The interviews were conducted by the Integrated Regional Information Networks (IRIN) which is a news agency that is sponsored by the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). In the interviews, the cultural and religious contexts of the practice are explored as are its acceptability to society and the steps taken to eliminate it. The role of the government and other players in the elimination of FGM and the factors that make the practise to be widely practised in some societies are also discussed.
Research question
The following research question guided this study what are the causes of FGM and how can the practice be eliminated
Data collection methods
As indicated earlier, the data for this study was derived from open-ended interviews that were carried out by IRIN. The interviews were accessed by searching the internet using the Google search engine. To locate the data, a combination of key words including FGM and interview on FGM were queried using the search engine. Hits with the most relevant output were assessed and the IRIN text selected as the most ideal for this study. The data used is an example of secondary data as it is historical in nature and was collected by a person other than the original interviewer. Secondary data was preferred for this study as it is easier to collect and is comparatively inexpensive and less time consuming.
Analysis section
The selected text was analyzed using discourse analysis. Discourse analysis is a subjective and rhetorical technique whose main focus is on social problems. The discourse analysis method makes use of textual analysis and critical thinking in order to identify underlying and less obvious themes inherent in a particular text (Fairclough, 2003 Fairclough and Wodak, 1997 271-80 MacLure, 2003 Potter, 2003).
A critical discourse analysis of the IRIN text reveals that FGM is entrenched in many African societies due to several factors. These factors are many and varied and most have to do with the way in which society views women and their role. In these societies, FGM is perpetuated because it aids in virginity control, ensuring that females get married while they are still virgins. The practice is also used to reduce womens libido thus helping to make them less promiscuous and more faithful to their husbands (IRIN, 2005a IRIN 2005b).
These 2 drivers of FGM reveal the patriarchal nature of the societies where the practice is rampant. In such societies, sex before marriage, at least for the women, is taboo and society will do anything, the inherent dangers notwithstanding, just to keep women subjugated to the man. Traditions are also another driver of the practice and here those who practice FGM have a blind and unquestioning loyalty to their culture. The practice also persists because of the many misconceptions people have about its benefits. For instance, some societies believe that it is essential for the growth of the child. Additionally, government inaction and weak legislation have made FGM continue to be practised (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b).
A very important reason as to why FGM is still popular in many societies has to do with conformity or the need to fit in the society. In such societies, uncircumcised girls are often ostracised, treated with disdain and looked down on by the society and thus have little option but to consent to undergo FGM. Incorrect interpretation of religion is also a factor behind FGM. For instance, in Somalia where the practice is rife, FGM is usually administered by religious groups and people believe that it is a core part of Hadith. Besides, FGM enables women to get married as uncircumcised women cannot get married in some communities (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b).
While the practice has been vilified as outdated and inhumane, it may be that it helps to keep sanity in the society. To illustrate this point, many young girls are subjected to infibulation, a form of FGM which narrows the vaginal opening and makes it impossible for them to engage in sex. Their normal sexual function is then restored once they get married. This has helped reduce the incidences of teen pregnancies in these societies. It may also be that the caseload of sexually transmitted illnesses and divorce rates in societies such as these are comparatively lower. In summary, the pleasure of the women can be forfeited for the greater good of society (WHO, 2009).
This notion however betrays the perception that is prevalent in such societies about the mental abilities of women and their capacity to make rational choices. Apparently, young girls cannot be educated on sexual matters and must necessarily be subjected to FGM as an inhibition of their current and future sexual desires. This is indeed confirmed by the belief that FGM is intricately intertwined with the initiation of girls into womanhood. As stated by some of the respondents, it is impossible to separate FGM from initiation. Kenyas founding President who was also an avowed defender of FGM said it is impossible for a member of the tribe to imagine an initiation without clitoridectomy (IRIN 2005b). In other words, education without FGM cannot help mould a girl into the ideal woman. This is an evidently false supposition. Besides being a false supposition, it is inherently problematic, it has a less costly alternative and it needs to be ended.
It is problematic because young girls can be brought up to have sound moral virtues. A sound upbringing and education, rather than FGM, are the less costly alternatives. The words of the Kenyan President were spoken 71 years ago and they certainly do not represent the current thinking. It needs to be ended because it violates the rights of women, it endangers the health of women as it is of no medical value, it is very painful, and it can lead to many complications and difficulties in childbirth (IRIN, 2005b). Thus, the practice cannot be perpetuated by the false premise that it is an effective aid in fostering social cohesion.
The African Union (AU) has formulated an anti-FGM protocol which requires member states to outlaw the practice. Half of the countries where the practice is rampant do not however have such laws. Even though many African countries have legislated laws which ban FGM, the practice still persists in many of those countries. In many other countries such as Kenya, such laws have supposedly only succeeded in driving the practice underground and contributed to a drop in the age of girls eligible for FGM. However, it is difficult to say whether the respondents are accurate on this matter. This is because the IRIN text states, for instance, that the prevalence rate in the North Eastern Province of Kenya is 99 and about 4 in the western region of Kenya. This statement tells us nothing, for prevalence is a measure which describes a particular situation at a particular point in time. Use of the incidence rate would have been better as it would have given us more information such as the trends and distribution. Even if 99 of the population in the north-eastern area practice FGM, the ethnic groups which are resident there form less than 2 of the countrys population (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b).
Besides, they state that many people in Kenya are against FGM but in the same breath state that many people perform the act (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b). This is an inherent contradiction. Therefore, the argument that FGM is still widely practiced despite the enactment of anti-FGM laws needs to be further investigated so that it can be bolstered with more compelling facts. On the face of it however, it seems logical to conclude that no nation can legislate against the beliefs of its people and any such legislation is bound to meet with failure.
A more logical approach towards eliminating the practice would be to change the beliefs of these people through indoctrination and education. This is the path which non governmental organizations (NGOs) have taken. According to the respondents, civic education has not succeeded because these NGOs do not have sufficient resources to reach many people. The government, which has a much wider reach and more vast resources, has been accused of disinterest in eliminating the practice. To prove this point, one respondent cites countries such as Burkina Faso where there has been a dramatic decline in the practice as a result of the governments active role. The threats of prosecution, enforcement of these laws, follow up and education has reportedly led to an over 90 reduction in FGM activities. In other countries such as Tanzania, there is little fear of prosecution, there is no follow up, and there is no enforcement. Local authorities are disinterested or unwilling to act (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b).
However, the Burkina Faso example is inherently problematic and hard to accept because it is also based on prevalence data, not incidence. Moreover, the respondent admits that the government has instilled fear in the people and this has nearly eliminated the practice. She says that
They established a hotline where people can alert the authorities of an initiation happening. If you dont report it and are then found guilty of knowing of an initiation, then you are liable to go to jail, even though you didnt participate in the act. So this has created fear within the communities (IRIN, 2005 p.3).
However, it may be that due to this fear, many people in the country engaging in FGM were unable to admit it to the people who carried out the prevalence study. We are not told of how many credible calls were placed on the government hotline and what the outcomes were. We are not told, in quantitative terms, the impact of the radio messages on FGM. Only unsubstantiated claims are made. What is evident also is that this example cannot be generalized and conclusions made since each society is different and what works in one may not work in another (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b).
In any case, the inability of NGOs to eliminate the practice through education cannot entirely be due to insufficient resources. Even with inadequate resources, these NGOs could have attained some success at, say, village level or at small local administrative units where not very much in terms of resources is needed. We dont see any of this in the text. The Tanzanian example illustrates the difficulty faced by African countries to enforce such laws (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b). In many of these countries, the police force is seriously understaffed and ill-equipped and crime levels are very high. To expect them to follow up on cases of FGM is to expect too much. It is just not possible.
The text is peppered with the liberal use of subjective terms to drive home the authors point of view. For instance, the first respondent says that people are very aware of FGM. If it is true that they are very aware about FGM and that they often debate and hold educated discourse about it, why is there need for massive awareness campaigns It also asserts that the majority of Kenyan women are subjected to FGM, but go on to say that 32 of Kenyan women have undergone FGM (IRIN 2005a, IRIN 2005b). Thirty two percent cannot be a majority.
It can be concluded that the sole cause of FGM is economic and all the other reasons are secondary or mere excuses. As explained before, a key motivator for the practice is the need to keep women as virgins so that they can get married or reduce their sexual urges so that they can refrain from adultery and stay married. This is in the economic interests of the girls and their parents. Parents like to marry off their daughters because they will benefit from the dowry and the dowry will help them meet their everyday needs. A cursory look at the countries mentioned as practising FGM (Somalia, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, and Kenya) also reveals that they are among the poorest countries in the world (Schwab, 2009).
Additionally, FGM is rarely practised in regions where urbanization has taken root and this may be due to the engagement of the citizenry in gainful productive activities. Therefore, the mere enactment of laws cannot eliminate the practice nor can education of the people. Threats of prosecution and enforcement are equally ineffective. The solution to this problem is economic, getting the people to acquire useful skills, formulating policies that would eliminate poverty and spur economic growth, and establishing industries and other productive ventures.
Reflexivity section
Both personal and epistemological reflexivity are presented in this section.
Personal reflexivity
The study was affected in a major way by my beliefs, political commitments and goals in life. I strongly believe in the equality of the sexes, in the right to self-determination, and I abhor sexual violence and raw paternalism. Whereas I also believe strongly that the right of people to religion should be jealously protected, this did little to make me view FGM positively. Similarly, my beliefs about the sanctity of marriage and the right of anyone to practise his or her culture did not affect my antipathy towards FGM. All these contributed in making me view FGM in a negative way and thus view it as a social problem that needs to be resolved. It did not however make me view those who practice FGM as inherently wrong or as lesser beings, but as people who need to be helped.
As a person, this research has shaped my views about FGM and cultural practices as a whole. Whereas previously I would condemn wholesale those who practice acts such as FGM, I now understand that they need to be understood first before any solution can be reached and these solutions must not be imposed on them for they wont work. The research has made me more objective as a person and more accommodating and this conforms to the work of Dickson-Swift, James, Kippen Liamputtong (2009).
As a researcher, this study has sharpened my critical analysis skills and taught me not to accept any text at face value but to interrogate the contents and see whether the conclusions can hold (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997 271-80 MacLure, 2003 Potter, 2003). The study also revealed to me that one cannot afford to be cold and be driven by hard facts only but that one also needs to look at the study subjects as people first (Dickson-Swift, James, Kippen Liamputtong, 2009 Liamputtong, 2007). In other words, one can remain objective but still look at the study subjects as real people living in a real world
Epistemological reflexivity
Regarding the definition of the research question, it sought to obtain a rational explanation of the causes of FGM and the specific steps that can be taken to eliminate it. The research question limited the study only to the causes of FGM and workable solutions. The merits, demerits, current status, and other relevant issues were not analyzed as they had little bearing on the research question. The chosen analysis method deconstructed the text in order to come up with the solution to the problem of FGM. This was done by interrogating the facts used to back the ideas in the text, rejecting the baseless ones and coming up with more rational ideas.
The research question could have been investigated differently using the Straussian grounded theory method where the key ideas are coded, concepts discovered and categories identified (Strauss Corbin, 1998). Other methods that could have been used to answer the question include the Delphi study, focus studies, and phenomenological studies. In Delphi studies, experts on FGM could have been surveyed while in phenomenological studies, primary data could have been collected from victims who have had a first hand experience of FGM (Wilson, 2000). Quantitative studies in which variables are defined, hypotheses formulated and tested could also have been employed (Zikmund, 2003 Creswell, 2001).
The grounded theory method could have led to less subjective outcomes because the outcomes are entirely depended on the collected data and no pre-conceived hypotheses are formulated (Wiersma, 1986 Tuckmann, 1999 Nurani, 2008). The Delphi study would have led to more academic solutions (Strauss Corbin, 1998 Glaser Strauss 1967). The phenomenological study would have been appropriate as it would have given outcomes based on the points of view of the victims while the quantitative study would have established correlation between the defined variables (Wilson, 2002 Zikmund, 2000 Liamputtong, 2007). The main assumption made in this study was that the text from IRIN was without blemishes and that it was an accurate representation of the interviews reported therein (Willig, 2008).
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