Sociology

Every community or society is dynamic since it is affected by interaction with different communities and evolutionary factors within. Various changes within the society can be looked at as being a result of the effect that the environment has on the society. The current American society is appreciative of other cultures and diversity which was not the case in the 1960s (Durham 1996). It is therefore apparent that there have been some changes within the society that have led to this observed trend. This can be developed from simple considerations on the existing behavioural theories where interaction with the environment and experiences are considered key drivers to change within individuals that can translate to change in the society.

A review of the developments that have been recorded in the society shows that there are varied dimensions in which the current American society is more advanced than previous societies. Changes resulting in information availability, improved levels of educational attainment and literacy and general improvement in the standards and quality of life play important roles in the norms that are adopted within the society (Machia and Lamb 2009). Teenagers are affected by what they see, hear and read which brings out the effect that magazines have on the norms that teenagers in the current society conform to. This paper seeks to determine the effects that magazines have on the teenagers in the current society with the aim of developing the thesis that magazines either positively or negatively affect norms adopted by teenagers depending on their content.

Rationale
Teenagers in the American society have been labelled reckless, disrespectful to the elders and generally leading lifestyles that are self destructive. A critical review of factors highlighted as being central to this observed trend in the society reveals that reduced parental involvement in their childrens lives, exposure to negative media and thrills of adolescents are the key factors being blamed for this observed trends.

Magazines are a form of mass media which raises questions on whether magazines are tools for social development or degradation. On the other hand, there is an increase in the number of magazines on lifestyles, shopping, politics and entertainment (Carpenter 1998). The current information age is characterised by increased availability of nearly all forms of information media and magazines have not been left out. Thus, if magazines are truly propagating adoption of negative norms and vices in the society then the current information age may be spelling doom for the virtuous youth.

Most magazines display tag lines that posit their role in improving the society and ensuring that teenagers are empowered with skills and knowledge to deal with various risks that they face. In fact there are various magazine that are published with the sole aim of displaying the challenges that teenagers in the current society face and what they need to know to either deal with social risks or fit into the required characteristics of the modern youth (Dowd and Pallotta 2000). It is this contradiction in the role played by magazines in shaping up the norms adopted by teenagers that is central to the development of this research paper.

Research Aim
The main aim of the report is to determine how teenagers norms about love, sex and relationship are influenced by magazines. It is noteworthy that the population in the study is teenagers who will be treated separately. From this consideration the unit of analysis in the report is a group whereas the dependent variable is young adult norms. The independent variable is the impact of American magazine ranging from sports entertainment finance, social and even pornography. It is noteworthy that children will also be considered in the study to develop a further understanding of the progression of interaction between the dependent and independent variables with increase age. This furthers an understanding of the interaction between the dependent and independent variable in the study which may aid in developing strategies that are more effective in dealing with any detrimental effects that magazines have on norms adopted by teenagers and young adults.

Significance
The outcome of the report will be an extensive review and theorisation of the effect that magazines have on the teenagers. It is apparent that the study deals with an issue that affects the norms adopted by teenagers in the current society and is therefore important in ensuring that social developments are shaped in socially accepted ways. Moreover, by highlighting areas that may be in need of further research the study will play an important role in propagating research on the effects that magazines have on norms that are adopted by teenagers which will aid further address of the research problem.

Literature Review
The effect of mass media on the perceptions adopted by teenagers is an area that has been targeted by most interventions aimed at ensuring that teenagers adopt socially accepted behaviours. It is worth noting that the number of teenagers that are at risk of adopting socially unacceptable behaviours has been on increase due to various social developments (Jochen and Valkenburg 2007). Increase in the number of teenagers that use drugs, engage in unsafe sex and engage in criminal activities for instance drug trafficking is in part a result of the effects of mass media (Firminger 2006). Moreover, the view that the current teenagers have of sexuality is either affected by the view that their models have of the same topic or information that they gain from popular media. Studies have shown that it is highly unlikely that a teenager whose favourite artist is gay to have a negative perception of same sex relationships and marriages. Such information is however not relayed through the works of the referenced model rather they are relayed through the existing media for instance entertainment and lifestyle magazines.

The effect of magazine on teenagers is further propagated by the high availability of such media. Unlike in the 1980s when there were few magazines, teenagers currently have a wide variety of magazines to choose from (Karin and Kazyak 2009). Moreover, magazines have taken on steps to ensure that they are easily accessed by teenagers by ensuring that they are printed in volumes and issues. Commercialisation of magazines is therefore potentially influential on the effects that they have on teenagers. The magazines are printed by corporate firms that though highlighting the fact that they are aimed at ensuring that teenagers and the society is empowered are actually aimed at improving their profit margins. The realisation that sex sells is central to the inclusion of sexual content in most magazines (Durham 1996). Most magazine publications are guided by market researches which due to the infatuation that the society has of sex generally point to dollar generation with the inclusions of such contents (Cancian and Gordon 1988). It is highly unlikely that a magazine whether in finance, engineering or entertainment will lack content that is of sexual nature. This is not out of the realisation that sex is a social issue rather it is a marketing strategy aimed at ensuring that corporate firm make the most out of an information conscious society.

Another factor that may be propagating the effects that magazine have on the norms that are adopted by teenagers is the impact that fashion has on the average American teenager (Durham 1996). The need to fit in and be fashionable is highlighted as being a factor that traverses classes in determining the norms that are adopted by teenagers. Both low and upper class teenagers are affected by fashion trends and the need to fit in. The latter aspect is influenced by puberty. Teenagers are affected by the need to fit in which affects the nature of information resources that they have seek and access and the activities that they engage in (Karniol 2001). The fact that most American parents are rarely home and only interact with their children on weekends or outings implies that peers have greater impact on teenagers than their parents. This is highlighted as being central to the observed increase in the number of teenagers that have access to pornography. There has been an increase in the rates at which teenagers and children have access to pornography at all ages. More teenagers have stashes of pornographic material under their beds due to early puberty among American teenagers and increased availability of pornography (Press 2009). Existence of pornographic materials in the society implies that with the right connection and money any one can have access to them. This is the case in other social issues since in most neighbourhoods with the right connection and money anyone old enough to walk to a liquor store can buy liquor. This point to the effect that overall social degeneration and disregard for moral ethics has in propagating the negative affects that magazine has on the norm adopted by teenagers.

In the United States, teenagers spend on average six to seven hours with some form of mass media. Magazines are increasingly being adopted as a media of choice for most teenagers due to increased interest in fashion and entertainment. It is noteworthy that time spent with mass media by American teenagers is representative of over ten times the time that they spend with their parents in a day. It is apparent that magazines, internet and televisions have considerable effect on the view that the American teenager has of the society (Durham 1996).  In the mediated world, sexual talks and displays is increasingly becoming common.

Though television and the internet as mass media are leading in terms of sexual content, magazines are following in the same direction (Machia and Lamb 2009). Despite most mainstream magazines increasing their coverage of social and health issues within the last decade, the adverting and editorial content are in most cases aligned towards sexual content. Teens and women magazines tend to address relationship issues for instance what women should seek from men or what they should do to keep their men. Such sexual content are not missed by teenagers and are in fact read the most in such magazines. Organizations publications and magazines are another source of sexual information for the American teenager (Machia and Lamb 2009). Such publications aim at ensuring that teenager are empowered with the skills required in dealing with the risks associated with unprotected sex and relay information and advice on communication and other strategies that can be used in evading risks associated with risky sexual behaviour.

Entertainment and lifestyle magazines are blamed for their portrayal sex in positive light without highlighting the potential risks associated with it. Air brushed pictures of sexy models that set off pheromones in adolescents are common features in most magazines and are rarely countered by relay of the possible consequences of unwanted sex and teenage pregnancies (Machia and Lamb 2009). While most entertainment and lifestyle magazines easily relay information on stars that have divorced and engaged in one-week marriages, they rarely take their time to address issues that may arise from such marriages for instance the effect of divorces on children and even abortions which is considered an issue that is too controversial for commercial magazines (Press 2009). These double standards are having negative effects on teenagers this is central to the overall negative effect that magazines have on teenagers. This should however not be mistaken as being depictive of the absence of the positive effect of magazines on the American teenager.

The mass media is highlighted as being the most effective avenue through which various social issue that affect American teenager can be addressed. With the adoption of the right approach to presentation and creative presentation, magazines can ensure that teenager are empowered with knowledge on the negative impact of unprotected sex, drug abuse and other social issues that they face (Steele 1999). Having a picture of a teenage mother suffering as a cover for an entertainment magazine once in a while would help remind youth of social issues that they face and help in presenting such messages in a form and language that they can easily understand. This should be adopted as a form of corporate social obligation of the publication firms to the society. Moreover, since magazines are accessed by Americans of different classes, races and experiences they could provide a platform upon which teenagers, can discuss various issues that affect them within the society. Some magazines appear to be taking on these steps though such efforts are limited to subsections of the magazines. Most studies conclude that magazines affect the knowledge that most teenagers have on sex and could impact on their risk of engaging in sex, however few empower teenagers with the knowledge required to be able to deal with risks that they currently face (Press 2009 Durham 1996).

Theorising 
There are various theories that can be adopted in analysing the factors that affect the development of certain behaviours within a group in the society. It is noteworthy that an individual is affected by both internal and external factors that not only affect the perceptions and attitudes that he develops but may also affect gullibility to other factor that may impact on their perception. It is therefore evident that behavioural development and even determination of the effect of an agent on the perceptions and attitudes that are developed by teenagers is a complex agenda that may require multiple theoretical considerations.

The existing studies posit that magazines affect the perceptions and attitudes that are developed by teenagers via affecting their development (Dowd and Pallotta 2000). It is notable that some studies highlight the impact of magazines on young adults as being the integrated effect that it has had form late childhood. The Sigmund Freud as an example of a psychoanalytic child development theory asserts that the experiences that children have in their early years are influential on their development. Exposure of children to sexual content is therefore likely to affect their perception of sex as they grow into adolescence. This is an issue of critical importance considering that children as low as the age of eight years are increasingly being exposed to content that is beyond their age.

Cognitive development theories assert that the interaction between a child and an adolescent with similar environmental and social factors would results in different perceptions. The exposure of a child to pornography is bound to have different impact on his development relative to the effect that it has on an adults. This is an issue that is widely disregarded by most commercially magazines in portraying content meant for adults to children. This is an issue that is of critical importance in the effect that magazines have on children, teenagers and young adults. From this consideration, magazines that have been written exclusively for adult readership may aid in developing knowledge that adults have of social issues whereas the same content and graphics may be negative to a teenagers development. The cognitive behavioural development theory is applicable in analysing the differential effects that magazines have on teenagers with respect to ensuring that they are well prepared to deal with social challenges and propagating risks faced by teenagers.
Behavioural development theory asserts that the environment is highly deterministic of the effects that magazine have on the teenagers. The environment that a child is raised in is deterministic of the meaning that he will derive from a literature piece which determines the effect that it has on their development. This is an assertion that is supported by findings highlighting that White and African Americas females have different translation of information relayed by popular songs. The effects of individual and environmental factors are highly deterministic of the impact that magazines have on the American youth. A theoretical review of the differential impact of magazines on American teenagers and children can be considered a result of difference in content of the magazines and differences resulting from readers internal factors, experiences, age and the environment. These call for considerations on these factors in analysing the impact that magazines have on the norms adopted by American teenagers.

Research Methods
Nearly all Americans have access to and interact with different mass media. The main emphasis in this specific research is the impact that magazines have on the norms adopted by teenagers on sex, love and romance. The inclusion of children in the research is aimed at determining if the effects of magazines on teenagers can be traced back to their childhood. Since there are recorded positive and negative effects, to determine the net effect of magazines on the norms adopted by teenagers would require a quantitative research approach. This is mainly because statistical analysis is independent of researchers input and would therefore improve the validity of the results. A quantitative research design will be adopted in the study. A survey will aid in carrying out the study and will involve children and teenagers. It is worth noting that since teenagers and children are below the age of consent, parental consent will be required.

Operationalization
Teenagers are defined as participants over the age of 11 years and below the age of twenty years. Children are defined as participants over the age of eight years and below the age of 11 years. Both male and female participants will be involved in the study. It is worth noting that there are various factor that have been highlighted as potentially influential on the perception that are developed by teenagers and children of sex, love and romance as a result of interactions with magazines. The effects of these factors which include age, race, sex and socioeconomic background will also be determined.

Data Collection and Measurement
Data collections will mainly involve the use of questionnaires. A criterion that will be used in choosing the participants is asking if they have ever read a magazine. The data collection will involve house to house survey of the target group within randomly selected neighbourhoods in New York. In a case where the participant is not able to fill the questionnaire due to writing problems especially for children under the age of ten years, the researcher will intervene by asking the questions and noting their response. The house to house approach in data collection is adopted mainly because it ensure ease in gaining consent from parents by personally explaining the aims of the study before seeking their consent. Moreover, the use of questionnaire in a case where interviews would be feasible is because some teenagers shy from talking of sex especially in the presence of their guardians or parents. The use of questionnaires is therefore aimed at ensuring objectivity since it ensures increased confidence by the respondents this is important in ensuring accuracy and therefore validity of the results.

An ordinal level of measurement will be used in the study. It is worth noting that the study captures the perceptions of the respondents which will be quantified with the aid of likert-type questions. Administration of likert-type questions via the questionnaires will aid in quantifying perceptions and is a form of ordinal level measurement. It is noteworthy that all respondents will be involved in data analysis.

Data Analysis
The questions asked in data collection involve determining the extent to which children can attribute their knowledge and involvement in sexual activity on magazines. Moreover, statement of knowledge acquired from magazines relating to sex, romance and dating will be characteristic of the questionnaires. Descriptive analysis involving dot plots and use of graphs will be used in summarising the knowledge that the target population has gained as a result of reading magazines. On the other hand, chi-square analysis will be used to determine if the gains made by the target groups as a result of reading magazines are significant. T-tests will be used in testing the hypothesis relating to differential impact of reading magazines depending on race, socioeconomic status, gender and age.

Validity and Reliability
Validity of the study is ensured by using questionnaires that ensures correct data entry and facilitating entry of data in cases where respondents are unable to. These measures affect the accuracy of the data entered and therefore the validity of the data. On the other hand, children have been included in research as a control group which is aimed at ensuring consistency of the results. It is worth noting that the consistency of the results affects reliability of the study. Use of primary data developed from the largest possible proportion of the population aids in ensuring reliability and validity of the study.

Ethical Considerations
The study has ensures that various ethical considerations are included in the methodology. Seeking consent from the parents and explaining the aims ensures informed consent which is an important ethical consideration. Moreover, confidentiality of the respondents will be protected by ensuring that names and personal identification details of the respondents are not recorded.

Hypotheses
The following hypothesis will guide the study
Teenagers involvements and knowledge of sexual activity, romance and dating is significantly affected by reading magazines.

Age is significantly influential on the knowledge and impact that reading magazines has on teenagers.

Socioeconomic background is significantly influential on the knowledge and impact that reading magazines has on teenagers.

Race is significantly influential on the knowledge and impact that reading magazines has on teenagers.
Gender is significantly influential on the knowledge and impact that reading magazines has on teenagers.

Speculative Conclusion
The results are in line with the existing studies that have shown that magazines are greatly influential on the perceptions, attitudes and norms that are developed by teenagers regarding social issues. By considering sex as an indicator to social issues, the study reveals that magazines have considerable impact on the norms that are adopted by teenagers. The significance difference resulting from socioeconomic considerations, age and race may be attributed to the effect of the environment, parental involvements and mental development with age. The existence of an insignificant difference in the effect of magazines on the norms that male and female teenagers develop may be due to increased access by both boys and girls to different forms of magazines.

This is a finding that is contrary to results developed from past studies which calls for increased research in this area to determine causes of this observed development. Moreover, teenagers relay both positive and negative gains in knowledge and involvement in activities resulting from reading magazines. This relays the fact that the content of the magazine is influential on the effect that it has on teenagers which is an area that the society must be wary of and should be addressed. There is therefore need for further research on the causes of the insignificant difference between the effect that magazines have on teenage boys and girls and the development of practical strategies aimed at ensuring that the content of magazines is analysed to determine the effect that it would have on teenagers. The latter requirement requires the input of publishing houses, development of policies by state and federal governments which guard against inclusion of sexual material without highlighting dangers associated with sex and parents in determining the kind of magazines that their children have access to.