Sociology

Introduction to the Problem
General Education Development (GED) tests are standardized tests widely employed in the United States (U.S.) to certify academic knowledge and skills at the high school level.  The tests have gained much popularity since the 1970s with more than 700,000 individuals taking the test annually (American Council of Education, 2007).  A peak testing volume that numbered more than 1 million was attained in 2001.  The U.S. Census Bureau of 2000 indicated that approximately 40 million adults aged 16 years and older did not possess a high school diploma (U.S. Census Bureau).  Standardized testing at all levels in K-12 schools is duplicated by the numerous and frequent standardized tests that are administered to members of the U.S. military throughout enlistment and duty assignments (U.S. Army Entrance Processing Command, 2009).

Extensive literature is available concerning the academic accomplishments of African American males and the achievement gap between this group and Caucasian counterparts (Duncan, 1998 Foster  Peele, 2001 Freeman, 1999a Hrabrowksi, Maton,  Greif, 1998 Ogbu  Simons, 1998 Patterson, 2006 Perry, Steele,  Hilliard, 2003 Thernstrom  Thernstrom, 2003).  Researchers and media offer multiple reasons why African Americans continue to lag behind Caucasian peers in the academic arena.  Some make allegations of a correlation between the African American males academic achievement and history, sociology, attitude toward schooling, or financial status of the group.  A review of the literature preceding the proposed study yielded few results that offered insight into the attitude of African American males regarding standardized testing.  In addition, a dearth of literature exists about the attitudinal response of U.S. Army recruits toward standardized testing.

Background of the Problem
The General Education Development (GED) certification is largely seen as a major second chance program for adults who did not complete high school for various reasons (Elowitz, 2003).  The past three decades have seen the institutionalization of GED and preparation programs through state, federal and local adult education investment programs.  Song and Hsu (2008) found that public spending on the tests and preparation for them was at a higher level in 2008 than in any previous year.  Supporters of the program believe that the recipients of GED certification have attained the same level of skills as individuals who hold traditional high school diplomas (Elowitz).  Song and Hsu argued that GED graduates share equal chances of employment and access to higher education. While researchers recognize that many male African Americans fail to complete a high school education and ultimately apply for GED certification (Alsalam, Fischer, Ogle,  Smith, 1993 Greene, 2002 Lawrence, Ramsberger,  Arabian, 2003 Lofstrom, 2007), the degree to which failure to succeed at taking standardized testing drives African American high school students to drop out of high school has not been determined.

GED Certification
The GED program is a second-chance program designed to administer an array of cognitive tests to high school dropouts with the aim of determining whether or not their academic capacity is equivalent to that of traditional high school graduates.  The program was introduced in 1942 to assist World War II veterans to readjust to civilian life, and in the pursuance of higher educational and vocational goals (Andrew  Whitney, 1981).  The percentage of certification awarded by the GED testing program has gone up sharply over the past 50 years.  One out of every five high school diplomas was attained by passing the battery of tests by the late 1990s (Andrew  Whitney).  In 1992, five decades after the introduction of GED certification, one of seven high school dropouts between the age of 19 and 24 had attained a high school equivalent diploma through a GED exam (Laurence et al., 1993).  GED recipients comprised 5 of all high school certificates that were awarded in 1992. GED recipients are considered by the U.S. Census Bureau (2000) to be high school graduates.

Standardized Testing

As early as the 1960s, it was common practice in the U.S. to implement educational programs based on standardized tests, but there is little proof that the tests and the educational curriculum patterned on the tests enhanced childrens learning achievements (Amrein  Berliner, 2003).  Amrein and Berliner hypothesized that if learners displayed increases in learning as measured by state-mandated tests, there should be a concomitant rise in learning as measured by other methods.  To test the theory, Amrein and Berliner investigated four popular measures of academic accomplishment in 18 states (a) the SAT, (b) the ACT, (c) advanced placement (AP) tests, and (d) the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).

Findings indicated no association between test scores and learning.  Nothing seemed to be happening on these measures of student learning.  In fact, we can make a strong case that high stakes testing policies hurt student learning instead of helping it (Amrein  Berliner, p. 35).  A search of empirical literature found no evidence that U.S. Army personnel increase leaning as a result of the frequent standardized tests that are administered at every level.

Research by Nichols, Glass, and Berliner (2005) indicated a slight association between high-stakes testing and learning, but did not test attitudinal response.  Several studies have investigated the possible association between racial identity and intellectual accomplishment.  For example, by making use of the racial identity attitude scale (RIAS), Witherspoon, Speight, and Thomas (1997) sought to quantify the extent to which self-confidence, racial identity, and educational self-concept forecasted educational results for African American high school students. 

The most powerful forecasters of grade point average (GPA) were immersion styles, followed by educational self-concept.  Immersion styles were defined as students who were socially integrated into the high school population of students.  Those students who manifested immersion attitudes registered low GPAs as compared to those students who had lesser or no immersion attitudes. 
Students with more powerful educational self-concepts recorded higher average GPAs as compared to students who had weaker educational self-concepts.  Witherspoon et al. found that African Americans who are engrossed in Black ethnicity and show anti-Caucasian sentiment tend to show poor performance in school (Witherspoon et al.).  How this finding relates to U.S. Army personnel is not known.

Researchers have argued that the discrimination African American males experience leads to poor academic performance (Fordham  Ogbu, 1986 Ogbu, 1987, 1994 Steele, 1997).  A review of the literature preceding the present study revealed few studies that investigated the achievement gap between African Americans males between the ages of 18-24 and other ethnicities (e.g., Europeans and Asian Americans). Some conceptual structures have been proposed that the academic achievement gap is a result of societal discrimination pointedly, discrimination is punishable in the U.S. military (U.S. Army Accessions Command, 2009).  Other studies recorded the negative impacts of system-level discrimination on perceived encouragement and intellectual accomplishment of African American learners (Howard  Hammond, 1985 Ponterotto  Pedersen, 1993 Steele  Aronson, 1995).  Based on an extensive review of the literature pertinent to the subject of the proposed study, no studies were found that addressed a connection between attitudinal response to standardized testing and the academic achievement of African American youths, either in traditional society or the U.S. Military.

Statement of the Problem
Two critical points emerge from the preceding discussion.  First, the rate of GED credentials in the late 1990s offered annually as a percentage of the total high school credentials more than doubled as compared to the early 1970s.  Second, the role of standardized tests in the dropout rate of African American males has not been determined.  Nor has it been determined if the attitudinal response to standardized testing among African American U.S. military personnel who hold GED certification is the same as it was when they dropped out of high school.  Dropout rates increased instead of decreasing by close to 30 in the early 1970s, 30 years after the inception of the GED. Since the early 1960s, the dropout rates are highest since the late 1990s (Alsalam, Fischer, Ogle  Smith, 1993) and increases annually (Lofstrom, 2007).

The percentage of GED holders among male African Americans aged between 18 and 24 years of age increased sharply from 6 in 1974 to 16 in 1999.  Instead of going down, the rate of dropout went up by 10 in 1999 (Tyler  Willett, 2000). The GED program has become a considerable impetus for high school graduation for African Americans over the past three decades.  The indication is that fewer and fewer African Americans graduate from high school. Concomitantly, according to S. Douglas Smith (personal communication.) a spokesperson for the U.S. Army Recruiting Command, the Army is now recruiting more high school dropouts with GEDs who in the past would have been ineligible to enlist.  The extent to which attitudes toward standardized testing may have driven African American males from high school, and the extent to which attitudinal responses to standardized testing remain the same once in the U.S. Army, is unknown.

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the proposed qualitative phenomenological study is to explore the attitudinal response of the GED subgroup among African American male U.S. Army personnel pertaining to standardized testing in high school and the U.S. military to identify similarities and differences.  The Current Population Survey micro-data, Digest of Educational Statistics and the October supplement, and U.S. Army statistical data will be accessed to determine the number of U.S. Army African American recruits who possess a GED.  From the data assembled, phenomenological interviews of eight U. S. Army African American personnel possessing a GED will be conducted to explore the experiences of participants pertaining to standardized testing in high school and standardized testing in the military.

Research Questions
Research is guided by a set of research questions posed for a study (Creswell, 2008).  The attitudinal response toward standardized tests of male African American U.S. Army personnel who possess a GED will be explored, which constitutes the foundation of the proposed study. The following research questions were based on the statement of the problem and purpose of the study as stated in previous sections.

Research Question 1. How do African American males in the U.S. Army perceive
the nature of their experience with standardized tests in high school and the military
Research Question 2. To what extent does the attitude of African American males toward standardized tests influence their decision to drop out of high school
Research Question 3. To what extent does the attitude of African American males toward standardized tests influence their decision to enlist in the Army

Significance of the Study
Snower (1999) stated that the earnings of less well-educated people in the U.S. since the mid-1970s have rapidly fallen behind those of the more educated.  The importance of education and skills in an economy in recession in 2008-2009 is clear.  Perreira, Mullan and Lee (2006) reported that high school dropouts in 2000 were almost twice as less likely to be employed than high school graduates.  The 2000 U.S. Census data clearly demonstrated that high school dropouts do relatively poorly in the labor economy.  The yearly earnings for male dropouts between 25 and 65 years of age were 26,400, while male high school graduates earned an average of 35,000 annually.  The kinds of jobs that are available to high school dropouts seldom offer opportunity for any remarkable upward mobility or benefits.  The U.S. military is an attractive option for high school dropouts because of the extensive training programs offered to recruits, but the extent to which attitudes about testing are carried over from high school to the military is not known.  Therefore, the proposed study will add knowledge about the impact of standardized testing that occurs in the U.S. Army on recruits who possess a GED, and subsequent decisions to re-enlist.

Rationale of the Study
Social research can be deductive or inductive, and the decision of one over the other is made according to the subject of the research being conducted (Creswell, 2008).  The deductive approach refers to specific data that has been obtained from a general theory.  Through the general theory, the researcher develops forecasts about what is probably occurring or will occur.  Deductive research is also known as theory testing.  In cases where research begins with a theory and follows hypotheses that were developed to be tested, the approach is deductive.   Deductive reasoning moves from more universal knowledge to more precise knowledge (Creswell). 

The proposed study will involve inductive research and inductive reasoning.  Data will be gathered concerning the manner in which standardized tests may influence decisions about whether to remain in high school or drop out, and decisions about whether to re-enlist by African American males in the U.S. Army.  The observations will assist in making generalizations about the effects of standardized tests on life decisions of African American males.  The proposed research will be qualitative in nature.  The researcher proposes to solicit, through one-on-one interviews, attitudes and perceptions of African American male military personnel holding a GED certificate their testing experiences in high school and the military, and how these experiences affected decision-making processes. 
The purpose of the proposed study is to explore the attitudes and perceptions of African American males in the U.S. military about standardized testing, and to discover if the same attitudes and perceptions predicted dropping out of school or enlistment. The investigative method employed will be individual interviews with a sample of eight African American male U.S. Army personnel who possess a GED.  The interview method was chosen because it involves talking to the participants individually and obtaining personal views and experiences.  In the course of interviewing study participants, the researcher expects to gather genuine information based on personal experiences, and will utilize that information to draw conclusions how African American males in the U.S. Army believe standardized academic testing has affected their decision-making processes. 

Nature of the Study
The proposed qualitative study will involve (a) interviewing a purposive sample of eight African American male members of the U.S. Army, (b) audio recording the interviews, (c) transcribing the interviews, and (d) analyzing and interpreting the information gathered by identifying themes and contexts.  In the proposed study, there is some uncertainty involved and the conclusions will be based on theories hence, the proposed study will rely on an inductive approach.  Data will be collected regarding the views of male African American members of the U.S. Army about the possible effect of standardized testing on their decision-making about dropping out of high school, obtaining a GED, and joining the military and subsequent military testing.  Data from the interviews will assist in forming generalizations that will respond to the three research questions posed in an earlier section.

Definition of Terms
Accession
Accession is the process by which the Army inducts personnel into the ranks.  The command and control over recruiting and training of soldiers (U.S. Department of the Army, 2008).
Achievement Levels
Achievement levels are the expected levels of performance.  Louisianas achievement levels are Advanced, Mastery, Basic, Approaching Basic, and Unsatisfactory (Texas Department of Education, 2008).

African American
 The term African American is defined by McKinnon (2000) as people having origins in any of the Black race groups of Africa (p. 102) and who are residents of the U.S.  African Americans are both an ethnic or cultural group and part of the racial group known as Black Americans.

AFQT (Armed Forces Qualification Test)
    There are four parts to the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) that is used to determine the AFQT score and they are Word Knowledge (WK), Paragraph Comprehension (PC), Arithmetic Reasoning (AR), and Mathematics Knowledge (MK U.S. Department of the Army, 2008).


Black
 In the U.S., Blacks are those people of any known African Black ancestry, according to the one-drop rule that determined even a single drop of Black blood would make a person Black (Davis, n.d., p. 5).  Concerning who Blacks are, Graham (2002) commented that Blacks were persons having origins in any of the black racial groups of Africa (p. 145).

Caucasian
Graham (2002) stated that Caucasians were persons having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, North Africa, or the Middle East (p. 145).  The term Caucasian may refer to any person with a lighter skin whose origins are not from Black Africa.

Commander
 A position in the Army  defined by the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) as having authority and the responsibility for the well being and morale of not only his or her troops, but also of their immediate family members as well (U.S. Department of the Army, 1994).
Dropouts

According to the National Center for Education Statistics dropout standard, under
this definition, a dropout is a student enrolled in public school in seventh through twelfth grades who doesnt return to public school in the fall, is not expelled, and doesnt graduate, receive a GED certificate, continue school outside the public school system (in a private or home school, for example), begin college or die.

Minorities
Capotorti stated that minorities are defined as a group numerically inferior to the rest of the population of a state, in a non-dominant position, whose members as nationals of the state possess ethnic, religious or linguistic characteristics differing from those of the rest of the population, and show, if only implicitly, a sense of solidarity directed towards preserving a culture, traditions, religion or language (Caportorti, 1991, as cited by Barton  Malanczuk, 1997, p. 106)

Persistence
Student persistence can be measured by analyzing the successful completion or withdrawal of students from a given course or program.  In addition, understanding student persistence can be achieved by understanding the predictors that lead to student success or failure in these courses andor programs (Morris et al., 2005).

Assumptions and Limitations
The following assumptions and limitations will be inherent in the proposed research design.  Every measure that is reasonably possible will be taken to assure objectivity.  During the proposed interview process, this researcher will use the previously stated research questions to guide the interview process and allow each participant to talk about other topics. 

It will be assumed that all participants will respond honestly and to the best of their abilities.  However candid the responses, they cannot be assumed to accurately reflect the experiences of all male African American members of the U.S. Army who possess a GED.  The proposed study is not about individual African Americans, but about the lived experience as they were required to take standardized tests, and the effect the requirement had on decisions about schooling or about enlistment.  It will be assumed that the researcher will be unbiased.

The scope of the proposed study will be limited to eight male African American members of the U.S. Army who possess a GED.  Participants will be randomly selected from the available participant pool.  The proposed study will consist of in-depth semi-structured interviews using an interview protocol to maintain consistency across all interviews, as described in Chapter 3.

    The proposed study will represent only a small slice of the larger environment of the population of male African Americans with a GED in the U.S. Army.  The relatively small sample for research will be opportunistic and may yield a limited research result. Interpretation of the notes and codes from the interviews and analysis may involve some interviewer conscious or unconscious bias that might interfere with the validity of the results (Hamel, Dufour,  Fortin, 1993).  Creswell (2008) argued that a lack of rigor in the collection, construction, and analysis of the results from a study may be linked to the problem of bias.  Bias is introduced by the selectivity of the research, and the participants the researcher relies on to get an understanding of the subject matter under investigation (Guba  Lincoln, 1981).  The qualitative study researcher must be one with a tolerance for ambiguity, must possess an investigative nature, have sensitivity to personal prejudices, must be a good communicator, and have some knowledge of the subject matter under study (Merriam, 2002).

Theoretical Framework
 Several studies investigated the association between racial identity and intellectual accomplishment.  By making use of RIAS (Racial Identity, Academic Self-Concept), Witherspoon et al. (1997) investigated the extent to which self-confidence, racial identity, and educational self-concept forecasted academic results for African American high school learners.  The most powerful forecasters of GPA were immersion styles, and these were followed by educational self-concept.  The persons who authorized immersion styles registered low GPAs, as compared to the ones who had lesser or no immersion attitudes. 

The learners with more powerful educational self-concepts recorded higher average GPAs as compared to the persons who had less strong educational self-concepts.  African Americans who engross themselves in black ethnicity and show anti-Caucasian sentiment tend to show poor performance in school.  In an identical study that used the RIAS, Lockett and Harrell (2003) discovered a major affirmative relation between GPA and internalization, but without any other RIAS subscales, in a sample of college learners.  Discrepancies in results may be related to the poor psychometric features of the RIAS (Ponterotto  Wise, 1987).  RIAS (Racial Identity, Academic Self-Concept) will be used as the theoretical lens through which this study will be undertaken as it has demonstrated a quantifiable connection between racial identity and academic achievement.

Conclusion
More years of schooling are completed by holders of a GED than other dropouts however, they complete fewer years compared to high school graduates. A similar pattern is followed by the mean wages individuals who hold a GED earn more than high school dropouts, but less than that earned by traditional high school graduates.  Other studies suggest the same results.  There are two facts that need to be highlighted male African American holders of a GED are less likely to work than other high school dropouts, and the numbers of years male African Americans serve in incarceration are more than that of other dropouts. It has also been recognized that on average, individuals who hold a GED work for a number of years before achieving a GED diploma.  The extent to which high school dropouts are influenced to leave before obtaining a diploma by attitudes about standardized tests is not known.

The U.S. Armed Forces only hire people who possess a GED.  Of those African American males who possess a GED, it is not known if attitudes toward testing remain the same as they were in high school, and if those attitudes influenced enlistment.  The poorest educational outcomes are experienced by African American males from among all the major demographic groups in the U.S. African American males are substantially behind other groups, whether such outcomes are measured with regard to high school graduation, test scores, post secondary attendance or college graduation (Levin, Belfield, Muennig  Rouse, 2008).  It has been recognized that disparities in educational outcomes result in disparities in economic consequences through the life course of an individual.  People with a poor quality education and low attainment are likely to face inferior employment prospects.  For African American males in the military who have a GED, meaning they dropped out of high school, it is not known how their decision to re-enlist or not is associated with their attitudinal responses to standardized testing they experienced in high school and will continue to experience through their military careers.

Organization of the Remainder of the Study
In this chapter, the introduction to the problem, the background of the study, statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, the research question, the significance of the study, and the nature of the study were summarized.  Chapter 1 contained an outline of the unique definition of terms that will be used in the study, with assumptions and limitations being identified.  Chapter 2 is a literature review that is a summary of the history and current standing of the GED, how standardized tests are used in the Armed Forces, criticisms against standardized testing, the scoring gap, self-esteem and academic self concept, and proficiency as related to achievement tests. 

Chapter 3 is designed to give the experienced investigator enough data to replicate the study.  The research approach and design will be detailed, and a proposed pilot study and main study will be summarized.  The participants, the questions that will be asked in the semi-structured interviews, and the procedures, will be summarized.  The method of data analysis will be outlined, and ethical assurances will be stated. Chapter 4 will be a summary of the data gathered and an analysis of it. Chapter 5 will be the conclusions and recommendations.    


CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
The academic gap between Caucasian and African American students on standardized tests has been acknowledged by professional educators for a long time (Duncan, 1998 Foster  Peele, 2001 Freeman, 1999b Hrabrowski et al., 1998 Ogbu  Simons, 1998 Patterson, 2006 Perry et al., 2003 Thernstrom  Thernstrom, 2003).  The following literature review presents the major factors which contribute to the academic gap between Caucasians and African Americans. These factors identified in the literature include increased dropout rates, Income and Academic achievement Gaps, African American Males in Armed Forces, Contribution to the achievement gaps, race and gender exclusion and Standardized Tests in the U.S Army.  This chapter concludes with the need for bridging the academic gaps by approaching key strategic factors that are germane to its development. 

Factors that Contribute to Dropout Rates
Numerous studies about the implications of obtaining a GED certificate have been motivated by the high popularity and influence of the GED (Alsalam et al., 1993 Greene, 2002 Lawrence et al., 2003 Lofstrom, 2007).  Majority of these researches focused on outcomes for the labor market and the GED recipients post-secondary success compared to traditional high school graduates.  Studies of GED recipients labor market outcomes contain comparisons across gender, age, race or geographical regions which often yielded mixed results depending on the methodology and sample used (Alsalam et al. Greene Lawrence et al.  Lofstrom).  Researchers found conducting studies on GED recipients post-secondary education experiences has been difficult due to lack of high quality data and adequate sample sizes.

     The number of African American students who fail to graduate from high school is significantly high compared to their Caucasian counterparts (Greene, 2002).  According to Greene 56 of African Americans do not complete high school education, a higher percentage than that of Hispanics.  African American students are more likely to drop out of school than other students.  Using longitudinal student data from Texas in 1999, Lofstrom (2007) estimated that 38.5 of African Americans fail to graduate from public high school by age 20, as compared to 26 of Caucasians.
The conventional explanation for the difference in educational attainment between African Americans and Caucasians indicates differences in cognitive abilities and disparities that exist in family economics (Clark  Jaeger, 2006).  The influence of constraints in family income on the cognitive abilities and how it relates to the decision by GED holders to drop out of school are highlighted below.  Considerable evidence is offered by Cameron and Heckman (1993) that cognitive skills and family background of the recipients of GED holders differ from those of ordinary high school graduates. 

A simple mean difference and distributional assessment among high school dropouts, GED certified people, and high school graduates, follows.  The question of why GED holders drop out of school is addressed by making a comparison between GEDs and high school graduates who decide not to pursue their education.  Two major conclusions are evident.  First, deficiency in cognitive abilities does not result in the recipients of GEDs dropping out of school.  Second, there is no evidence that suggests that the recipients of GEDs drop out of school due to constraints in income (Cameron  Heckman, 1993).

    There is a high likelihood that GED recipients are raised in a single parent home, as opposed to traditional high school graduates.  The percentage of GED recipients who come from single parent families is comparable to the percentage of other high school dropouts.  The fact that holders of the GED are more likely to come from single parent families means the disparity between resources per capita of GEDs and dropouts may be smaller than the family income gap (Clark  Jaeger, 2006).  The conventional dependence on income constraints and cognitive skills in explaining high school attrition are challenged by these findings.  Non-cognitive skills may also be a major contributing factor.

    More than 50 of African American high school graduates aged 25 to 29 did not attempt higher education in 1998, according to the Current Population Survey (2009).  Advantages of a college education may have a significant role in the decision to graduate from high school.  With regard to psychometrically equating African American GED holders with typical high school graduates who fail to achieve any further education, the GED exam records a success.  Heckman et al. (2002) did not find any significant difference between the mean AFQT scores of the recipients of GEDs and the mean AFQT scores of high school graduates who failed to achieve further education by their early thirties.

Heckman et al. found that African American high school graduates with 12 years of schooling had mean AFQT scores that were significantly higher than those of high school dropouts who did not have a GED certificate.  Recipients of the GED, on average, had the same level of cognitive abilities as those of ordinary high school graduates who failed to go to college (Heckman et al.).  The cognitive ability in the Heckman et al. study was measured by AFQT average cognitive components.  Recipients of a GED are, by this same measure, more academically skilled than other high school dropouts who fail to obtain a GED.  The implication is that the holders of a GED did not drop out of school because of lack of cognitive ability (Heckman et al.).

Income and Academic Achievement Gaps
    Cognitive ability is just one of the causes of disparities in decisions about attending school (Hauser, 1993).  Economic constraints, non-cognitive abilities and time preferences may also impact educational achievement.  A conventional explanation for the differences in educational achievement is that financial disparities exist in families that preclude a college education (Hauser, 1993).  This view has been challenged by Cameron and Heckman (1993) who refer to a critical difference between the impact of family income on early education and the impact of family resources on further education.  Cameron and Heckman discovered that an important role is played by family income in earlier schooling decisions, but not directly related to the attendance in college of high school graduates.

     The income gap of the family corresponds with disparities in the education of the parents (Danielle, 2006).  Parents of high school graduates have a higher level of schooling than parents of those individuals who hold a GED, yet, the difference in years of schooling finished by high school graduates parents with further education, and GED holders parents, is smaller than the disparity between holders of the GED and all high school graduates (Danielle).  The income gaps transcend the gap in parental education, assessed at labor market price, which may be explained by the percentage of GED holders who were raised in single parent families (Danielle).

    Children who live with both parents often have a better education than those raised in single parent families (Heckman et al., 2002).  There are still questions concerning the evidence on the channels through which the structure of the family impacts the outcome of the offspring.  Results of the Heckman et al. study suggested that the role played by the family structure in the development of other non-cognitive skills may be significant, but this does not affect the cognitive features of the children.  The key to comprehending the reasons for attrition lie therein, since the structure of family is the only observed distinction between holders of GED and ordinary high school graduates.

GEDs and Dropout Rates
GED tests are widely employed in the U.S. to certify academic knowledge and skills at the level of high school.  The tests have gained much popularity since 1970 with more than 700,000 individuals taking the test annually.  A peak testing volume that numbers more than a million was attained in 2001.  The U.S. Census of 2000 indicated that approximately 40 million adults aged 15 years and older did not possess a high school diploma (American Council of Education, 2007).  The GED is largely seen as a major second chance program for adults who did not complete high school for various reasons (Danielle, 2006).  The past three decades have seen the institutionalization of GED and preparation programs through state, federal and local adult education workforce investment programs.  Public spending on the tests and preparation for them has reached a remarkably high level (Song  Hsu, 2008).  Supporters of the program believe that the recipients of GEDs have attained the same skills as individuals who hold traditional high school diplomas, and that they share equal chances of employment and access to higher education.

Numerous studies (Andrew  Whitney, 1981 Cameron  Heckman, 1993 Song  Hsu, 2008) about the implications of obtaining a GED certificate have been motivated by the high popularity and influence of the GED.  A majority of researchers have concentrated on the outcome of labor markets and the GED recipients post secondary success, especially when compared to ordinary high school graduates.  Most studies on GED recipients labor market outcomes have made comparisons across gender, age, race or geographical regions.  Studies have often yielded mixed results depending on the applied research methodologies and sample used.

A majority of recent studies seem to argue that holders of GEDs should not be categorized as high school graduates, and should be separately documented.  Greene and Winters (2005) asserted it is not appropriate to consider recipients of GED as graduates in the calculation of graduation rates since this will credit the very schools that failed to graduate these students with their successes (p. 76).  The fundamental reason that the rate of graduation is calculated is to assess the performance of schools.  Greene and Winters contended that the recipients of GEDs are not truly graduates of any specific school.  Instead, they are high school dropouts who take it upon themselves to earn an alternative certificate later in life.

Other studies (Haveman  Wolfe, 1995 Heckman,  Vytlacil, 1998) have excluded all recipients of GEDs from high school graduate calculations.  Costs and benefits of finishing high school with ordinary diplomas are affected by the presence of GEDs, and therefore, completely omitting GEDs may not provide an adequate picture.  Again, the number of GED certificates that were issued significantly increased in the 1990s.  An increasing number of these certificates went to individuals aged 19 or less.  An increased accessibility to GEDs is evident, especially for younger individuals, even though the content of academics within the program has become tougher (Laurence, et al., 1993).  Finally, an important role is played by economic considerations in whether a student obtains a GED or completes a traditional high school diploma.

Contributions to the Achievement Gap
Lee and Slaughter-Defoe (2004) suggested that the academic gap is a major part of the African American experience in school.  Lee and Slaughter-Defoe found that between the early 1970s and early 1980s, there was a decrease in the African American versus Caucasian, and the Hispanic versus Caucasian academic achievement gap.  Findings of the Lee study showed that during the same decade, Caucasian student academic achievement levels remained at the same level, while the African American student achievement level improved.  After the late 1980s, the gap began to widen again.  The most likely explanation for the increase was that more technical high schools and middle schools were being opened in predominantly Caucasian communities, but few were being opened in urban communities where the majority of African American students reside.  Lee and Slaughter-Defoes study also showed that the gap between Caucasian and Hispanic students narrowed very little compared to the gap between African American and Caucasian students, but as time passed, the gap eventually returned and became wider.  Lee and Slaughter-Defoe found that the achievement gap existed between Caucasian and African American students because of changes in school curriculum, more up-to-date equipment, and more highly educated teachers.  Lee and Slaughter-Defoe posited that it would be simplistic to conclude that African American students who were low achievers would receive more benefit from a basic academic skills emphasis, while Caucasian students who were predominantly high performers would benefit more from a higher skills emphasis.

Lee and Slaughter-Defoe concluded that the connection between culture and poverty has resulted in lower test scores, but has been ignored for a half century since being noted by Thorndike in 1951.  English (2002) noted the low success rate of minority students in schools has too often been portrayed as individual failures of students instead of instructional failures of the system based on false notions of objectivity shrouded in the mantle of impartial tests of ability (p. 298).  Many factors other than school curriculum and teacher changes must be considered when analyzing the prevailing academic achievement gap, including the prevailing culture of the various segments of the U.S. population represented in an individual classroom or school. 

Culture
Tomasson (2000) observed that differences in the accomplishments of different segments of U.S. society would always exist.  In a fluid society like the U.S., ethnic categories change form and fluctuate, but differences always exist.

The level of high achievement is an ethnic category in the U.S. dependent on the culture of origin, sector, length of time in the U. S. and rate of assimilation. Huge differences exist in levels of high achievement among different ethnic groups.  Current standardized tests are based on what Caucasian people think high achievement should look like (p. 44). 

Most African Americans see the importance of education and obtaining superior grades just as much as Caucasian. Lee and Slaughter-Defoe (2004) studied the correlation between youth culture and academic achievement.  According to the data gathered, the correlation was low.  Youth culture most likely influences both minority and Caucasian academic growth, and thus has an indirect impact on student academic achievement.  Some studies suggest that the social costs and benefits of academic success are about the same for African Americans as for Caucasians, thus casting doubt on the negative peer pressure theory, which asserts that, for a variety of reasons, Black student culture is averse to high academic achievement.  Singham (2003) suggested that racial differences are also found to be negligible for skipping school. It appears that the achievement gap between African Americans and Caucasians is sometimes caused by African American students uncertainties about succeeding in school and being labeled as acting white.  Neal-Barnett, (2001) conducted a study on the phenomenon known as acting white, and wrote her findings in a book titled, Forging Links African American Children Clinical Developmental Perspectives.  Neal-Barnett concluded that the psychosomatic allegations for being known as acting white are explicit to each individual.  Among the African American high school students that participated in the study many spoke about their anxiety and anger for being labeled by their African American peers as acting white.   
Socio-Economic Status

Lubienski (2002) found that socio-economic status (SES) influenced student achievement, as students from higher SES families tended to have higher achievement compared to students with lower SES.  First, gaps appeared to be more closely tied to SES than race.  Students from wealthier backgrounds tended to have better access to computers and to learning tools, such as calculators.  Teachers were able to provide better assessments for students with high SES to improve learning achievement than for students with low SES.  Many students who do not have easy access to better learning tools strongly believed that mathematics learning simply involves memorizing facts and also of the view that there is only a single correct mode of solving math related problems  which adds to low achievement.

Lubienski also found that African American students moved away from this belief about mathematics as they were more deeply involved in a mathematics curriculum.  Lubienski recommended that teachers should be aware of these perceptions and attitudes and be more effective with teaching methods that assist African American students to become critical thinkers, not just answer seekers. 
English (2002) found that nearly 50 of the variance in test-passing rates was determined by demographic opportunity structures such as financial capital, human capital level of parental education, cultural status, expectancy, and geographic capital level of urban influence.  Existing economic power in the community strongly influences how students learn.  English suggested that providing fair learning opportunities to different populations would help narrow the achievement gap.  A fair learning opportunity would include learning opportunities about other cultures and languages.

Curriculum Quality
Singham (2003) stated that academic resources have much greater power than SES in predicting college degree completion.  School administrators need to use the best research available about what makes students want to learn, and then provide teachers with the kinds of mentoring, training, and feedback that can take them from average teachers to highly skilled professional teachers who have a transforming effect on students.  Singham observed that such curricula would narrow the learning gap between Caucasians and minorities, at the same time increasing the performance on tests of both groups in every category.  The quality of tests has a direct impact on how well different segments of U.S. society are represented in the statistics, as discussed in the following section.

Standardized Tests
    In the 1800s, Horace Mann introduced the concept of using examinations in Boston schools to gain objective information about the quality of teaching and learning in urban schools, monitor the quality of instruction, and compare schools and teachers within each school (Gallagher, p. 85).  The tests revealed differences in student knowledge, and subsequently additional testing was implemented to facilitate judgments about student advancement (Scott, 2004).  Manns exams were so successful they were adopted by school systems across the country.  Achievement tests, considered objective and comprehensive, became a popular method for assessing learning.

World War I also had a significant impact on testing strategies in the early
20th century.  The U.S. Army required a method for quickly identifying potential officers among large numbers of recruits.  To do so, Arthur Otis and Robert Yerkes developed the Alpha Army Test, which gauged a soldiers mental capabilities.  The Alpha Army Test, which had an efficient and effective scoring method, became a model for many future standardized tests.  The test changed the image of standardized testing, and as a result, patent and copyright requests for tests soared.  Student tracking became widely used in schools as standardized tests were used to sort students into different curricula based on abilities.

Nothing is simple about educational testing, though popular belief holds otherwise (Ickes-Dunbar, 2005).  Ickes-Dunbar found that the illusion of objectivity is extremely appealing to everyones deep wish for fair and precise tools to assess learning and to predict the future success for students.  Tests, in various forms, hold high credibility in U.S. society as valid and reliable indicators of achievement and aptitude.  The intuitive trust that the public places on standardized testing reflects a widespread naivet, which discourages questioning test validity.  Current public demand for test results is apparently motivated by a reasonable need to measure whether students are acquiring knowledge, and a perceived need to hold teachers and programs accountable for competency and efficacy (Ickes-Dunbar).

The complexities of test reliability and validity are poorly understood, even by those who are directly impacted by standardized tests, including teachers, who generally lack the expertise to evaluate assessment tools, students, who accept their role as passive consumers of tests, and parents, who want children to do well on any and every test (Ickes-Dunbar).  Despite the appealing cachet of the NCLB, standardized tests are high-stakes and have the effect of sorting students along SES and linguistic divides.  Standardized tests that are a result of the NCLB also have the deleterious backwash effect of blaming teachers and students themselves for substandard performance (Ickes-Dunbar).
Waters and Boyes-Watson (2005) found that, as prediction mechanisms, standardized tests are somewhat ineffective in predicting the future performance of prospective students or employees.  Such tests cannot predict or assess drive, motivation, or the values an individual brings to career or future contributions to society.  As methods for ensuring fairness, standardized test scores are highly correlated with SES and reflect the cumulative advantages of class, rather than the inherent abilities of the candidate (Waters  Boyes-Watson). 

Sturm and Guinier (2005) reported that tests are fundamentally unfair in some respects.
The present system measures merit through scores on paper-and-pencil test.  But this measurement is fundamentally unfair.  In the educational setting, it restricts opportunities for many poor and working-class Americans of all colors and genders who could otherwise obtain a better education.  In the employment setting, it restricts access based on inadequate predictors of job performance.  It is neither fair nor functional in its distribution of opportunities for admission to higher education, entry-level hiring, and job promotion.  (p. 12)

In addition to standardized tests, youth culture, as opposed to societal culture, as it impacts student achievement, has been studied by researchers, as summarized in the following section.

               Research done by Quintero and Cooks (2002) showed that, to measure the achievement fairly, standardized tests must continue to be closely examined and changed to include more relevant content for all cultures, especially for students of color.  The cultural perspective of the test must be explored to go beyond the question of cultural bias toward modifications that decrease some of the feelings of cultural exclusion (p. 62).  All students would benefit from some type of authentic assessment.  Authentic assessment allows students to illustrate important information in more informal ways.  Quintero and Cooks presented some points about the quality of current standardized tests, positing that the scope of skills and concepts assessed on a standardized test are greater than necessary. 

            The purpose of the test, which is to assess a student performance on the curriculum, is largely forgotten.  Sometimes the context used for testing prompts on standardized writing tests is too narrow and exclusive.  For students, whose cultural backgrounds are rich and varied, cultural bias poses an equally strong potential barrier to exam success in the current standardized test form (p. 63).

Teacher Quality
Highly educated teachers are a key component in reducing the academic gap between African American and Caucasian students (Lee  Slaughter-Defoe, 2004).  Teachers who have low expectations of African American and low SES students emphasize only basic, low-level skills when working with these students.  Teachers who work in urban communities need to eliminate any biased view of students skills and set fair expectations as they do in the Caucasian communities.  Pardini (2002) commented that Compounding this gap in teaching quality is the fact that the impact of teacher expectations increases is three times as great for African American as for Caucasian students, and also larger for girls and for children from low-income families (p. 18). 

English (2002) suggested that schooling conditions and opportunities to learn affect the achievement gap.  Teachers must be able to provide high quality learning opportunities to students.  Educators mistake that lack of one kind of cultural capital as a lack of academic ability, but the truth is that the lack of motivation of many of these students serves to confirm to teachers the absence of intelligence (p.  297). Singham (2003) concluded that African American students receive a disproportionate amount of poor teaching.  It takes about 10 years of support and professional development for even most talented beginning teachers to acquire the characteristics of strong implementation teachers (p. 35).  Lee and Slaughter-Dufoe (2004) observed that teachers should have not only content knowledge or pedagogical knowledge, but also pedagogical content knowledge, to be able to effectively communicate with students.  Underlying all the previous sections about contributions to the achievement gap between African Americans and Caucasians is the hidden agenda of racial bias, as summarized in the following section (Berlak, 2001).

Race Bias in Schools
Berlak (2001), during his studies of the achievement gap, found that a major reason given for the claimed superior attainment of Caucasians in cultural, artistic, and academic endeavors over the years were overtly racist.  The explanation for these superior attainments was focused on the superior genes of Caucasian northern European, Anglo-Americans.  As the social sciences developed in the latter years of the 19th and 20th centuries, scientific tracts defending Caucasian supremacy appeared with regularity.  By the 1930s, the eugenics movement (which posited a biological basis for the superiority of Caucasians) managed to gain a small foothold in U.S. universities.  The academicians of this overtly racist movement were the leaders of a newly-emerging field of scientific mental measurement.

Many of the educators that testified before Congress in early years  provided justification for the racist immigration exclusion acts that restricted immigration from Asia, Latin America, and southern and eastern Europe (Berlak, 2001).  The movement educators started was considered a legitimate academic discipline until it was proven incorrect following the fall of the Third Reich and the knowledge that 6 million people were killed in the name of racial purity.  During the years between 1933 and 1942, the Nazi Party had a policy of persecuting andor killing people thought to be impure or impaired.  The main targets of these persecutions were minority groups such as Jews, people of color, the mentally and physically disabled, and gypsies.  The U.S. public school system was formulated in the late 1920s based upon a political education system, which in turn was based on the theory that a democracy could only survive if every citizen was educated sufficient to understand voting issues hence, compulsory education through the twelfth grade.  In addition, a strong industrial element was included.  The public education system served as a means of teaching basic reading and writing skills that would allow individuals to seek employment at low, unskilled positions in the factories, and to provide informed voters (Berlak). 

In February of 1969, Jensens emergence as an important figure in the history of human intelligence theory occurred with the publication of a controversial essay in the Harvard Educational Review. In the article, Jensen (1969) presented evidence that racial differences in intelligence test scores may have a genetic origin.  This assertion, and Jensens concomitant recommendation that Caucasian and African-American children might benefit from different types of education, drew strident criticism from many members of the academic community and the public at large (Ciancolo  Sternberg, 2004).  This political philosophy was carried on through the 1970s and survives as a hidden agenda in segments of U.S. society today (Berlak, 2001).

Race and Gender Exclusion
The U.S. education system, which is inconsistent in the manner in which race and gender are accommodated, has had a persistent pattern of exclusion of women and people of color since its inception (Sturm  Guinier, 2005).  In an attempt to correct this exclusion, Congress passed an affirmative action law that should have given all races and genders an opportunity for a quality education, resulting in an equal chance for a secure job with reasonable pay.  Sturm and Guinier found that Objectionable in them, these exclusions also signal the inadequacy of traditional methods of selection for everyone, and the need to rethink how we allocate educational and employment opportunities (p. 12).  Sturm and Guinier concluded that rethinking is crucial to the opportunity to develop productive, fair, and efficient institutions that can meet the challenges of a rapidly changing and increasingly complex marketplace.  Using the experience of those who have been marginalized to rethink educational design may forge a new progressive vision of cross-racial collaboration, functional diversity, and genuine democratic opportunity.

Chaney (1999), an educator, stated that the Department of Education appears to be of two minds when it comes to promoting sound educational standards.  On one hand, Secretary of Education Richard W. Riley championed more accountability and tougher standards to improve K-12 education.  These tougher standards would include ending the practice of social promotion by which teachers promote students to the next grade even if they have not mastered the current level.  Riley proposed changes to the Department of Education Office for Civil Rights guidelines (still in the drafting stage) to develop new and creative ways to enlarge the pool of eligible minority applicants by going beyond the traditional factors of test scores and grades (p. 20).

Test Predictability
The ability of a test to predict is known as validity.  Murray and Herrstein (1994) pointed out two fallacies with standardized tests as they relate to African American and Caucasian groups.  Tests can under-predict the performance of African American students in college, as indicated in a SAT example examined by the researchers.  A low score would lead to the conclusion that the student would be a low achiever in college.  Murray and Herrstein argued that adding an appropriate number of points is offered as an acceptable method to breach the gap for the Black applicants who find themselves in these circumstances.  No justification exists for using this method of compensation of scores.  Use of this method of social promotion for African American students indicates the fallacy of the entire process of testing regarding its measurement or predictability.

Murray and Herrstein (1994) discussed an example of standardized tests used to select Police Sergeants.  The assessment had excellent predictability for Caucasian candidates.  Caucasian applicants who performed satisfactorily on the test also performed satisfactorily in the position as Police Sergeant.  African American applicants who performed satisfactorily on the assessment did not perform satisfactorily as Police Sergeant.  The assessment was deemed not valid and reliable regarding the African American population.  The outcome can be interpreted to mean the test predicted fairly accurately for Caucasians, but failed to predict with any level of accuracy how African Americans applicants would perform in the position.  The researchers concluded that the natural remedy would be to give less weight to the test scores of African Americans than to Caucasians (Murray  Herrstein, 1994). 

        A seminar held at Howard University was intended to debate the issue of whether the African American mind was genetically inferior.  The seminar was in response to Murray and Herrsteins (1994) book, The Bell Curve, wherein they contended that African Americans achieve lower standardized tests scores because they are genetically inferior and therefore possess an inferior mind not as mentally capable as that of Caucasians.  One of the guest panelists from Howard University, Washington, D.C., was asked that if standardized tests fail to truly measure intelligence, could there be another motive for the purpose and function of them.  The panelist agreed that the tests serve as an additional tactic of exclusion, and stated that tests could not measure intelligence because intelligence cannot be defined.

Standardized Tests in the U.S. Army
After World War II, the U.S. Army instituted its Soldier Qualification Test (SQT) to test the knowledge of all recruits (U.S. Department of the Army, 2009).  The SQT is taken yearly by all members in the enlisted ranks in the U.S. Navy, Air Force, and Marine Corp.  The SQT was supplemented with tests after training exercises.  In approximately 1990, the U.S. Army stopped using the test due to budget constraints.  The cost of maintenance and implementation of the SQT were determined to be an expendable commitment of resources.  Cancellation of the SQT program left a void in the U.S. Armys capabilities for certifying a soldiers qualifications for job assignment based on performance on the test, and was supplemented by the AFQT. The U.S. Army is currently in the process of developing a cost-effective standardized test with which to determine the capabilities of recruits to perform the changing jobs and organizational structures expected with the transformation toward the Future Force U.S. Department of the Army, (1999).

A battery of standardized tests is administered for varying purposes by all branches of the Armed Forces (Department of Defense, 2008). Department of Defense information releases state that the Armed Forces Qualification Test (AFQT) is a part of the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) (2009).  The ASVAB is a standardized multiple-choice test administered to enlistees by the U.S. Military Entrance Processing Command (MEPCOM).  The test is used to determine needed qualification for a person to enlist in the httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiUnited_States_armed_forces o United States armed forcesU.S. Armed Forces. A high school student in the eleventh grade is eligible to take the ASVAB, and is also given to anyone who is eligible and wants to enlist in the U.S. Armed Forces (U.S. Department of the Army, 2009. The Army subsequently designed a program that would allow young people who have been out high school for at least six months to enlist in the Army without a GED or high school diploma.  The Armys GED Plus program allows a young person to enlist in the delayed entry program.  Before they enter the Army, they must complete the GED Plus program and pass the GED test, all of which is paid for by the Army. 

Conclusion
          There has been some form of academic gap between Caucasian and African American Students as in regards to standardized tests.  Providing fair learning opportunities to all students will help narrow the achievement gap.  The main key for narrowing down the achievement gap is having highly trained teachers who are supported by the community and a quality curriculum.  Educators must realize that standardized tests only test for a particular type of information.  Quintero (2002) emphasized that not all testing measures are good for all students.  The worst thing about standardized tests in the current format is that they are doing nothing to eliminate the achievement gap. This makes it look as if it is an African American problem instead of an institutional problem.  Singham (2003) noted that improvements should be made for all students, not just those singled out for attention based on ethnicity.

Summary
Results of these previous studies found that indeed there is an academic gap between Caucasian and African American students. Even compared to Hispanics, there are more African Americans who do not complete secondary or high school education.

Attempts to explain this gap and point at its possible predictors have produced a cacophony of possibilities that over time seem to conflict with each other.

One study suggested that the gap may be indicative of differences in cognitive abilities disparities in family economics (Clark  Jaeger, 2006) but an examination by Cameron  Heckman proved otherwise that deficiency in cognitive abilities does not predict incidence of dropping out and that no evidence supports the constraints in income hypothesis. Moreover, other findings suggest that income constraints may matter in early education but bears no relevance in college attendance. From another perspective, an exploration on the possibility of SES as a contributing factor, Lubienski found that students from lower SES who were observed to have the belief that math is simply memorizing facts and that there is only one solution, moved away from that thought when immersed in a math curriculum.

Others also propose that cognitive skills may be a major factor. Heckman et. al. (2002) though, did not find any significant difference in the AFQT scores of the recipients of GEDs compared to high school graduates who did not pursue higher education by their thirties. Further, African American high school graduates AFQT scores were significantly higher than those who did not have a GED certificate and GED recipients were found to have the same level of cognitive abilities as ordinary high school graduates who did not go to college, even higher compared to those who did not acquire a GED certificate. Again, this rules out the suggestion that cognitive abilities may be a factor.
Lee  Slaughter  Defore examined the likely explanation of the gap as caused by the increase in middle or vocational schools but this contradicts the fact that the majority of African American drop outs resided in urban areas while more of the technical schools were in Caucasian areas.

Others also propose that it may be a matter of culture matter of culture that is, that huge difference exist in levels of high achievement among different cultures. Singham (2003) however found that racial differences are negligible. In Neal  Barnetts study though, on the phenomenon of acting white, it appears that the gap may be due to African American students uncertainties of succeeding and being labeled by peers as acting white.

Finally, other researchers like Singham propose that the gap may be due to lack of resources in schools, racial bias in school systems, race and gender exclusion, teacher quality, curriculum quality and many other possible factors.

Apparently, not one unifying factor exists to explain the academic gap between Caucasians and African Americans and many of these studies attribute it to various cultural factors with conflicting results or conclusions over time.

Perhaps because the previous research approached the issue more as a socio  cultural and economic phenomenon, the studies were not able to closely examine and gather detailed information directly from those who experience real situations that led to their lagging behind in the academic arena.
By doing this study and examining the attitudes and lived experiences of the African Americans who belong to this population, it is expected that better answers that describe the entire spectrum of the experience would be gathered. Real and perceived underpinnings and nuances  even every socio  cultural aspects of the issue would be explored and finding answers whether the above  mentioned possibilities or predictors are in fact, actually experienced by them.



CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the proposed qualitative  study is to examine and describe, using a phenomenological approach, the lived experiences of eight GED recipient African American males in the U.S. Army regarding perceptions and attitudes about standardized tests and whether the prospect of standardized testing in high school or the U.S. Army affected enlistment decisions.  The following chapter presents a summary of the selection of the grounded theory methodology in lieu of other methodologies.  The discussion encompasses the setting and population from which the participants will be drawn, the methods used to collect data, data analysis, validity and reliability, ethical assurances, and concludes with a chapter summary.

Appropriateness of the Research Design
    The selection of a research methodology, whether quantitative or qualitative, depends upon the features of each method when related to the problem under study and the research questions. Several methods of data collection were considered for the present study.  Quantitative designs focus on the collection of numerical data, which would not suit the purposes of collecting perceptions and attitudes from the African American male participants (Cooper  Schindler, 2006).  Cooper and Schindler reported that the most frequently used instrument employed in quantitative studies is the survey questionnaire wherein questions are presented to participants that can be answered with a numerical quotient.  A quantitative design was deemed inappropriate because the purpose of the study will be to describe a situation where the variables and patterns are unknown. 

    Action research, another method that was considered, employs both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to obtain information pertaining to a complex practical problem about which not much is known (Mills, 2006).  Actions taken with this methodology are to gather results, analyze the resulting data, decide on a solution to the problem, take corrective actions, assess the results of the corrective action, and evaluate the results of the actions.  As the purpose of the proposed study does not include corrective action, this method was deemed inappropriate.

    Research that employs the collection of both quantitative and qualitative data to determine the answer to a study problem is termed mixed method (Creswell, 2007).  The challenge in the study design is deciding which method should first be employed, how much emphasis each method should be given, and at which point the data will be gathered (i.e. sequentially or concurrently).  This method was deemed inappropriate for the proposed study as no quantitative data will be gathered.
Qualitative methodologies encompass a wide range of techniques that provide descriptions, translations, and other processes that pertain to meanings, rather than to frequency or numerical results pertaining to social phenomena (Cooper  Schindler, 2006).  Qualitative studies are designed to generate data from written or recorded evidence drawn from participants expressions, observation of participant behaviors, or the study of evidence from the physical environment (Creswell, 2007).  Mills (2006) added that in this form of study the researcher does not access data collection with a questionnaire that confines answers to numerical scales.  The methodology that will be used in the proposed study will be Grounded theory.  Grounded theory is a qualitative research approach that was originally developed by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s.  This theory is a widely-used approach in qualitative research.  Grounded theory is a qualitative research method that uses a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon (Strauss  Corbin, 1990, p. 24).  The purpose of Grounded theory is to build a theory that is faithful to the evidence and data gathered during the research and is a method researchers use to discover new theories.    Grounded theory does make reference to other theories following the collection and analysis of data (Strauss  Corbin).  

The aim of qualitative research is to investigate attitudes, behaviors and experiences (Baker  Hart, 2007).  The proposed study will use interviews to gather data from the participants.  Qualitative research seeks personal opinions from respondents to assist in understanding phenomena.  Social scientists favor a number of different research methods for reasons of effectiveness and feasibility.  Berg (1989) argued that to conduct research, the primary element to take into consideration is the design of the study, and after that, the most appropriate data collection and analysis processes should be chosen.  There are a number of options available for qualitative researchers for example, case studies, literature reviews, natural experiments, participant observations, interviews, and secondary analysis of data, or combination of these constructs are frequently utilized for social science research.  The proposed study is the study of a phenomenon therefore, the method chosen for data collection and analysis is Grounded theory.

The proposed study is targeted at exploring how standardized testing has affected the decisions of male, GED holding African American members of the U.S. Army.  For the purpose of the study, the data collection method employed will be interviews with eight to 10 African American males in the U.S. Army.  Frey and Oishi (1995) defined an interview as A purposeful conversation in which one person asks prepared questions (interviewer) and another answers them (respondent) (p. 1).  This method of study will provide critical insight into the issue at hand.  Since individual interviews will be inclusive of open-ended questions that invite comment and exploration, the researcher will obtain a comprehensive knowledge regarding the views of African American males in the military about standardized testing and how it has or has not affected their decision to drop out of school or enlist. This will contribute much to the existing literature, since it will offer more evaluation and data than is currently present.  It is also possible that this method will discover other data that has not been considered, which may lead to further research.  By personally talking to male African American members of the U.S. Army who possess a GED, real information will be gained and enable conclusions regarding the effects of standardized testing on the respondents.  By using interviews instead of other means, such as questionnaires, the researcher can clarify points by inviting participants to elaborate on experiences and decisions.

    Cooper and Schindler (2006) observed that a grounded methodology is a qualitative procedure that employs interviews from a number of participants at a given time.  The present study seeks to obtain a deeper understanding of a specific group of people about a specific situation the proposed study seeks to determine the impact standardized tests have had on African American male members of the U.S. military after they left high school and joined the U.S. Army as GED recipients.  Neuman (2007) suggested that qualitative methods are desirable for studies in which a researcher is involved at an interactive level.  Leedy and Ormrod (2005) found that qualitative research should be used when the research purpose is to build a theory, interpret, explore, describe, or explain a phenomenon, which is precisely the purpose of the present study.  Leedy and Ormrod also acknowledged that a researcher should not move to quickly when answering their research questions.  They must be willing to take their time and understand the phenomena they are studying.  The phenomena under study are the perceptions and attitudes of African American males toward standardized tests, and whether such attitudes and perceptions may have caused them to influence the context or course of their lives.

Typically, a grounded theory study focuses on a process (including peoples actions and interactions) related to a particular topic, with the ultimate goal of developing a theory about that process (Creswell, 2007).  Information is collected, analyzed from various angles to construct a rich and meaningful picture of a complex, multifaceted situation (Leedy  Ormrod, 2005.  Leedy and Ormond also stated, By looking at multiple perspectives on the same situation, the researcher can make generalizations of what something is like from an insiders perspective (p. 139).

The term grounded refers to the idea that the theory that emerges from the study is derived from, and grounded in data that has been collected in the field rather than from the research literature.  Grounded theory studies are especially helpful when current theories about a phenomenon are either inadequate or nonexistent (Creswell, 2007).  The intent of a grounded theory study is to move beyond description and to generate or discover a theory from which a reverse hypothesis can be proposed, one that only applies to the phenomenon under study (Strauss  Corbin, 1998).  Interviews are not uncommon in many qualitative research studies, but face-to-face interviews are very common to grounded theory study.  This approach was deemed appropriate for the proposed study.

Grounded theory is a systematic, inductive approach to developing a theory to assist in defining complex social processes (Glaser, 1978).  Grounded theorists support the view that each group experiences a basic social-psychological problem not usually made explicit or articulated by the group (Wilson  Hutchinson, 1991).  A grounded methodology is a systematic qualitative methodology in the social sciences that emphasizes the generation of a theory from data, and the methodology follows a four-step process.  Data gathered are coded, concepts are isolated, categories are established, and finally, a theory is proposed.

In the context of Glasers approach to grounded theory, theoretical sensitivity refers to the conceptual ability of the researcher to recognize the patterns of behavior discovered in data (Glaser 1992 Glaser  Strauss 1967).  Glaser (1978 further underscores the importance that researchers using a grounded theory methodology need to develop the necessary theoretical sensitivity to discover substantive, grounded categories.  This is a necessary prerequisite in the process of transcending from description to conceptual theory (Guthrie, 2000).  In a grounded theory study, the literature review has the specific purpose of minimizing literature distortion of emergent categories (Glaser, 1992).  By restricting the literature, there is a reduced likelihood that the data will be manipulated to support existing theory and findings (Glaser  Strauss 1967 Strauss  Corbin 1998). 

Interviews will be used to seek out, gather, and understanding information that will be useful in researching this human phenomenon.  A valid grounded theory is conducted in a manner that balances both flexibility and consistency during interviews so the researcher can capture the perceptions accurately (Creswell, 2007).  Rubin and Rubin (1995) described two different forms of an interview.  First, cultural interviews seek special or shared meanings of the members of one group, and the activities in which the group engages.  Second, topical interviews probe will be direct questions concerned with the pursuit of facts about the study.  Rubin and Rubin noted that during a topical interview, the researcher has a more active role in directing the questioning than in a cultural interview.  The proposed study will utilize topical interviews however, some cultural aspects may emerge.  Other researchers have detailed three types of interviews fully structured, semi-structured, and unstructured.  The study is designed to utilize a semi-structured design, and the process of data collection will take place through in-person interviews (Hamilton  Bowers, 2006 Smith, Ferguson,  Caris, 2002).

Regarding the research questions cited in Chapter 1, and the importance of maintaining a flexible context, participants will be asked to respond to open-ended questions about experiences pertaining to standardized tests.  The questions were based on the review of the literature in Chapter 2, and the identified gap in the knowledge in Chapter 1.  The questions were designed to elicit information about the experiences GED recipient African American male members of the U.S. Army have had with standardized tests and the impact on them during and after high school attendance.

Setting and Participants
Following is a description of the setting within which the proposed study will take place, and an overview of the intended participants.  Dallas is a city within Dallas County, Texas.  The population in 2000 was 1,188,580 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000).  In 2000, the medium income was 37,628 thus, 9.6 of the residents live below the national poverty line.  Of the residents of Dallas, 314,678 are African American, 630,419 are Caucasian, and the remaining number is from other races (U.S. Census Bureau). The city is well known for its role in the petroleum industry, telecommunications, computer technology, banking, and transportation and is the core of the largest inland metropolitan area in the U.S.. 

The proposed study will involve one-on-one interviews with eight African American males who dropped out of high school, obtained a GED, and joined the U.S. Army.  The population will be drawn from the Military Entrance Processing Command (MEPS) in Dallas, Texas, which is the largest MEPS in the southwest.  According to researched data from the Dallas MEPS (mepcom.army.milmepsdallasidex.html), the Dallas MEPS is one of a network of 65 MEPS located nationwide and in Puerto Rico.  A separate Department of Defense (DoD) agency, the U.S. Military Entrance Processing Command (USMEPCOM) is comprised of two geographical sectors and staffed with personnel from all military services.  The mission of USMEPCOM and the Dallas MEPS is to process individuals for enlistment or induction into the armed services, based on Department of Defense (DOD) approved peacetime and mobilization standards. 

Instrumentation
Potential participants will be identified by the Dallas MEPS Education Services Department.  A letter of invitation that includes a consent form (Appendix A) will be sent to potential participants through the auspices of the MEPS.  From those who respond, eight will be randomly selected for participation in the study, with the expectation that at least eight will be able to complete the interview process.  A short demographic survey (Appendix B) will be administered to establish the parameters of the respondents, followed by an Interview Protocol that includes the semi-structured questions that pertain to the three research questions posed in Chapter 1 (Appendix C). The Interview Protocol will be used to ensure that all interviews have commonality.  The proposed Interview Protocol will be used as a template to structure each interview process for each participant.  If needed, follow-up questions for clarification will be asked of the participants.

Data Collection
Data will be collected consistent with a grounded theory methodology.  Qualitative researchers are more personally involved in the study, whereas quantitative researchers are more disconnected from the actual participants in the study (Tomal, 2003).  The proposed interviews will be face-to-face conversations in quiet places such as public libraries or a Dallas MEPS conference rooms.  A tape recorder will be used to reinforce field notes and to increase the accuracy of the data collection.  The interviews will entail an informal, conversational process through open-ended questions and conversations pertinent to the purpose of the study.  Moustakas (1994) stated that it is the interviewers responsibility to create a comfortable environment in which participants can respond truthfully and expansively consequently, a comfortable environment, possibly a conference room or lounge, will be used for the proposed interviews.

African American male members of the U.S. Army possessing a GED certificate will be selected and interviewed by the researcher, whose qualifications are stated in a following section entitled Role of the Researcher.  Respondents will be randomly selected to ensure a balanced representation.  Interviewing is considered to be both a research methodology and a social relationship (Seidman, 2006).  Seidman (2006) stated that

One major difference, however, between qualitative and quantitative approaches
is that in in-depth interviewing we recognize and affirm the role of the instrument, the human interviewer.  Rather than decrying the fact that the instrument used to gather data affects this process, we say the human interviewer can be a marvelously smart, adaptable, flexible instrument who can respond to situations with skill, tact, and understanding. (p.10)

Creswell (2007) found that, qualitative research begins with assumptions, a worldview, the possible use of a theoretical lens, and the study of research problems inquiring into the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem.  The results of the proposed study will originate from the experiences of the African American participants and descriptions and interpretations of the impact of standardized tests on them.  Interview goals include encouraging participants to think about specific experiences regarding the subject of the proposed study and to describe such experiences in detail (Johnson  Christensen, 2000). 

The interviews will consist of semi-structured questions to guide conversations. According to
Seidman (2006) qualitative researchers need to encourage the interview process by allowing respondents to ask questions or provide comments during or after the interview.  To ensure the validity of the transcribed content of the interview, copies of the description of experiences will be sent to participants prior to completion of the study.  Each participant will be asked to carefully examine the textural-structural description of comments ascribed to them, and make additions or corrections.  The length of the study and the accuracy of the field notes and audio recordings will develop the validity and reliability of the proposed study.

The proposed study will provide confidentiality to all participants.    Confidentiality will be discussed first when respondents are invited to participate, and when respondents sign the consent form at the bottom of the letter, which acknowledges understanding of the interview process.  In addition, confidentiality will be explained to participants at the beginning of the interview.  Demographic records containing participants names will be kept with the research records for authentication and verification of transcript information and will neither be included in the research results nor shared with anyone.  Audiotape and journal notes will be kept in a secure location for three years, and then destroyed.

Pilot Study
Pilot testing of a protocol is required because no amount of intellectual calculation can substitute for testing a procedure or the questions contained within that procedure (Creswell, 2007).  The demographic survey and interview protocol will be tested on two people who will be selected based on availability.  The pilot study will identify any issues with the clarity of the questions, review the focus and applicability of the questions, and test the procedure.  Two participants will be drawn from the list of participants who respond positively to the invitation to participate in the study.  The pilot study will be used to ensure the clarity, user-friendliness, wording, and meaning of the questions.  If the semi-structured questions do not need to be changed, then this data will be included in the final analysis, providing up to eight participants for this proposed research.

Main Study
The researcher will use audiotape recordings of face-to-face interviews for data collection. The interview will be conducted at a venue which both the researcher and respondent find conducive. The letter of invitation and informed consent (Appendix A) will be reviewed and confidentiality assured with each participant prior to all interviews.  A specific protocol will be used for the semi-structured interview sessions, beginning with a demographic survey (Appendix B), followed by the main Interview Protocol (Appendix C).  Observations will be used at both the formative and summative phases of evaluation.  Mahoney (1997) concluded observational techniques are methods that allow an individual to gather first hand data about programs, processes, or behaviors that are being studied p. 25).  Mahoney also stated that, the participant observer should be fully engaged in experiencing the project setting while striving to understand that setting through personal experience, observations, and interactions and discussions with participants.  Mahoney posited that interviews provide a data collection opportunity during which the perceptions of participants can be identified.  In addition, the National Science Foundation (1993) stated, the most fundamental distinction between various observational strategies is the extent to which the observer will be a participant in the setting being studied.  Therefore, the role of the researcher is important and a critical aspect of the validity of the results.

Role of the Researcher
Qualitative results draw on the experience of the researcher and depend on the researchers ability to draw conclusions from wordy data based on the respondents perspectives (Creswell, 2007).  The objective of qualitative research is exploratory and the researchers role is investigative.  The researcher for the proposed study is a dedicated human resource professional with six years of counseling experience, 23 years of military leadership experience, and doctoral program training in counseling studies.  He has demonstrated his talents in the area of increasing efficiency and productivity.  He oversees several operations of the Department of Army Human Resources office and ensures they are functioning in an appropriate manner in accordance with the established mission statement.  These experiences and skills increase the researchers preparation for the proposed research.

Ethical Assurances
In any research where human beings are the subject, each person must be told and informed of the aim of the research, the methods by which the research will be conducted, discover any conflict of interest, reveal institutional affiliations of the researcher, and describe the benefits and risks of the research being conducted (Creswell, 2007).  The subject must be told of the right to not participate in the research, and the right to withdraw at any time during the research without reprisal.  After ensuring the subject understands the information, the researcher should ensure the subjects informed consent in writing.  Each described step will be taken in the proposed study.

Capella University has an approved Institutional Review Board (IRB) the members of which (a) approve the process by which the proposed research will be done, (b) ensure the ethical treatment of the human research participants, and (c) approve the documents that are generated during the research.  The proposed study will be in compliance with the policy of Capella University (Policy 02.08) use of Human Participants Subjects in Research.  The researcher will also follow the guidelines in the federal governments 45 CFR 46, as well as any state, professional societies, or organizations relevant to the research project.  The interviews will have clear and reasonable questions and language that will be understandable by all participants.  The guidelines for protection of electronic data collection will be implemented to ensure the confidentiality and privacy of the participants.

Data Analysis
The proposed study will use qualitative data analysis prescribed by the grounded research methodology, a four-step process described in an earlier section.  Qualitative models of data analysis provide ways to discern, examine, compare and contrast, and interpret meaningful patterns or themes (Berkowitz, 1997).  Qualitative data analysis utilizes fewer universal rules and standardized procedures than quantitative analysis.  Seidman (2006) stated that critical qualitative researchers analyze data by listening carefully to the words of the participants, by using these words to report the results, and by looking for significant material within individual interviews and connections among interviews and participants, all of which validate a scientific result.

The proposed study will employ in-depth, semi-structured, open-ended questions. Johnson and Christensen (2000) suggested data need to be analyzed by looking for significant statements and themes, information participants state as being important to them, and by identifying the essence of the phenomenon described.  As Creswell (2007) suggested, as qualitative researchers collect data, they need to value the importance of the participants and the sites where research takes place as being part of the results.  Creswell also suggested that qualitative research assists researchers in collecting data from individuals who are experiencing a phenomenon and that such results are valid.  The interview data will be analyzed and presented by organizing excerpts from transcripts into categories, and subsequently searching for connecting threads and patterns for common themes in the results.  Data in the proposed grounded theory study will be in narrative format, which will provide thick, textural, and structural descriptions of the stories of the individuals and the phenomenon (Creswell).

Validity and Reliability
          A central question when reviewing research is discerning if the methodology and findings are valid and reliable.  Creswell (2005) suggested validity is the degree to which the increment of measurement actually measures what it is designed to measure. Reliability refers to infinite repeatability of the data (Creswell, 2007).  Babbie (2003) also defined reliability as the ability of the research to be replicated in a different setting with similar results.  Because the proposed study will be qualitative, the purpose was not to test a hypothesis, but rather to gain a rich understanding one specific phenomenon (Farber, 2006).  The proposed studys distinctiveness will be valuable to the U.S. Army in regard to intentions of recruits to re-enlist as well as applications to the fields of education and counseling.
 Internal Validity

      Anfara, Brown, and Mangione (2002) referred to five dimensions of interpretation that underscore internal validity credibility, meaning, importance, transferability, and implications of the results.  These five areas permit researchers to draw logical conclusions regarding the data collected.  From a qualitative perspective, internal validity yields conclusions about the cause and effect of the impact of standardized tests had on African American males in the aforementioned city.
External Validity

  External validity suggests that the conclusions drawn from a study may be generalized to other similar situations (Kitzinger, 1995).  Measures will be taken to secure external validity by consulting the African American males who will participate in the study to determine if the conclusions drawn are accurate.  The researcher will share the findings with each participant at the end of the study to validate if the themes, patterns, and findings are congruent.  A shared understanding of the impact standardized tests have on African American males could assist U.S. Army leaders in assessing and remediating any negative effects of the identified phenomenon (Herrin  Spears, 2007).

Summary
The proposed qualitative, grounded theory methodology that will be used for the study was outlined in previous sections, as well as the appropriateness of the proposed research design, the setting and population, data collection procedures and rationale, data analysis procedures, validity, reliability, and ethical assurances.  The goal of the proposed study is to examine the effect standardized tests had on African American males when they were in high school, how the effect of standardized testing influenced their decisions to drop out and later obtain a GED certificate, and their decisions for enlistment with standardized tests in the U.S. Army. The following chapter identifies the study findings, presents a comprehensive review of the data collection, and is an analysis of participants perspectives regarding the research problem.