Sociology

The current study aimed to determine if there are significant differences in the perceptions of 18-30 year old Irish and Turkish youth on the inclusion of Turkey to the European Union. Utilising 120 Irish and 120 Turkish respondents to a survey questionnaire, it was found that the following statements were agreed upon more by Turkish respondents Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc and enriches Europes religious diversity. On the other hand, the following items have been agreed upon more by Irish respondents Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices Consolidates common European religious interests and values Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity Promotes free expression of religion IV23I - Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe and  Improves the practice of religion in Turkey. It is apparent from the foregoing results that Irish respondents hold a more secular view of the inclusion of Turkey to the EU, seeing more benefits on the inclusion of Turkey to the EU. The fact that youth have been surveyed in the current paper is encouraging though, since they hold more accepting views of this proposition.
 
Attitudes of 18-20 year olds towards the Inclusion of Turkey in the European Union A Comparative Study of Irish and Turkish Views

The Influence of Religion on Turkey
In the joining of Turkey in EU, Islam does not formally play a role. However, even though this is the case, many still think of whether Turkey would fit into the European Union (EU). They ask whether Turkish Islam is well-suited with democracy, human rights and separation of state and religion. The essential question posed, however, is whether the fact that most of its population is Muslim is a barrier to their acceptance into the EU (Toprak 1981).

The decision to accept Turkey in the EU will be based on the evaluation of Turkeys progress with meeting the political Copenhagen criterion that appointment negotiation can start. This Copenhagen criterion specifies that the country should have a stable democracy and a state that is constitutionally mandated wherein it guarantees the rule of law, human rights and rights of minorities (Toprak 1981). Because of this, it can be said quite confidently that religion may not play a direct role in this criterion. The status of candidate member given to Turkey in 1999 therefore has not been influenced by the fact that majority of the population in Turkey are Muslim. After September 11, 2001, the member states were increasingly alarmed about Muslims and Islam. This added to the growing doubts over the compatibility of Turkeys Islamic character with the political goals of the European Union and its member states. Aside from that, they also raised cultural and religious points to object to Turkeys membership (Muftuler-Bac 2000 Yesilada 2002).   

Another important question is whether there are developments taking place in Turkey that would harmfully influence the outlook of Turkish Islam towards indispensable EU values. The Turkish state is protected by the constitution adjacent to religious influences. In this respect, the country has the similar precise separation between the state and religion as does France. Certainly, Frances so called laicism supplied the model for the constitution of the Republic of Turkey. On the other hand, unlike the French state, the Turkish state still practices a strong control and influence over religion (Toprak 1981, 2006 Yukleyen 2009).

All these questions are important in the acceptance of Turkey into EU but in order to answer this, it is also essential to understand the stand of religion in the EU itself.

Influence of Religion in Ireland
The Catholic Church in Ireland is tough and likewise an active force in everyday life, this marks the place from other Western societies. In the same vein, some authors say that when it comes to belief in the existence of soul, in life after death, in heaven, and hell, the Irish score much higher in surveys than the rest of the developed world to seem not part of the world at all (Layman 1991 Bruce 2007).
In the case of Ireland, one important aspect on the issue of religious influence is the decline of the influence of religion. This question is modeled in Webers argument that modernizing and industrializing societies such as Ireland are also secularizing one. It is him who expressed that modern societies triumphed magic and mysticism through economic rationality and science. The effort for independence has added to an intimate identification linking loyalty to the nation and loyalty to the church. In Ireland, their tradition with regards to the nationalist or republican differs greatly from the of France or Portugal where secularists recognize liglise as being in coalition against the republican institutions made up of la mairie, lecole, et la poste (Layman 1991 Anderson, and Shuttleworth 1998.).

At first look, Ireland seems to be unaffected by the secularization thesis and it is apparent that religion is up to now a relevant part of their society in terms of culture and behavior of the people. This was explained by the fact that the Catholic Church controls the educational institutions, health systems and welfare institutions and has a continued influence on family structure and individual level relationships. To sum it up, the Catholic Church has an essential role on the process of modernization of Irish society (Beach 1977 McAllister 1983).   

Research Aims
The current research aims to establish if there are significant differences in the perceptions of Turkish and Irish youth towards the inclusion of Turkey to the EU.

Research Objectives

1) To establish if there are significant differences between Turkish and Irish youth towards their political and religious views in terms of the following 
a) Unbelievers in God  Allah (whichever is applicable) being unfit for political office
b) The idea that it is better if stronger religious believers hold public office
c) Religious leaders influencing voters in elections and
d) Religious leaders influencing government decisions

2) To establish if there is a significant differences between Turkish and Irish youth towards the inclusion of Turkey to the European Union in terms of the following 
a) Being well informed about the proposed inclusion of Turkey into the European Union
The inclusion of Turkey in the EU...
b) Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices
b)  Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc
c) Consolidates common European religious interests and values
d) Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe
e) Enriches Europes religious diversity
f)  Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity
g)  Promotes free expression of religion
h)  Strengthens the role of the European Union in the international scene on the realm of religion
i) Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses
j)  Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses
k) Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe
l)  Improves the practice of religion in Turkey


Review of Related Literature
Perspectives on Turkey Joining the EU Political Perspective
Slightly, a similar reflection can be observed in Greece and in Turkey in relation to their foreign policy objective in comparison with the European Union. Both countries relations with the EU have quite been determined by their efforts to call one another to explain, and have been dictated by their long-standing mutual hostility. Indeed, the timing of the Turkish application for correlated membership can be viewed in the framework of Turkeys traditional concerns about Greek diplomacy, in that it feared that Greece would use its association with the EU to its disadvantage, in order to gain more concessions with regard to the issues between them. This was also the case for Greece her traditional concern over Turkey constituted an important element in the decision of the Greek government in 1959 to negotiate an association agreement with the EU and apply for full membership in June 1975 (Ahmad 1991 Desoldato 2002).

Influence of Religion in Turkey
Turkey is essential to the U.S. plan for shaping the Middle Eastern security environment as a Muslim-majority that is also a secular democratic state member of NATO, and an old U.S ally. On the other hand, Turkey has not been protected from the changes that have altered the religio-political setting of the Muslim world in current decades, which contain an increase of religiosity and an increase in the political expression of Islam (Hughes 2004). There are three factors that generated these trends, for one there is the materialization of religious entrepreneurial sector, second, the rise of a dominant political party with Islamic roots, and lastly, a political crisis in the early part of 2007 over the selection of a new president (Teitelbaum  Martin, 2003).

Empirical Studies
Many see religion as a barrier to developmental politics. But as seen in the literature boom that are now looking at religion as a barrier and a bridge towards developmental politics, one can see that indeed religion is taken as a more positive force today than in the early times. Take for an example the study conducted by Harris (1994) who aimed to look at the multidimensional aspects of religion and its effects on political participation of African- Americans. For one, the author would like to correct stereotyped ideas about this group of people such as the belief that they have an otherworldly religious orientation that is far from worldly concerns such as politics. His work will use Walds theory of religion and political action by focusing at it as a source for political mobilization.

Harris (1994) showed his conceptual framework through a causal model of religion and political action. In this, he stated that there are direct and indirect effects of religion in its different forms. The causal model he proposed shows that religious beliefs and practices promote both psychological and organizational sources of participation, thus fostering individual and collective action. By identifying this relationship it will allow for the examination of the direct impact of religious factors on political action and the indirect impacts of religious factors on intermediary sources of political action such as interests and views.

The study utilized data from the 1987 General Social Survey. Some of the indicators used in the study includes frequency of church attendance, membership in church- allied groups, active membership in church affiliation, level of activity in a church group, frequency of prayer, perceived clones with God, and lastly, perceived strength of religious affiliation.

On the study conducted by Mitchell (2005), he understood religion as a dynamic of personal and group identification, as the key to enlightening the social significance of religion. Data was gathered mainly on in-depth interviews which led to the finding of four main ways wherein religion advises methods of social identification and community construction in Ireland (1) it plays the role of identity markers practical role religious rituals, symbolic role of religious ideas in community construction and lastly the situation wherein doctrine can legitimize oppositional social identifications.
The paper also answered how one can capture the different ways religious ideas and structure can aid people in making sense of the world (Mitchell 2005). For one, religious affiliations more often than not determine ones place in the social and political structure especially in the case of a state where religion is elevated to a significant position as in Ireland where Protestant and Catholic identifications are deeply embedded and that both impinge in almost every aspect of public life. The study analyzed these identifications through in-depth interviews with 35 individuals aided by informal discussions with interviewees and others. It also used field observations of different religious events etc from 2000 to 2001. On the analysis part, the author focused on interpreting how people express themselves to others. It notes how stories cancel out identities (Mitchell 2005).


The methodology chapter shall be dedicated to the presentation of the various methodologies that the researcher has utilized to attain the objectives of the research. Moreover the methods that are presented herein are those that enable the collection and analysis of valid and reliable data, towards the achievement of the studys objectives.

Research Design
Overall, the current study is a non-experimental, quantitative correlational research, which intends to explore the views of Irish and Turks on the prospective inclusion of Turkey onto the European Union. T-tests have been used to statistically compare the views of the two groups on a variety of dimensions. Moreover, correlations have been computed to determine if beliefs and practices in religion have a significant relationship with their perceptions on the inclusion of Turkey onto the EU. A research with a quantitative design uses numbers in ascertaining relationships between and  or among variables (Hopkins 2008 Trochim 2006). Because numbers play a critical role in such a design, statistics is likewise a means for achieving the objectives of quantitative research.
There are various benefits for the use of the quantitative research design. One is that it is a valid means of gathering outcomes for the rejection or acceptance of research hypotheses. Moreover, it lends a very structured manner of gathering data, making it relatively easy for the researcher to deploy, consolidate, and analyze the results statistically. The next advantage has to do with the use of statistics, which is considered an effectual way of presenting the results of the research. Finally, the outcomes of the research may be presented in legitimate publications, in lieu of its effective use of statistics (Creswell, 2003). Having acknowledged these advantages, the researcher decided to use a purely quantitative research design for the current study.  

The study is likewise non-experimental in nature. This research design characteristic is described as a design where the variables of interest are observed as they occur, without any interventions from the researcher, or without the modification of the independent variables (KovacBurns 2005). Non-experimental researches are depicted as follows 1) it utilizes human traits as independent variables that are not modified in the study through any research intervention 2) the variables of interest cannot be modified because of ethical considerations and 3) the objectives of the research compel the use of a non-experimental approach to yield realistic outcomes. In the present study, there is a need to use a non-experimental approach since the independent variables of interest are religion and nationality, whereas the dependent variable has to do with their perceptions on the inclusion of Turkey onto the EU. Therefore, it is more apt for these variables to be observed as they occur rather than to manipulate them.

The current research is also correlational in nature, since one of the objectives of the study is to ascertain if there is a significant relationship between religious beliefs and practices on one hand, and perceptions about inclusion of Turkey onto the EU on the other. Correlational research is depicted as a research that investigates the extent of the relationship between variables of interest (Olsen  St. George, 2004). Various measures of correlation exist, and the use of each one is determined by the level of measurement of the variables that are being investigated. In the present study, religious beliefs and practices, and perceptions of the inclusion of Turkey onto the EU are both measured in the interval scale. Therefore, the use of the Pearson correlation coefficient is warranted. It is also worth noting that in correlational research, there is no intention to determine the directions of causality it is only intended to evaluate the  relationship between two variables (Olsen  St. George 2004 KovacsBurns 2005).

In particular, the researcher uses a cross-sectional, correlational research design. This is adopted for the following reasons 1) the researcher yields data a number of times, utilizing questionnaires and 2) the research intends to investigate the influence of religious beliefs and practices to their perceptions of the inclusion of Turkey onto the EU (Triola 2008).

Sampling
The respondents for the research have been selected through purposive sampling, which is a non-probability sampling methodology. Based on the views of Ritchie and Lewis (2003), this methodology is utilized when the researcher intends to select individuals who have pre-determined characteristics that are necessary to answer the research objectives. The respondents are then chosen on the basis of the purpose of the research (Silverman, 2005). Therefore, the group of respondents included in the sample answers such purpose. The respondents who do not match the inclusion criteria are not enlisted onto the sample.

The current study involved the selection of 240 respondents. 120 respondents were Irish, while the remainder were Turkish. Another inclusion criterion apart from nationality was age. The respondent, to be included in the sample, had to be between 18 to 30 years old. In summary, the following were the inclusion criteria of the current study 1) must be either Irish or Turkish 2) be between 18-30 years old and 3) must explicitly express willingness to participate in the study. The number of respondents were complied with through snowball sampling, where each respondent gave the researcher referrals of their friends or acquaintances who would likely be willing to participate in the research as well. This procedure has been followed until there was a sufficient number of participants for the study.

Procedure
There are two types of data, primary and secondary. Based on Trochim (2001), primary data is garnered by the researcher himself through research subjects respondents or participants. In the current study, the main instrument for collecting data was an adapted survey questionnaire measuring religious beliefs  practices and views about the inclusion of Turkey onto the European Union.
The questionnaires in the current study have been adopted from two standardized tools 1) Solidarity and Religion in the European Union A Sociological Perspective by Anthony M. Abela (2003) and 2) the European Commissions (2006) study entitled Attitudes Towards European Union Enlargement. Logically, the questions for the Religion cluster have been culled from the first study, while views on inclusion of Turkey to the European Union have been adapted from the latter study. Moreover, secondary data were also used in the study, from books, journals, and online references.

Chapter 4
Results and Discussion

Table 1. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Gender (Overall).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidMale 15665.065.065.0 Female8435.035.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
The frequency and percentage breakdown by gender shows that the sample is predominantly male, accounting for 65 of the respondents, while the remainder 35 are females.

Table 2. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Nationality (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidIrish12050.050.050.0 Turk12050.050.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
In terms of nationality, 50 of the sample are Irish, while the rest are Turks.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics Age (Overall).    
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationAge24018.0030.0024.02503.70562Valid N (listwise)240   
The average age of the sample is 24.02 years.

Table 4. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in a Personal God (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes18075.075.075.0 No3615.015.090.0 Dont Know2410.010.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
When asked on their belief in a personal God, 75 of the respondents said yes 15 expressed no while the remaining 10 said they do not know.

Table 5. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Life after Death (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes18075.075.075.0 No4820.020.095.0 Dont Know125.05.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
The sample was likewise asked on their belief in life after death, to which 75 of the respondents said yes 25 expressed no while 5 responded they do not know.

Table 6. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Hell (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes13255.055.055.0 No6025.025.080.0 Dont Know4820.020.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
The next question asked about their belief in hell. 55 said they do believe in hell 25 said no, while 20 said they do not know.

Table 7. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Heaven (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes16870.070.070.0 No6025.025.095.0 Dont Know125.05.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
For the item on belief in heaven, the frequency and percentage breakdown shows that 70 believe in heaven 25 do not and 5 are uncertain.

    Table 8. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Sin (Overall).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes10845.045.045.0 No10845.045.090.0 Dont Know2410.010.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
Belief in sin is shared by 45 of the respondents. Another 45 do not believe in it, while 10 said they do not know.

    Table 9. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Telepathy (Overall).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes4820.020.020.0 No9640.040.060.0 Dont Know9640.040.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
Belief in telepathy is shared by 20 of the respondents. 40 said they do not believe in telepathy, while 40 said they do not know.
   
Table 10. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Reincarnation (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes16870.070.070.0 No4820.020.090.0 Dont Know2410.010.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
    Belief in reincarnation is held in common by 70 of the respondents. 20 said they do not believe in reincarnation, while 10 said they do not know.

Table 11. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Are You a Religious Person (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes16870.070.070.0 No4820.020.090.0 Dont Know2410.010.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
When asked whether heshe is a religious person, 70 expressed that they were 20 said they were not while 10 expressed that they do not know.
   
Table 12. Descriptive Statistics     Importance of Religion, Comfort and Strength from Religion, Practicing Prayer and Meditation (Overall).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationImportrel2402.004.003.4000.73638Comfort2402.005.003.70001.05577Prayer2402.005.003.8500.79380Valid N (listwise)240   
The mean of importance of religion is 3.40 (sd.74), suggesting that they are neutral with the issue. On finding comfort and strength with religion, the average is 3.70 (sd1.06), indicating agreement to the statement. The last item in the table is practicing prayer and meditation (X3.85, sd.79), indicating agreement overall.    


Table 13. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Spend Time in Church Once a Month (Overall).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes19280.080.080.0 No4820.020.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
On spending time in church at least once a month, 80 said yes, while 20 expressed no.

Table 14. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Member of Religious Organisation (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes10845.045.045.0 No13255.055.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
When asked if they were a member of a religious organization, 45 said yes, while the remaining 55 said no.

Table 15. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Work in a Religious Organisation (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes4820.020.020.0 No19280.080.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
When asked if they worked for a religious organization, 20 answered in the affirmative, while the remainder 80 said no.

Table 16. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown PracticeWill Practice Religious Beliefs about Marriage (Overall).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes19280.080.080.0 No4820.020.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
On whether they practice or intend to practice religious beliefs about marriage, 80 said yes, while 20 expressed no.

Table 17. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Want  Will Want to Inculcate Religious Faith in Childs Education (Overall).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes19280.080.080.0 No4820.020.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
On wanting to inculcate religious faith in childs education, 80 expressed yes, while 20 said they do not intend to inculcate such in their childs education.
Table 18. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in a Personal God Spirit Life Force (Overall).
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidPers God15665.065.065.0 Spirit8435.035.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
65 of the respondents had a belief in a personal god, while 35 said they believed in a spirit or life force. 

Table 19. Descriptive Statistics Views on Political  Religious Leadership (Overall).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationIII182401.005.003.05001.11925III192402.004.003.1000.76972III202401.004.002.4500.86639III212401.004.002.4500.80636Valid N (listwise)240   
The following are the results on the views of political  religious leadership III19 - It is better if stronger religious believers hold public office (X3.10, sd.77) and III18 - Unbelievers in God  Allah (whichever is applicable) are unfit for political office (X3.05, sd1.12). Both were met with uncertainty or neutrality. On the other hand,  III20 - Religious leaders should influence government decisions (X2.45, sd.87) and III21 - Religious leaders should influence voters in elections (X2.45, sd.81) were met with disagreement. These suggest that the respondents overall think that religion should still not have influence on both government decisions and elections.
Table 20. Descriptive Statistics Views on Inclusion of Turkey to the EU (Overall).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationIV222401.004.002.6500.96508IV23A2401.004.002.5000.86784IV23B2401.003.002.0000.63378IV23C2402.004.003.0500.74148IV23D2402.004.003.3500.57347IV23E2402.004.003.4000.73638IV23F2401.003.002.4000.66471IV23G2401.004.002.3000.90188IV23H2401.003.001.7500.69967IV23I2402.004.003.4500.67035IV23J2401.004.002.9000.94537IV23K2401.004.002.4000.86203IV23L2401.004.002.45001.20564Valid N (listwise)240   
On how well informed the respondents feel about the proposed inclusion of Turkey into the European Union (X2.65, sd.96), the mean indicates neutrality.

On the views for the inclusion of Turkey onto the EU, the following means were yielded IV23I - Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses (X3.45, sd.67) IV23E- Enriches Europes religious diversity (X3.40, sd.74) IV23D - Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe (X3.35, sd.57) IV23C - Consolidates common European religious interests and values (X3.05, sd.74) and IV23J - Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses (X2.90, sd.94) IV23A - Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices (X2.50, sd.87), which all indicate neutrality. 
Moreover, the following items yielded disagreement IV23L - Improves the practice of religion in Turkey (X2.45, sd1.20) IV23F - Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity (X2.40, sd.67) IV23K - Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe (X2.40, sd.86)  IV23G - Promotes free expression of religion (X2.30, sd.90) IV23B - Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc (X2.00, sd.63) and IV23H - Strengthens the role of the European Union in the international scene on the realm of religion (X1.75, sd.70). 

Irish Group Results

Table 21. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Gender (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidMale8470.070.070.0 Female3630.030.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
The frequency and percentage breakdown by gender shows that the sample is predominantly male, accounting for 70 of the respondents, while the remainder 30 are females.

Table 22. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Nationality (Irish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValid1.00120100.0100.0100.0
All of the respondents were Irish.
   
Table 23. Descriptive Statistics Age (Irish).    
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationAge12018.0030.0023.20003.35467Valid N (listwise)120   
The average age of the sample is 23.20 years.
Table 24. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in a Personal God (Irish).    
FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No1210.010.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
    When asked on their belief in a personal God, 80 of the respondents said yes 10 expressed no while the remaining 10 said they do not know.
Table 25. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Life after Death (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes8470.070.070.0 No2420.020.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
The sample was likewise asked on their belief in life after death, to which 70 of the respondents said yes 20 expressed no while 10 responded they do not know.

Table 26. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Hell (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes4840.040.040.0 No3630.030.070.0 Dont Know3630.030.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
The next question asked about their belief in hell. 40 said they do believe in hell 30 said no, while 30 said they do not know.

Table 27. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Heaven (Irish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes6050.050.050.0 No4840.040.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
    For the item on belief in heaven, the frequency and percentage breakdown shows that 50 believe in heaven 40 do not and 10 are uncertain.

Table 28. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Sin (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes7260.060.060.0 No3630.030.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
    Belief in sin is shared by 60 of the respondents. Another 30 do not believe in it, while 10 said they do not know.
Table 29. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Telepathy (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes3630.030.030.0 No1210.010.040.0 Dont Know7260.060.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
Belief in telepathy is shared by 30 of the respondents. 10 said they do not believe in telepathy, while 60 said they do not know.
Table 30. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Reincarnation (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes6050.050.050.0 No3630.030.080.0 Dont Know2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
    Belief in reincarnation is held in common by 50 of the respondents. 30 said they do not believe in reincarnation, while 20 said they do not know.
Table 31. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Are You a Religious Person (Irish).   
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes8470.070.070.0 No2420.020.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
When asked whether heshe is a religious person, 70 expressed that they were 20 said they were not while 10 expressed that they do not know.
Table 32. Descriptive Statistics     Importance of Religion, Comfort and Strength from Religion, Practicing Prayer and Meditation (Irish).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationImportrel1202.004.003.4000.66611Comfort1202.005.003.70001.00920Prayer1203.005.003.9000.70294Valid N (listwise)120   
The mean of importance of religion is 3.40 (sd.67), suggesting that they are neutral with the issue. On finding comfort and strength with religion, the average is 3.70 (sd1.01), indicating agreement to the statement. The last item in the table is practicing prayer and meditation (X3.90, sd.70), indicating agreement overall.    

Table 33. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Spend Time in Church Once a Month (Irish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
On spending time in church at least once a month, 80 said yes, while 20 expressed no.
Table 34. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Member of Religious Organisation (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes6050.050.050.0 No6050.050.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
When asked if they were a member of a religious organization, 50 said yes, while the remaining 50 said no.

Table 35. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Work in a Religious Organisation (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes2420.020.020.0 No9680.080.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
When asked if they worked for a religious organization, 20 answered in the affirmative, while the remainder 80 said no.
Table 36. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown PracticeWill Practice Religious Beliefs about Marriage (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
On whether they practice or intend to practice religious beliefs about marriage, 80 said yes, while 20 expressed no.
Table 37. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Want  Will Want to Inculcate Religious Faith In Childs Education (Irish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
On wanting to inculcate religious faith in childs education, 80 expressed yes, while 20 said they do not intend to inculcate such in their childs education.
Table 38. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in a Personal God Spirit Life Force (Irish).

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidPers God15665.065.065.0 Spirit8435.035.0100.0 Total240100.0100.0
65 of the respondents had a belief in a personal god, while 35 said they believed in a spirit or life force. 
Table 39. Descriptive Statistics Views on Political  Religious Leadership (Irish).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationIII181201.004.002.70001.10461III191202.004.002.9000.70294III201201.004.002.7000.78430III211201.004.002.4000.80335Valid N (listwise)120   

The results of the Irish group on political  religious leadership were as follows III19 - It is better if stronger religious believers hold public office (X2.90, sd.70) III18 - Unbelievers in God  Allah (whichever is applicable) are unfit for political office (X2.70, sd1.10)  and III20 - Religious leaders should influence government decisions (X2.70, sd.78), which all indicate neutrality. In addition, one item III21 - Religious leaders should influence voters in elections (X2.40, sd.80) garnered disagreement.

Table 40. Descriptive Statistics Views on Inclusion of Turkey to the EU (Irish).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationIV221201.004.002.60001.11822IV23A1202.004.003.0000.77784IV23B1201.003.001.9000.54077IV23C1202.004.003.5000.67363IV23D1203.004.003.5000.50210IV23E1202.004.003.2000.75147IV23F1202.003.002.5000.50210IV23G1202.004.002.9000.70294IV23H1201.003.001.7000.64300IV23I1203.004.003.6000.49195IV23J1203.004.003.6000.49195IV23K1202.004.002.9000.83415IV23L1202.004.003.3000.78430Valid N (listwise)120   

The following items were met with agreement by the Irish group IV23I - Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses (X3.60, sd.49) IV23J - Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses (X3.60, sd.49) IV23C - Consolidates common European religious interests and values (X3.50, sd.67) IV23D - Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe (X3.50, sd.50) and IV23C - Consolidates common European religious interests and values (X3.50, sd.67).

Moreover, the following statements were rated with neutrality by the Irish group IV23L - Improves the practice of religion in Turkey (X3.30, sd.78) IV23E- Enriches Europes religious diversity (X3.20, sd.75) IV23A - Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices (X3.00, sd.78) IV23K - Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe (X2.90, sd.83) IV23G - Promotes free expression of religion (X2.90, sd.70) IV22 - How well informed do you feel about the proposed inclusion of Turkey into the European Union (X2.60, sd1.11) and IV23F - Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity (X2.50, sd.50).

Lastly, the following statements were disagreed with by the Irish group IV23B - Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc (X1.90, sd.54) and IV23H - Strengthens the role of the European Union in the international scene on the realm of religion (X1.70, sd.64).

Turkish Group Results

Table 41. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Gender (Turkish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValid1.007260.060.060.0 2.004840.040.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
The frequency and percentage breakdown by gender shows that the sample is predominantly male, accounting for 60 of the respondents, while the remainder 40 are females.

Table 42. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Nationality (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValid2.00120100.0100.0100.0
All the respondents in this group are Turkish.
Table 43. Descriptive Statistics Age (Turkish).    
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationAge12018.0030.0024.85003.86679Valid N (listwise)120    The average age of the sample is 24.85 years.
Table 44. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in a Personal God (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes8470.070.070.0 No 2420.020.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 When asked on their belief in a personal God, 70 of the respondents said yes 20 expressed no while the remaining 10 said they do not know.

Table 45. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Life after Death (Turkish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
The sample was likewise asked on their belief in life after death, to which 80 of the respondents said yes 20 expressed no. 

Table 46. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Hell (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes8470.070.070.0 No 2420.020.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
The next question asked about their belief in hell. 70 said they do believe in hell 20 said no, while 10 said they do not know.

Table 47. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Heaven (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes10890.090.090.0 No1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
    For the item on belief in heaven, the frequency and percentage breakdown shows that 90 believe in heaven 10 do not.

Table 48. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Sin (Turkish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes3630.030.030.0 No 7260.060.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
Belief in sin is shared by 30 of the respondents. Another 60 do not believe in it, while 10 said they do not know.

Table 49. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Telepathy (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes1210.010.010.0 No 8470.070.080.0 Dont Know2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 Belief in telepathy is shared by 10 of the respondents. 70 said they do not believe in telepathy, while 20 said they do not know.

Table 50. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in Reincarnation (Turkish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes10890.090.090.0 No1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
    Belief in reincarnation is held in common by 90 of the respondents. 10 said they do not believe in reincarnation. 

Table 51. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Are You a Religious Person (Turkish).   
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes8470.070.070.0 No 2420.020.090.0 Dont Know1210.010.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
When asked whether heshe is a religious person, 70 expressed that they were 20 said they were not while 10 expressed that they do not know.

Table 52. Descriptive Statistics     Importance of Religion, Comfort and Strength from Religion, Practicing Prayer and Meditation (Turkish).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationImportrel1202.004.003.4000.80335Comfort1202.005.003.70001.10461Prayer1202.005.003.8000.87544Valid N (listwise)120    The mean of importance of religion is 3.40 (sd.80), suggesting that they are neutral with the issue. On finding comfort and strength with religion, the average is 3.70 (sd1.0), indicating agreement to the statement. The last item in the table is practicing prayer and meditation (X3.80, sd.88), indicating agreement overall.    

Table 53. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Spend Time in Church Once a Month (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 On spending time in church at least once a month, 80 said yes, while 20 expressed no.

Table 54. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Member of Religious Organisation (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes4840.040.040.0 No7260.060.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0
When asked if they were a member of a religious organization, 40 said yes, while the remaining 60 said no.

Table 55. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Work in a Religious Organisation (Turkish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes2420.020.020.0 No9680.080.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 When asked if they worked for a religious organization, 20 answered in the affirmative, while the remainder 80 said no.

Table 56. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown PracticeWill Practice Religious Beliefs about Marriage (Turkish).    

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 On whether they practice or intend to practice religious beliefs about marriage, 80 said yes, while 20 expressed no.

Table 57. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Want  Will Want to Inculcate Religious Faith In Childs Education (Turkish).    
 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidYes9680.080.080.0 No2420.020.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 On wanting to inculcate religious faith in childs education, 80 expressed yes, while 20 said they do not intend to inculcate such in their childs education.

Table 58. Frequency and Percentage Breakdown Belief in a Personal God Spirit Life Force (Turkish).

 FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValidPers God8470.070.070.0 Spirit3630.030.0100.0 Total120100.0100.0 70 of the respondents had a belief in a personal god, while 30 said they believed in a spirit or life force. 

Table 59. Descriptive Statistics Views on Political  Religious Leadership (Turkish).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationIII181202.005.003.40001.02408III191202.004.003.3000.78430III201201.004.002.2000.87544III211201.004.002.5000.80961Valid N (listwise)120   

The results of the Turkish group on politicalreligious leadership are as follows III18 - Unbelievers in God  Allah (whichever is applicable) are unfit for political office (X3.40, sd1.02) III19 - t is better if stronger religious believers hold public office (X3.30, sd.78) and III21 - Religious leaders should influence voters in elections (X2.50, sd.81) suggesting neutrality. One item was met with disagreement III20 - Religious leaders should influence government decisions (X2.20, sd.88)

Table 60. Descriptive Statistics Views on Inclusion of Turkey to the EU (Turkish).
 NMinimumMaximumMeanStd. DeviationIV221201.004.002.7000.78430IV23A1201.003.002.0000.63511IV23B1201.003.002.1000.70294IV23C1202.003.002.6000.49195IV23D1202.004.003.2000.60252IV23E1202.004.003.6000.66611IV23F1201.003.002.3000.78430IV23G1201.003.001.7000.64300IV23H1201.003.001.8000.75147IV23I1202.004.003.3000.78430IV23J1201.003.002.2000.75147IV23K1201.003.001.9000.54077IV23L1201.004.001.6000.92036Valid N (listwise)120   

The following item was agreed to by the Turkish group IV23E- Enriches Europes religious diversity (X3.60, sd.67). They were neutral on  IV23I - Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses (X3.30, sd.78)  IV23D - Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe (X3.20, sd.60)  IV22 - How well informed do you feel about the proposed inclusion of Turkey into the European Union (X2.70, sd.78) and IV23C - Consolidates common European religious interests and values (X2.60, sd.49).

Moreover, they disagree with  IV23F - Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity (X2.30, sd.78)  IV23J - Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses (X2.20, sd.75) IV23B - Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc (X2.10, sd.70) IV23A - Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices (X2.00, sd.63)  IV23K - Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe (X1.90, sd.54)  IV23H - Strengthens the role of the European Union in the international scene on the realm of religion (X1.80, sd.75) IV23G - Promotes free expression of religion (X1.70, sd.64) and IV23L - Improves the practice of religion in Turkey (X1.60, sd.92).

Significant Differences between Irish and Turkish Groups

Table 61. T-tests Importance of Religion, Comfort and Strength from Religion, Practicing Prayer and Meditation.
 tdfSig. (2-tailed)Importrel.0002381.000Comfort.0002381.000Prayer.976238.330
There were no significant differences in terms of the importance of religion, the extent of comfort that they find in religion, and in their practice of prayer.
Table 62. T-tests Views on Political  Religious Leadership
 tSig. (2-tailed)III18-5.091.000III19-4.160.000III204.660.000III21-.960.338

The following statements were rated differently by Irish and Turkish respondents. These were agreed upon more by Turkish respondents III18 - Unbelievers in God  Allah (whichever is applicable) are unfit for political office (t-5.09, p.00) and III19 - It is better if stronger religious believers hold public office (t-4.16, p.00). In contrast, the following item was agreed upon more by Irish respondents III20 - Religious leaders should influence government decisions (t4.66, p.00). There was no significant difference between the two groups on their agreement to the following statement III21 - Religious leaders should influence voters in elections (t-.96, p.34)

Table 63. T-tests Views on Inclusion of Turkey to the EU.

 tSig. (2-tailed)IV22-.802.423IV23A10.909.000IV23B-2.470.014IV23C11.819.000IV23D4.190.000IV23E-4.363.000IV23F2.353.019IV23G13.799.000IV23H-1.108.269IV23I3.550.000IV23J17.075.000IV23K11.019.000IV23L15.401.000

The following statements were agreed upon more by Turkish respondents IV23B - Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc (t-2.47, p.014) and IV23E- Enriches Europes religious diversity (t-4.36, p.00).

On the other hand, the following items have been agreed upon more by Irish respondents IV23A - Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices (t10.91, p.00) IV23C - Consolidates common European religious interests and values (t11.82, p.00) IV23D - Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe (t4.19, p.00) IV23F - Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity (t2.35, p.019) IV23G - Promotes free expression of religion (t13.80, p.00) IV23I - Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses (t3.55, p.00) IV23J - Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses (t17.08, p.00) IV23K - Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe (t11.02, p.00) and IV23L - Improves the practice of religion in Turkey (t15.40, p.00)

Discussion
Differences on Views on Politics and Religion
Overall, it was found in the study that Turk respondents seem to be more advocating of religion than their Irish counterparts in terms of the following issues Unbelievers in God  Allah (whichever is applicable) are unfit for political office and that is better if stronger religious believers hold public office. In contrast, the following item was agreed upon more by Irish respondents Religious leaders should influence government decisions.

In effect, while both groups uphold drastically different views about religion, they are equally passionate about the tenets that their religion upholds. While Turks believe that political leaders ought to be religious, their Irish counterparts believe that religious leaders may have some influence on government issues.

Differences on Views on Inclusion of Turkey to the EU
The following statements were agreed upon more by Turkish respondents Will strengthen the European Union as a religious bloc and Enriches Europes religious diversity.

On the other hand, the following items have been agreed upon more by Irish respondents Is a good way to reunite the European Continents religious beliefs and practices Consolidates common European religious interests and values Will facilitate the mobility of people like missionaries, businessmen, students within Europe Ensures peace and stability in the European Continent and thus the proliferation of religious activity Promotes free expression of religion IV23I - Reinforces the power of the European Union to fight criminality and terrorism which the Church espouses Increases the protection of human rights and minorities in the European Union which the Church espouses Facilitates the progress towards religious unification in Europe and  Improves the practice of religion in Turkey.

It is apparent from the foregoing results that Irish respondents hold a more secular view of the inclusion of Turkey to the EU, seeing more benefits on the inclusion of Turkey to the EU. The fact that youth have been surveyed in the current paper is encouraging though, since they hold more accepting views of this proposition. According to the Europeans Commissions (2006) survey results, a substantial percentage of Turks still strongly oppose enlargement of the EU. In particular, about 29 of the Turkish population do not agree with this proposition. Moreover, younger, better educated respondents in the European Commission (2006) survey expressed greater support for EU enlargement. The said study has also found that citizens of southern European nations, including Portugal, Turkey, Greece, and Malta are in greater need of information regarding the EU enlargement. The said survey has also asserted that the respondents acknowledge that the expansion of the EU shall yield benefits including increased mobility in the region the enhancement of cultural diversity and inclusion peace, democracy, and the strengthening of EUs stance in the global realm (European Commission 2006).

There is a need to further disseminate information on the benefits of Turkeys inclusion to the EU. Turkey then becomes crucial to the goal of bringing stability to the entire European Union as it bridges the gap between Europe and Asia in showing that common humanity overshadows religious differences. Turkey basically disproves the common claim that democratic values and a secular democratic state are incompatible with a Muslim majority.  Hence, this shows that contrary to the beliefs of other Islamic states, the government of Turkey as evidenced by the speech of its president, believes in the principles of democracy. Further, it also condemns the discrimination of a person based on his or her religious, linguistic, ethnic characteristics or economic status. Through these shared values and its shared interests with the European Union as to trade and security in the region, it is expected that the accession of Turkey to the latter would bring about major benefits for both (Miliband 2007).

Even as Turkey has been successful at secularizing itself, religion remains to be an important influence in its political views, as attested to in the current study. The results of the study on the influence of religion are inconsistent with those of Topraks (2006) who looked into how the said country managed to adopt the principles of democratic governance when the dogmas of the Islamic faith seem to conflict with it. Islam, without a doubt, is incompatible with democracy as it envisions a political order which is founded on its fundamental principles about community life and moral behavior.

Studies conducted amongst industrial societies reveal that partisans of social change are less likely to be religiously oriented. On the other hand, researches conducted amongst Third World countries show that there is a common tendency for demands for change to be associated with religious ideologies (Beach 1977).

The results of the current study also validate the report of Morelli and Migdalovitz (2009) which shows that the relationship between Turkey and the European Union has vacillated between support for and doubt over future membership. In general, concerns regarding immigration, jobs and uncertainties over its Muslim population have continued to cloud European attitudes about Turkey. Aside from this, the report also pointed out that another significant challenge that prevents the successful accession of Turkey into the European Union is the large difference as to their cultures. Apparently, the culture of Turkey is incompatible with the so-called share values of the member states (Morelli and Migdalovitz 2009).
       

Conclusion
Religion has varying influences on solidarity, as in the case of the inclusion of Turkey to the European Union. The results of the current study show that conventional religion is still crucial in the maintenance of solidarity in society, while individualised religious beliefs hold greater influence on the sense of oneness of family and immediate community. Moreover,  religion plays quite a marked role in the formation of global alliances or solidarities. However, the challenge of political consolidation and unity still aptly falls on the shoulders of politicians and legislators, rather than those who espouse religion.
Moreover, the results of the current investigation show that conventional social units are more likely to support initiatives that imply bonding with a group or groups that hold similar values. On the contrary, more contemporary societies are more liberal in this aspect, advocating a more global type of solidarity where a larger, more diverse group is encompassed. The fact that Turks seem less approving of the inclusion of Turkey onto the EU means they do not see that the country holds similar values as theirs.
There are a number of cultural differences that divide all the members of the European Union and Turkey. Furthermore, previous scholars also show that the aforementioned tend to overshadow their shared history and practical economic and geopolitical considerations. Two issues of great interest to the European Union and the domestic politics of its member states- immigration and regional security- relate directly to Turkeys geopolitical situation, thereby further complicating its bid for full membership. 

Turkey may not yet ready for accession to the European Union as it still has to develop the so-called European standards with respect to shared values and economic performance. Without the development of these, it is believed that the accession of Turkey into the European Union would only cause instability and facilitate illegal immigration for it would allow the influx of Turkish into the member countries, thereby detrimental to its economy. Furthermore, it was contemplated that the plausible membership of Muslim nations in Africa and in the Middle East would only result to the EU becoming nothing more than a free trade community due to the failure to adhere to its shared values.

Recommendations
The accession of Turkey into the European Union is largely criticized due to its inability to possess the same values being adhered to by the latter. There has to be a way to integrate cultural differences. The basic values related to religion and democracy are the two cornerstones that have been used against Turkeys membership. The author, however, claims that this has already different amongst the members of the EU most especially when the number of the member states increased from fifteen to twenty give. This thus proves that the so-called common values are not as common as how the members of the EU perceive them to be. Moreover, the objection by some EU member countries to Turkeys membership is based on a misperceived belief that Turkeys mix of ethnicity and culture (including religion) is more often than not, incompatible with that of Europe in general. Apparently, the foundations for the said arguments are less than empirically sound and were more or less, motivated by other concerns.

Turkeys role in Europe is a question of identity. As Europe reinvents itself along ethnic, cultural and to a certain extent, racial lines, European perceptions of the Turk constitutes serious obstacles to Turkeys integration into Europe. Turkeys hopes for full membership in the EU are far from being materialized because of questions regarding Turkeys Europeanness.

Apparently, the future of Turkey within the EU is more complicated than that of other candidate countries because of questions regarding its identity. A Muslim country sitting on Europes outer banks, it does not fit into Christian Europe or the Islamic Middle East. Cultural differences and divergent social norms and attitudes make it easy to label Turkey as non-European especially if European identity is based on racial, ethnic and cultural features. However, Turkey has always seen Europe as a looking glass through which it perceived its identity and has consistently sought recognition and acceptance of its Europeanness.