pension and insurance companies and their role is mysterious. As most of the insurance agencies have nonprofit status and dont pay dividends and pool in huge amounts of assets. These are one of the bigger investors in corporations through banks and other investment corporations. And this nexus can be obvious form the socio-economic data of the directors as most of corporations and banks are on the boards of the insurance agencies. In American life particularly and the world in general this in point of fact means that corporations and investment banks and agencies use the capital of the working and middle classes to garner huge profits.

An analysis of the share of wealthiest 1 of adults emphasize that stock market is not worth mentioning relative to the credit market, and that the economic aristocracy is really making its money by ownership of bonds. As Domoff gives the figures of real estate, that the one percent rich owns between 12.3 and 18 of the total amount, but for bonds the figure is around 77. This shows a simple law that the nature of capital is to accumulate. The regressive taxation system of the united states of the America heavily come down like a ton of bricks on the poor and uses the capital to pay interest on government bonds to the ruling elite. Thus in short it shows that ruling elite have entangled the poor in the webs and shackles of the economy and their so called economic regulatory policy. They manufacture any good and sell it open market and on the other hand influence the governmental policies regarding the capital gains and goods. Thus they safeguard their interests on the both sides. The ultimate interest of the ruling class is profit maximization and increase in their economic gains. Its no unusual in any country generally and America especially that national debt has grows with no leaps and bounds.

Additionally, stock ownership is extremely uneven - the richest 2 own 65 of publicly held stock (Domhoff, 2005, p. 45). The argument here is that the less amount of public held stock serves much more evil purposes than democratically distributing profit. This stock offered to people was just for the public relation and to show that the capitalist class and capitalism think of the public welfare and common man. This in turn encouraged consumerism forcing a lot of otherwise intelligent people to stress their friends and acquaintances to go for certain products as being share holders they thought that what is good for their corporation is good for their own pocket.

Domhoff has arguments for America is becoming more unbiased because of shift in power from rich directors to middle-class hired managers. One is the indoctrination in the university which enkindles same values in the middle class as of elites and second the upper class is too small to produce able people. Another mode of intervention is rightly pointed by the author is the charitable organizations linked to big business corporations. These are most of tax shelters but influence the governments educational and health policies. They run foundation televisions and motivational and research programs ultimately influencing the minds of the people. Corporate industry also influence the government though media campaigns and advertisement.

The corporate class or the ruling elite holds the control of media, education, corporations, banks, and foundations through investment of their capital. This shows enough evidence that the upper class in America is the ruling and governing class.

Coming to the current scenario as the author have argued that the ruling elite governs the country and it is also not satisfactory to argue that the president and his executive team is selected by the elites. The might work in the interests of the working class but in process of selection a lot of other  factors are involved. The ruling elite involves in campaign donations and after wards placing themselves at key administrative posts. Though ruling elite is cohesive but a lot of crucial differences lie among themselves as well and that ultimately leads to the public benefit.

The intelligent community of the United States is an alliance of sixteen independent agencies of the government that work jointly in gathering intelligence that is required in maintaining security and influencing international relations. The organization consists of members from the military, intelligent arms and civilian agencies of intelligence that are all under a director in charge of national intelligence who relays the intelligence directly to the president (Coll, 2004). Its major responsibilities include gathering domestic and international intelligence, spying and advising on military arrangements. Although the community was constituted in December fourth 1981 by the then president Ronald Reagan, its history dates back to early 17th century. This is when the first spy czars general Washington observed the need for intelligence in the revolution ally war (ONeal, 2004).

The intelligence process became more organized through the revolution ally war making it to evolve into the first organized intelligence group called the mole and by 1775, it had evolved into a committee of secret correspondence. This committee had the mandate of gathering views about the revolution war across Europe. After the revolution war, the years that followed were characterized by a dormant intelligent system due to obsession at the time by the Americans with nation building. During the civil war, the intelligence was divided between the north and south (Andrew, 1996). The intelligence become professional in the period between the civil war and the World War 1 and then become somehow unorganized between the two world wars. It was only in the Second World War that it was modernized by William Donovan who founded the office of the strategic studies (OSS) which greatly improved its defense capabilities (ONeal, 2004)

During the cold war, there was an increased need for better intelligence in the United States but there were conflilicting views about which agencies were to organize the process of gathering intelligence and which ones were to oversee and coordinate the process. The president at the time Harry Truman opted to separate tasks of the military from other civilian agencies by overhauling the OSS and assigning its responsibility to the department of war and state in October of 1945. This was contrary to the chief of staff Donovan, who proposed a more civilian based organization (Prados, 2006). The plan was rejected by the military and the FBI since they feared it would lessen their influence. The president then reached a comprise by founding the CIG an acronym for central intelligence group in  January of 1948 which was charged with the coordination of all the intelligent agencies.

This agency, CIG, was under the national intelligent authority, an umbrella organization that consisted of all the security departments making it the first true intelligent community. The body was then to be under civilian authorities when the congress formed the national Security Council that was under the CIA in 1947. In the period between 1950 and 1960, the CIA was central in taming the influence of the Soviet Union and its communist strategy. The CIA was credited with the discovery of soviet missiles in Cuba at the height of the cold war in 1962 (Henry, 2003). Other successes  included  the pigs operation against Cuban leader and operations in the Vietnam that somehow damaged its reputation at the time. Transfer of the intelligence to civilian agencies also helped the United States to improve its overall intelligence gathering capability that improved its success rate in the cold war and thereafter.

In between the term of 1936 through 1945, President Roosevelt had become the President of the US the first time and was looking forward to becoming the president a fourth time.  The major events and operations of the US intelligence did indeed depend upon the orders of the President but some were the combination of different opinions and suggestions. An example would be when the president ordered not to place an American oil ban against Italy (Andrew, 1996). Even though this decision was not a secret operation but it was intelligence driven. President Roosevelt was made to think by his friend that the Italian leader, Mussolini, was planning to overpower Ethiopia and did not need further barriers.  

Firstly there was a meeting held in 1938 in which the US leader assumed that Germans had around twelve thousand battle aircrafts ready. This piece of knowledge was provided by official as well as unofficial sources. It was a very unreasonable amount and it was obvious that this information had not been examined and inspected carefully neither by local sources nor by international basis. If precaution had been taken, then the president would have been more reasonable in quoting the number of aircrafts.

As history has witnessed, there were not many covert or clandestine operations of the US intelligence in the time frame of 1936-1945. There was a statement made by Admiral Godfrey of Britain that he was disappointed by the internal dealings of the US intelligence and he considered it of poor quality (Hanks, 2008). This statement gave the U intelligence a bad name on their data collection and internal affairs. In my opinion, even though the British had not found the US intelligence up to mark but it was very unprofessional of them to provide fake information to their friends. For example in the incident in which there was a forged map found which showed the make believe schemes of Nazis attacking Latin America  (The Bryan Times, 1985). This is also a matter not involving intelligence but if our secret agencies were more involved, then this piece of information may have easily been proven to be fake.  To make matters worse, President Roosevelt showed the map to the nation and briefed them on the plan of the Nazis to destroy all religions.

Although the comments of Admiral Godfrey were hurting, he was right as the inquiry began after the attack on Pearl Harbor. The intelligence of the US was still in state of shock and confusion when the first battle ship set off from Japan on 26th November, 1941. The SIGINT were being delivered to the President very randomly. The intelligence did not have enough information at that time. Then there was the cabinet meeting on 28th November 1941. This meeting had remained covert for many years and it is interesting to find the details of it now. All the readings suggest that Pearl Harbor was destined to happen as the intelligence were completely unaware of the attacks.

I agree that it is impossible to trace down when and where an attack may happen. But the failure of Pearl Harbor was an eye opener. The point at which the US intelligence had failed is excellently explained in a study by Roberta Wohlstetter on Pearl Harbor. She concludes that this failure was not of intelligence collection but of its analysis.

The United States has collected secret information since the Revolution, but there has been no unified government intelligence institution until the Second World War (Hamilton, 2007, p.8). Evidently, wars create a need for data and information about enemy forces to gain advantage and this is particularly telling about the origins of intelligence organizations. Intelligence techniques employed were out of tactical necessity and led to more developments in the practice of espionage.

Theoretically, what spawned intelligence networks during the American Revolutionary War was shared principles of liberty, leadership, love for country, honor and a sense of citizenship that drove former British colonies to unite. According to Andrew  Jeffreys-Jones (1997), new tactics, groups and strategies were energized by ideological enthusiasm and even idealism (p.2). Intelligence, then, was primarily to aid the Continental Army to fight the British.

This involved the creation of groups by the Second Continental Congress such as the Committee of Secret Correspondence and the Committee on Spies in 1775 out of a need to obtain intelligence of Enemys situation and numbers, George Washington wrote in a letter to an officer (1777). Information such as enemy strength and location was necessary for strategic purposes done with a strong prospect of Success (Washington, 1777). Washington, therefore, can be called one of the earliest forces and fathers of the craft, whose administration maintained the use of intelligence both in support of the United States and in drafting foreign policy (Johnson, 2007, p.213).

Gathered data were used for secret operations such as political and covert action carried out mainly by intelligence officers such as through trade of food for gun power (Central Intelligence Agency, 2007). Secret information was also found key to sabotage, deception operations, propaganda, and the hiring of foreign intelligence agents who have knowledge of British forces. Intelligence techniques were not only used for offensive operations or procurement, but also for defensive motives  namely for protection, cover, concealment, counterintelligence and communication interception. The success of the Republics intelligence operations paved the way to victories.

Peacetime used to be a reason for the cessation of the use and development of intelligence agencies and missions. Lapses and wrong intelligence also provided lessons to succeeding generations and administrations (Johnson, 2007, p.214).

U.S. intelligence organizations and missions, therefore, thrived in times of trouble, such as during the American Civil War when the Union and Confederate forces involved the press (like a form of process outsourcing) in providing and obtaining intelligence from the other side (p.214). Counterintelligence was found most useful to identifying pending attacks areas and timing. Bitter conflicts, indeed, demands for and tends to produce innovation in all things military (Andrew  Jeffreys-Jones, 1997, p.2) both in theory and in technology.

The latter part of the 1880s when increased foreign relations sometimes led to tension which made the United States dispatch its first US Naval Attach in London in 1882 to facilitate the flow of information (p.3). Sharing of information and intelligence techniques were found useful to strengthen alliances especially in the First World War, seen through the linking of technical intelligence innovations  between the US Navy and the Royal Navy.

The example of foreign intelligences made the United States realize some areas that are lagging  such as internal security from crime and decentralized intelligence bases. Until the Spanish-American War and the First World War, the US was behind other European forces in military and intelligence sophistication that it even angered the public. The US was forced to step up their game with MI-8 agency (later named Black Chamber) within the Army dedicated to tasks of decryption, decoding and providing codes (Johnson, 2007, p.216 Cantos, Crowell, Derodeff, Dunkel,  Cole, 2007). Its successes in intercepting Enemy traffic did not gain the trust and approval of President Hoover that budgets of intelligence agencies were significantly cut (p.217).

It is clearly evident in many classrooms today the rich and colorful diversity of todays society in most parts of the world. Mere educating of the children is no longer enough nowadays as such the educational setting is even more revolutionized. The schools and learning environments must work for all the aspects and must consider the diverse cultures of the communities they serve.

As such the students of this generation are exemplified with different learning styles, habits, cultural orientation and socio-economic background, there must be high observance on the implementation of multicultural education in every classroom of the world.

Eventhough there is a limited budget for the education sector, the Philippines have multicultural education in both schools and nonschool activities to conform to the changing needs of the students of the modern generation (Mitchell  Salsbury, p. 259). The Office of the Deputy Minister for Higher Education (now Department of Education) is the responsible to ensure that multicultural education is properly observed inside the classrooms of the country (Mitchell  Salsbury, p. 259).

In the Philippines educational system, the issue of the multicultural education which is considered as a problem that has plagued many other countries in the world is properly addressed. For instance, there are different ethnic groups that can be found inside the classrooms of the country. These include the Catholics, Muslims, Buddhists, Protestants, Animists, Chinese, Mestizos, and native Filipinos (Mitchell  Salsbury, p. 259). Albeit their different cultural, social and religious orientation, these students are receiving equal and fair treatment from their teachers in terms of the subject content, class discussion, cultural and religious exploration and the like.

Moreover, in the Philippine school setting, there is no racial discrimination among gender, social classes, economic status and religious affiliations. Boys and girls are given fair treatment inside the four walls of the classroom. The teachers are not speaking about the color, religion, economic stability and gender of the students. These things are not big deal inside the school in terms of their treatment to the students. Though the country is not financially stable with regards to the program, efforts are still being made to solve the issue on multicultural education within the context of the countrys educational system (Mitchell  Salsbury, p. 261).

This type of educational scenario was developed due to the pressing needs of the stakeholders of education to understand and acknowledge the differences of the students in many ways so that the plurality in education will be highly observed. The teachers and other stakeholders of the country realized that there should be a need for the adaptation of the multicultural education in order to suffice the needs of the diverse students.

And to conform to the revolution of todays education, the country, particularly its schools, genuinely adhere to the principles of multicultural approach. Though this requires ample time, money and effort, the observance of multicultural education in the classroom is indeed a great choice for every educational institutions as such it will bring high degree of success in all the aspects of education.

One of the advantages of observing multicultural education in the classroom is the elimination of racism and sexism among the students. Through teaching the culturally different approach, there will be an attempt to raise the academic achievement of the students of color through culturally relevant instruction (Sleeter, p. 30). It should be noted always that eventhough students have differences, there should be equal opportunities inside the classroom as such education is a right of everyone. The aim of the schools should be to encourage the full development of the students regardless of the diverse racial, ethnic and gender groups of the students (Banks, p3. ). Educators, hence, must eliminate all structures of education that impede learning of the ethnic minorities and women. There should be equal opportunities between the man and woman or between the rich and poor so that there would be a sense of multiculturally responsive classroom approach in the schools.  This is thus the reason why in the countrys educational set-up, equal opportunities are given to the students regardless of gender. For instance, the students whether boys or girls are given the opportunity to participate in all the activities of the classroom such as recitation, discussion, project making and the like.

Multicultural education approach, moreover, promotes the idea of democracy in a pluralistic society. It is through this approach of education, students learn to value cultural knowledge and differences (Sleeter, p. 40). This is a good value that the students might learn with the multicultural approach. As they understand the diversity of the educational setting, they are implicitly learning also the sense of democracy and fairness within themselves which will be very helpful to the students when they are ready to face the realities of the society.

Nevertheless, the practice of multicultural education is not that easy because there are a lot of considerations which need to be taken. In the multicultural classroom, there must be a culturally responsive curriculum to suffice the needs of the different students. The teacher should prepare a lesson which will consider the subject matter as well as the diverse culture of the students. For instance, in this set up, the teacher may present a view of mathematical thinking that incorporates the ways in which culture and mathematics are related and intertwined (Nielson, p. 234). In sciences, the study of environments can be done from the perspectives of the diversity of cultural understanding. Eventhough this would mean additional and laborious tasks on the part of the teachers, it is better as compared to monocultural as such there will be a high manifestation of learning not only in the subject matter but also in the culture of their respective orientations. While the students are learning the subject matter that they need to accomplish, they are likewise acquiring a sense of the understanding the different cultures that the different students posses in their classroom.

In the teaching and learning process of the multicultural approach, likewise, there is a need for various teaching strategies to cater the various learning needs of the different learners inside the classroom. In this case, the teachers must consider that students are confined with the multiple intelligences and each type needs different teaching maxims (Armstrong, p. 29). When teaching a particular subject, the teacher must not only use devices which are intended for the visual learners but also to the other types of learners such as auditory, tactile, and the like.  For instance, the teacher may provide visual aid for the visual learners, recordings and sounds for the auditory and practical application for the tactile type of learners. Through this, there would be less discrimination in the different types of learners. The students find no discrimination as such all of them are being addressed with their different learning needs.

Along with the diversity of the curriculum and the teaching strategies to suffice the needs of the diverse culturally responsive learners are the diverse culturally oriented stakeholders of the education. The change in the school setting from monocultural to multicultural approach should be a hand in hand effort of all the stakeholders of the education which include, aside from the students, teachers, administrators, parents, community leaders and government. On the case of the Philippine educational system,  the teachers are the ones who observe multicultural approach of education inside the school through observance of the anti-discrimination acts not only in the school but as well as in the whole community. The teacher, furthermore, cannot alone do all the tasks to maintain fairness and justice inside the school. The other stakeholders of education also take their parts in maintaining an education with an environment free from prejudice, racism and discrimination. Education of todays generation should incorporate multitude of voices in multicultural society so that there would be effective observance of multiculturalism (Banks, p. 3). This means that education should be treated as a thing tantamount to equality and fairness. And the country successfully achieved this goal through the collaborative efforts of the teachers, administrators and the other stakeholders of education in the community.

Though it requires too much persistence and hard work not only on the part of the teachers but as well as on the part of the students, administrators, community leaders and government, multicultural education is a great revolution in the country as such it will not only develop and enhance the educational setting itself but also the perception of the world to justice, fairness and equality.