Sociology

Part I
Hate Groups, Comparing Different States   
    In North Carolina, it is quite surprising to find that the total number of hate groups present amounts to 29. Of course, in comparison to Virginia, one of North Carolinas neighboring states which only have 22 known hate groups such a number may seem considerably greater. However, upon looking at the information regarding the amount of hate groups in other neighboring states, South Carolina and Tennessee having 36 and 37 groups respectively, the amount of North Carolinas hate group pales in comparison. Interestingly, testament to the scope of such groups, even in states far from North Carolina such as Indiana for example both White Nationalists and Black Separatists are present as well. 

Thoughts and Insights, Synthesis of Learning
    From completing this portion of the assignment, it becomes clear that hate groups are present throughout the United States. Furthermore, it would be appropriate to assume that the more prominent hate groups are well represented in each state, having a number of locations spread throughout the nation to spread and accomplish their agenda. Hence, given the extent in which hate may already be a problem in America, it would only be necessary to be vigilant of the possible harmful actions of such groups and in addition it is essential to positively influence individuals and the population as a whole in terms of accepting and adopting tolerance. 

Part II
Symbol, Meaning, and History   
    The fourteen words, a number symbol, which means We must secure the existence of our people and a future for white children is a cry of members of The Order which  while such a statement has not been coined by its founder, Robert Mathews, it is nonetheless first delivered and expressed by an influential member named David Lane even after the White Supremacist group has been disbanded (Anti-Defamation League ADL, 2005). Throughout its existence though, The Order is undeniably a dangerous group which utilized violence to achieve its goals, originally taking root from the influence of the National Alliance. Specifically, during the height of the groups actions throughout the 1980s it accomplished acts of terror such as specified killings of individuals against its cause and even conducted bombings alongside such furthermore, theft was also accomplished which may have been utilized to support their cause as well as those who have similar aims in mind (ADL, 2005).

Outcomes, General Realizations and Conclusions
     Eventually though, as previously noted, the group ceased to exist as its members were soon caught by authorities and appropriately sentenced for the crimes that they have committed. The Orders influence has not been immediately extinguished as dismantling the groups and placing a number of its members in jail was not enough to spread their thoughts and gain support. As a matter of fact, the abovementioned fourteen words were delivered by Lane while he was in jail (ADL, 2005). The general notion that I have gained in this assignment is that while disbanding such a group may technically be accomplished if its members are put into justice, the task of subduing the detrimental and influential effects of their philosophy is a more considerable and challenging concern for the government.  

Part III
Who is Alex Curtis and What Does His Group Stand For   
    Alex Curtis is both a radical and an extremist with strict views regarding the nature and real identity of the United States government, believes that actions should be done in order to save the White population in America from an encompassing act of genocide. Specifically, he, as well as his supporters, claims that the government which currently control and oversee the White race are entirely but not visibly controlled or manipulated by the Jews in relation to this, Curtis points out that combining races in America would result in the termination of the White people and hence all means should be accomplished to prevent such an outcome from materializing (ADL, 2000). The United States government, which they refer to as the Zionist Occupation Government ZOG, as Curtis group perceives it is not a representation of the White race but instead of the Jews.

How Does His Group Feel About the United States Government
    To further expound upon such a point, it is interesting to highlight the fact that Curtis claimed the following in his site The United States government is our worst enemy. US ZOG government, it does not represent us, and it is forcibly holding power over us as a hostile occupation force (ADL, 2000). Hence, it is clear that Curtis views the government not only as non-representative of the local population of White Americans, but as a modern-day tool for invasion. Interestingly, such views regarding the government are not merely expressed in general means. Particular instructions on how to communicate with lawmakers and officials further highlight his stance against the United States government Curtis notes that when communicating with the aforementioned individuals, one should not utter words other than I have nothing to say (ADL, 2000).      

Part IV
Hate Music Web Search
    Upon searching for hate music in Google, I found out that while results pertaining to hate music and additional information regarding it are present most of the initial search results would just include claims and statements regarding how people hate certain music. In this sense, while hate music is indeed existent, serving to further spread the philosophies of hate groups, a quick search for information pertaining to hate music may not yield the best results for gaining access to pertinent and reliable pages. Further specificity in searching may be required. Also, it is interesting to note that, given the selection of search results not really pertaining to the topic of hate music, it would be safe to assume that hate music is not commonly searched for in the web and is not readily and commonly accessed by a vast majority. 

Hate Group Philosophy Identification and Opinion
    The aims and goals of the National Alliance is based upon the central notion or philosophy that being individuals of Aryan descent they are tasked to develop optimally in all aspects throughout life while at the same time being subject to the laws of nature and accepting that inequality is but a natural occurrence and a byproduct of different paces in improvement (National Alliance, n.d.). Considering the emphasis of the natural law, wherein the fittest survive, it explains why members of the group are vigilant to contradict notions of tolerance and equality. Personally though, while such a philosophy may seem logical and in part competitive, it is the application of such a notion in reality that becomes problematic as there are no clear limits in the race for supremacy. 

Insights on Educational Programs
    The Conflict Resolution Program is quite promising in terms of its potential benefits in reducing prejudice and discrimination. To further explain, throughout a yearly activity done at Fall Creek YMCA, adults guide and teach hundreds of children in learning non-violent manners of resolving conflicts (International Committee of the Red Cross, 2005). Considering that prejudice and discrimination often results in hatred and violence, allowing the youth to learn proper conflict resolution skills is necessary for the abovementioned cause. As generally known, proper conflict resolution entails a fair consideration of the points made by each party involved, thus it is appropriate to assume that throughout the activity the children learn to view individuals in a fair and equal manner regardless of their roots.

What is the role of the community to the youth How does globalization affect the community and influence the young people in our todays generation

    In 19th century, community was associated with the hope and the wish of reviving once more the closer, warmer, more harmonious type of bonds between people vaguely attributed to past ages  (Elias 1974, quoted by Hoggett 1997 5). It was really only in 1915 that the first clear sociological definition emerged. A number of competing definitions of community quickly emerged. Some focused on community as a geographical area some on a group of people living in a particular place and others which looked to community as an area of common life (cited in Smith 2001).

    In elective communities people share a common characteristic other than common ground. They are linked together by factors such as religious belief and customs, sexual orientation, occupation or ethnic origin. In this way we may talk about different groups such as the gay community, the Catholic community or the Chinese community. Development in what might be called the sociology of identity have played an important role in  opening out the conceptual space within which non-place forms of community can be understood  (Hoggett, 1997).

    A community may come in one of many sizes, colours,intensities and locations, no two of which are alike. It may be a form of neighborhood in a larger city where congenial families live with common preferences and similar beliefs. Or it may also comprise smaller communities sharing a town where despite of the social differences, there remains significant common grounds ( cited in Flax 2006).

    A community can be classified into two broader or more specialized base. A broader community might include individuals belonging in a particular tribe or group.In that sense, a community is not likely to be exclusive of other more compact and specific subsets. For instance, during the late Middle Ages, Scottish mercenaries committed service and dedication to those who live in the European continent. They were able to retain their loyalty to their clan although serving other sovereigns. On the other hand, Americans have had a broader identification with the shared concepts of the Founding Fathers reflected in our foundational documents while maintaining or developing more comprehensive, local community specific, sets of values and images to define an enormous, and sometimes quite different and conflicting, array of cultures and interests. Community is now afflicted with a variety of multi-culturalism where principles and beliefs of the members or residents are being influenced and altered by the traditions and cultures of other races (cited in Flax, 2006).

    Indeed, a community is a sociological construct. It is a set of interactions, relationships and human behaviours that have various meanings and expectations between its groups or members. It is a place where children are being molded, disciplined and trained to become better individuals. It is also a social organism possessing a life of its own. The life cycle of every individuals and their personal changes do not affect the existence of a community. Human individuals grow and eventually die. But this inevitable fact only contributes to the stability of a society and strenghtening of a community. All things social and cultural are transmitted by symbols rather than by genes. Community development, which is a form of social change, requires changes in the messages of symbols rather than genetic surgery (cited in Bartle, 1967 ). But what role does it play in the lives of every human individual

    Community development serves as the objective of particular groups and individuals to achieve a productive and better life through shared ideas and collective efforts. This development affects our social, cultural, spritual and emotional growth. Our collective efforts and collaboration of ideas lead to a process of creating linkages and develop a complex phenomenon known as  globalization . The   increase of population, initiative to go beyond the boundaries and growing interdependence of trade nationwide and worldwide result to the penetration of new innovations in the field of technology and acquisition of cultural products. This causes the existence of globalization and other factors affecting the community.

    What describes the way of connectedness of production and technologies around the world is globalization. Sometimes, globalization refer to the efforts of the World Bank and other to develop a global free market for goods and services. The use of globalization in connecting different economy and cultural life across the world accelerates from generation to generation. The speed of communication and accuracy of information, the complexity and size of the networks involved, and the volume of trade, exchange and risk give what we now refer to as globalization.

    With the deeper economic interconnection has come deep-seated political changes poorer, countries have become even more dependent on activities in central economies such as the USA where capital and technical expertise tend to be located. There has also been a shift in power away from the nation state and toward, some argue, multinational corporations. We have also witnessed the rise and globalization of the brand. It isnt just that large corporations operate across many different countries - they have also developed and marketed products that could be just as well sold in Peking as in Washington. Brands like Coca Cola, Nike, Sony, and a host of others have become part of the fabric of vast numbers of peoples lives ( cited in Smith, 2002).

    Globalization involves the collaboration of ideas, practices and develoment of technologies. It is something more than internationalization and universalization. It is isnt just the liberalization of markets. According to Anthony Giddens, globalization is  the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. This involves a change in the way we understand geography and experience localness.
      
     Globalization is at least contemporary with modernization and has therefore been proceeding since the sixteenth century. It involves processes of economic systemization, international relations between states and an emerging global culture or consciousness. The process has accelerated through time and is currently in the most rapid phase of its development.  ( Waters, 2001, p.15).  It involves the systematic connection to al social ties. Indeed, globalization) increases the inclusiveness and the unification of human society ( Walters, 2001, p.15). It is a genuine restructuring or improving of social organizations. Human activity has become interregional or intercontinental in scale. Although the globalization process is a long, historically rooted one, it is not without fits and starts and is not teleological. In short, globalization is a highly complex interaction of forces producing integration and disintegration, cooperation and conflict, order and disorder (cited in Brahm 2001). There may be positive impact of globalization but there are also negative ones caused by this phenomenon.   

     One of the major factors in the breakdown of traditional communities is the globalization of economic activity.This is because it invites multi-culturalism in acquiring effective resources. Globalization consists of flowing sets of information that circulates through space and time. Since a culture is a set of beliefs and informations it now becomes susceptible to the penetration of globalization thereby being altered and improved. This means that those groups whose values and behaviors differ from the general culture are definitely affected. Such groups are called subcultures. The U.S society contains thousands of subcultures where mostly young people  belong.

    Social class and race are important to youth subcultures. These are some of the factors that influence the minds and identities of young people today. Embodied examples of what subcultures do may consist the social activities of drug use, fighting on the terraces, sexual practices, body-piercing,dancing, drinking or tattooing. To develop a more refined analysis of process, and garner a deeper understanding of what young people actually do in particular places, ethnography can be a unique instrument with which to probe young peoples life worlds (Nayak,2003,p.31).  This only shows that personal identities and social grace of the youth can be greatly influenced by the community through the aid of globalization.
   
    Globalization can also be defined as a concept that refers both to the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole (Robertson, (), p. 8). The idea of compression means that media plays a significant role in globalization.Media attempts to consolidate the idea of the global community.  The idea of globalization which is to intensify consciousness and uncerstanding of the world as a whole motivates every individual to initiate change by bridging the gaps with the advent of mass media and new information technology. Such projected images from various forms of visual entertainment seemed to affect the social aspects of the youth. Young people are now updated regarding social issues and economic trends. Many students and young leaders organization are being created because of the increasing social consciousness. Young people are more empowered and motivated to make a difference in our growing communities in many ways like through social networking. One of the famous social networking websites in the world is the facebook. It was launched  in February 2004. Users can add their friends and reach out to other users in different parts of the world. Anyone over the age of 13 can become a user. Thats why most of the fans of this website are young people. Using this website, they find it convenient to express their thoughts and communicate with other people despite of the social differences.  In this manner, globalisation exists. It is  an  example on how societies and cultures have become integrated through a global network of communication and trade.                     
   
    Aside from the effects on media, behaviors of the youth are also affected by the external factors within the community.  Accordng to the department of Justice,  Research indicates that youth commit more than one-quarter (25.8 percent) of all sex offenses and more than one-third (35.6 percent) of sex offenses against juvenile victims. Additional research on youth who sexually offended against children found that as many as 40 percent of the victims were either siblings or other relatives ( cited in Youth with Sexual behavior problems, 2010). What triggers the youth to commit such action is the kind of the training imposed by the parents and the community environment.  Despite of the influence of media, young people will realize what is moral and acceptable if the parents will instill good values in their hearts and minds. Yes, the training of the children should start within the family but the community is also responsible in providing a safe and pure environment as well. That is why rules and policies exist to be imposed by the community to avoid such disorders. Personal development is greatly shaped by social capital. Trust, networks, and norms of reciprocity within a young childs family, univeristy, peers, and other larger community have far reaching effects on their opportunities and choices, and hence on their behaviour and development. Also, economic progress can be achieved if social networks flourish, individuals, firms, neighbourhoods, and even nations prosper economically. Social capital can aslo assist to mitigate the insidious effects of socioeconomic disadvantage (cited in Smith 2002).

    Different fields of arts and sciences are also some of the things molded by the community and developed by globalization. One of the duties a human should perform is giving meaning to life.  Social life offers infinite opportunity for organizing, as is seen wherever people protest against laws and policies they oppose or rally support for their chosen causes.  When we speak of culture, we describe a people s operating system to borrow an analogy from one of humanity s most suggestive creations, the computer. Culture underpins all choices, all outcomes. It contains the means of expressing all thoughts and emotions. It enables all associations. The purest and densest meanings are conveyed through art, through individual and collective creations driven by the desire to express objectives (cited in Brahm 2005).

    Within the community cultural development field, projects are remarkably diverse. All artistic media and styles are adaptable. Projects have employed visual arts, architectural and landscape design, performing arts, storytelling, writing, video, film, audio and computer-based multimedia. Activities include structured learning, community dialogues and issue-driven activism, as well as the creation of performances, public art, exhibitions and publications. In all this work, the powerful experience of bringing to consciousness and expressing one s own cultural values is deemed worthwhile in and of itself, apart from the outcome (cited in Brahm 2005).

    Young people have a very significant role to play in the community. They should become positive role models for their community. They have the duty to shape their community for a better future. One example of the community-based project created was the  Charting the FutureYouth Take on Climate Change . It is organized in the US associated with the upcoming Children and Youth International Conference on the Environment Let s Take Care of the Planet . Youth participants in Charting the Future met at the Peer Learning Exchange to share their research and action projects, present their local charters, discuss global environmental changes, and write the National Charter. Along with all the work, the young people expressed their hopes for the International Conference and their intentions for continuing their efforts in the months ahead (cited in Gregg, 2010).

    Globalization already existed in the past and continues to grow in our todays generation. For instance, China now expands Science globalization trends.Scientific research seems to be a worldwide endeavor.  According to the Yale Global, a Sino-French joint research institute in Shanghai has been in existence for six years and has produced breakthroughs in stem cell research and other fields. A separate Sino-Brazilian partnership has launched several satellites, providing information on deforestation in Brazil and earthquakes in China. As a result, scientific globalization not only offers new research, but also the fostering of local scientific talent that might otherwise have been overlooked cited in YaleGlobal, 2010). This is one of the benefits that globalization can offer.

    As time goes by the pace of global integration speeds up. Independence was achieved through the innovations made in communications, technology and transportation. Today, business enterprises and multinational corporations manufacture products and provide services in different countries. Resources easily circulates across national borders resulting to the transformation of laws and 
economies from national to international level. Indeed, it is a big leap from traditional forms to modern processes. These things would not be possible without globalization. The globalized world elimiates regulation and undermines local and national politics, just as the consolidation of the nation state swept away local economies, dialects, cultures and political forms. Globalization develops new markets and wealth though it causes some disadvantages and disorders. The great financial crisis of 2008-2009 has exposed the dangers of an inconsistent, deregulated, global economy but it has also given rise to global initiatives for change.

    Globalization achieves a wider scope and accelerates the exchange of ideas and commodities over distances. Forms of globalization explore the various manifestations of realationship and closer connections in the world, noting how globalization affects real people and different places.  They appear to be a force of nature, a phenomenon without limitations and alternatives. But several human activities show that it is neither unalterable nor uncontrollable. Citizens allover the world and residents from different communities and societies whether ordinary people from the global North or from South can work together hand in hand to mold a brighter future, to build a globalization of solidarity, harmony, trust and respect for our common planetary environment.
  
    Supporting this idea, I firmly believe that the young people can take advantage of their youthfulness and new knowledge in exercising globalization. This can start within their communities by  joining different organizations that aim to achieve a better future and make a difference today. They may not have the authority, power and sufficient knowledge and resources to make huge differences and  implement great innovations but through the initiatives and determination, more desirable community would not seem to be far fetched at all. 

    Yes, there are numerous disadvantages of globalization but it is not impossible to turn these things into something beneficial and productive like scientific globalization towards innovation, development of social networking, media and publication, progress in globalizing businesses and trade and upliftment of education through integrated education.

    Everytime people are asked to describe what a community is, it is more on networking and belongingness. I agree that we experience the deepest sense of  belongingness in the closest and most intimate social networks like family and friends. But beyond that, there lies a civic life that can also help us develop a sense of individuality and manage our demands for convenience in our everyday lives.

    The nature of the networks within in particular place is fundamental when making judgments about communities and the extent to which people can flourish within them. Humans are rational and social beings. Connection,interaction and communication widen and deepen what we can achieve, and strenghten our individual character.

     Community can be approached as a value (cited in Frazer 2000). As such it may well be used to bring together a number of elements, for example, solidarity, commitment, mutuality and trust. It comes close to the third of the ideals that were inscribed on many of the banners of the French Revolution   fraternity. Socialists such as William Morris talked similarly of  fellowship
Fellowship is heaven, and lack of fellowship is hell fellowship is life, and lack of fellowship is death and the deeds that ye do upon the earth, it is for fellowship s sake ye do them. (Dream of John Ball, Ch. 4,18867)

    Considering the thought that social networks are essential in a community, we should use these things as an instrument in adapting globlization. Each community should be open for globalization in order to progress and meet the growing needs and preferences of the people. On the other hand, the member sof the community especially the young ones should perform their roles well to contribute effort towards innovations and developments. The future of every community lies in the hands of the youth. They are the bearers of the responsibilities that should be taken cared of and resources that are needed to be allocated properly. Globalization may only be a disadvantage if the individuals intend to aim for personal gratification rather than for the common good.

    The legacy that the parents should give is the good values, right conduct and proper training of their children. On the other hand, children should realize the weight of their responsibility through education and future experiences. They should acquire pride and confidence in expressing ones own cultural values and tribal beliefs.

    In the field of business, globalization plays a crucial part. For instance, Nike and Levi and other major companies spend huge sums of money in advertising and sustaining their brands. One strategy is to try and establish particular brands as an integral part of the way people understand, or would like to see, themselves. As we have already seen with respect the operation of multinationals this has had a particular impact on children and young people. There is an attempt to get them young. In reaching out to clients, the company should consider the current taste and preferences in the marketplace.

    Significantly, the focus on brand rather than the inherent qualities of the product endangers  the brand and harms the sales and profitability. If a brand becomes associated with failure or disgrace then it can face major problems in the marketplace. This shows the complexity of globalization. In introducing a brand to another country, one must conduct extensive research and studies in order to identify the proper businesss strategy to be implemented.

    Globalization is very challenging. A community should first be strengthened and equipped with a strong work force before accepting the consequences what globalization may bring.

In the wake of the 1970s throughout the new millennium, there were wars, economies declined, disasters were seen as opportunities for economic restructuring and states began acknowledging the presence and necessity of dealing with a global market wherein state-ownership surrendered to privatization. This economic theory became known as neoliberalism where governments may still play a big role in developing their states economies but a huge part of their economic power are now relinquished to private interests as well as global markets (Crotty 2000 1).

    However, while some theorists argue that neoliberal globalization is moving toward a unified model of capitalism that all states adhere to, others would argue that there are actually varieties of capitalism that characterizes the present and not only one model, framework or theory that is being followed. This paper will outline some of the arguments supporting both assumptions while highlighting how these arguments are apply where labor is concerned through different case studies.

    In Turkeys movement toward embracing neoliberal principles of a globalized or national capitalism, it was the workers that suffered the consequences. Turkey pursued neoliberalism after the 1980 coup and the transition from a military to a civilian regime has revealed much of how neoliberal framework was embedded in the Turkish government long before the military government stepped down. Cosar and Yegenoglu (2009 8-17) described how neoliberal policies were developed while Turkey was still under the military regime and how these policies were used to justify economic restructuring after Turkey was turned over to civilian rule to the elected Justice and Development Party (JDP). When JDP began its rule, it began changing existing economic policies making the most impact on the existing social security system. According to JDP, the existing Social Security System has to be changed because its costs were out of control, the system was fragmented, and it made the labor market less flexible. These three points were all based on neoliberal thought. The first point was to increase the contributions and lower the costs by setting a high price on premiums, extending the duration of the period when contributions are made, and setting a limit on the benefits received. Since the social security system is for the workers, they would have to bear the consequences of the reform. The second point argued that the fragmented system upon which the Turkish social security system worked creates hierarchies among the beneficiaries of government insurance, JDP sought to solve this problem by standardizing the right to health where any government insured citizen, regardless of the institution he or she belongs to, can apply for treatment at any private or public hospital. The third point was to decrease informal employment by giving work security primarily to the employer because it would make the employer appear stable and able to employ a fair amount of employees. While these reforms appear to seek no more that economic improvement with the workers welfare in mind,

Neoliberal ideology considers social security spending to be an injurious intervention into the functioning of the market. In a market setting, every good has a price and social security is no exception. To ensure this, neoliberal policy makers around the world, with support from international agencies such as the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and World Trade Organization, inaugurated a rigorous attack against state-sponsored social security systems. To a great extent, they have succeeded in attaining their objectives. Definitive in this turn of events was the rigid and unyielding power of capitalism, which demanded an end to working-class security, as well as the exclusion of a greater part of the population from the social security system. The result has been the deepening and diversification of poverty. (Cosar and Yegenoglu 2009 30)
       
    Onaran (2005 1-29) also criticized neoliberal policies in relation to labor. He discussed how labor in most of developing countries in the desire to increase capital. Neoliberal policies, according to Onaran, promise to restore employment after the decline in employment in the 1980s after the wars and the Great Depression. This will be achieved if the market is free from government control and if the cost of labor is low such that capitals will increase. However, these promises are yet to be fulfilled. Instead of employment increasing, it was unemployment that made high statistics. Onarans study also showed that neoliberalism does not have favorable effect on the economies of the ten countries that he studied. In fact, the economies of these countries declined owing to the poor performance of the workers due to the low wages that they are earning. In Onaran (2005 29) words, Neoliberal policies have so far failed to deliver their promises in terms of creating jobs and a fair return to labor. This study shows that, in all of the ten countries, as opposed to what neoclassical theory claims, the lower wage share has had no positive effect on unemployment, and unemployment is primarily driven by the goods market conditions, as suggested by Keynesian economics. Aggregate demand deficiency explains the decline in the wage share as well as the increase in unemployment.

    Meanwhile, as Lerche (2007 425-452) argues that there are various forms of capitalism and inasmuch as there are developed and developing countries, there is also such a thing as developed (full-blown) capitalism and developing capitalism. He shows this through a critique of the attempt of neoliberal organizations such as the International Labor Organization (ILO) to globalize concepts much like what neoliberalism is doing. The ILO was formed with a primary aim to abolish forced labor. Lerche criticized ILOs approach in attempting to point that all free labor are forced labor and that all states, developed or developing, should do away with forced labor. ILO, for Lerche, is building a global alliance against forced labor. He presented two arguments, the first stating that there is unfree labor and forced labor are but one and the other stating that they are different. Nonetheless, those two arguments acknowledge that there are variations of capitalism found in every country. Lerche argued that instead of setting dichotomies that only confuse rather than help clarify concepts we should accept the fluidity of the actually occurring levels of unfreedom. He also pointed out we can only understand the actual relation of labor to neo-liberal globalization if we succeed in building a fully-fledged historically specific analysis of free labor (Lerche 2007 447).

    Varieties of Capitalism (VoC) have been discussed by Pinto (2007 8) as a framework having two classifications Liberal Market Economies (LME) and Coordinated Market Economies (CME). LMEs have short-term market relationships and this setting is conducive for products and processes that change radically. CMEs have long-term market relationships where interactions are strategic with the goal to come with innovations that will yield high profits. Pinto illustrated how VoC can, indeed, characterize the present state of world economies whereby developed countries like Sweden and US belongs to LME and Newly Industrialized or Developing Countries like South Korea and most East Asian countries. In essence, the VoC is a framework that shows that there is more than one way of organizing capitalism even in countries with advanced or developed economies. It also explains that even with free market operations, the playing field is not really even as there are countries who are more advantaged than some, economically speaking.

    In analysis, therefore, the premise that neoliberal globalization is moving towards the formation of national capitalism paints a deceitful picture of an evened playing field. Practically, every entity can compete in the global market whether these entities are come from an economically well-off state or not. On the other hand, the premise that there exist variations of capitalism takes into consideration that there are particular entities that can compete with each other while some will have to cooperate in order to be at an advantage or in order to be at par against some of the competitors. Both premises, however, can be illustrated more clearly when we take labor as a commodity. 

    In the first premise, we have seen how labor is exploited yet the exploitation is justified as something that will help the economy develop. The working class may have to tighten their belts a few notches but the economy will soon grow and develop and they, as the working class, will reap the rewards. Nonetheless, this promise of neoliberal globalization has not yet been fulfilled. We are still confronted with children working for a few coins at shoe factories where the shoes they help put together would be purchased by Angelina Jolie for a hundred times more than what was paid to them. We are still confronted with issues of the third world countries being the suppliers of raw materials while the first world countries develop these raw materials into something that they can sell back to the third world for a ridiculous price.

    In the second premise, we see a more cooperative global market. Since some countries are more than a few steps ahead than most, what the others can do is embrace capitalism but make sure that they can catch up with those ahead through cooperation and strategic interaction. Labor is still supplied by developing countries but they are protected through such means as international organizations that acts as a night watchdog such that workers rights are not ignored or violated. Nonetheless, even with the existence of such organizations, workers are still being exploited both in developed and developing countries. Often, those who hold the final say are the members who contribute the largest amount of funds.

    Between the two, however, I agree more to the second premise because it paints a more realistic picture of what neoliberal globalization is really likea competition but a competition that one cant win without the willingness to cooperate. This way, the disadvantaged becomes more proactive in confronting the challenges of neoliberal globalization. Petras and Veltmeyer (2009) say it more accurately this way

The globalization discourse hides the class realities behind it. The press, for example, consistently talks about national interests without defining whom exactly is getting what and how, under what policy or decision-making conditions. Thus, American workers are told that the Chinese are taking their jobs. But the China threat, in fact, is but another global business partnership, in this case between Chinese commissars who supply global capital cheap labor and the U.S. and other foreign capitalists who supply the technology and much of the capital used to finance Chinas exports. Workers in Latin America are told that it is their inflexibility and intransigence, and government interference in the free market, that hold them back from engaging meaningfully or at all in the many benefits of globalization. Many, including on the Left, view globalization in this way. However, it would be better to see it for what it is a class project vis--vis the accumulation of capital on a global scale and as imperialism vis--vis the project of world domination, a source and means of ideological hegemony over the system.

    Moreover, the disadvantaged third-world is now playing with more advantages as the first-world becomes reliant on the labor supplied by the third-world. There are more and more Asians and Latin Americans who serve in the care-giving department because there less and less first-world citizens who are willing to gain expertise in that area. Another example would be piracy, the revenge of the third-world. First-world music and movie industries are slowly declining because third-world countries prefer to consume pirated products more than original ones. If the first-world countries do not succeed in eliminating piracy, their movie and music industries would not only suffer but would soon go bankrupt.

In the final analysis, VoC is a framework that paints a more realistic picture of neoliberal globalization yet it fails to account for such situations previously mentioned that can be considered as a threat to those who developed the neoliberal think-thank. It is something similar to Marxs idea that Capitalism would someday self-destruct but not exactly because capitalism would only gain a new face or a new leader. Today, the US economy is struggling to stay awake while the China, the sleeping dragon, is slowly waking and it would only be a matter of time before it becomes fully awake to take over the all capitalist economies.

This is about different groups considering themselves superior to other groups. Such ethnicity prevails in todays society. And media has more over created stereotypic characters in the society. There are stereotypes in every nation and even people of the same nation do not treat each other with equality due to other standards such as religion, class, creed, color, wealth, background.

Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is when an individual feels their group is superior to that of others in living, values, morals and pattern. It manifests superiority, hostility and hatred in a person. It spawns violence, proselytizing, discrimination and verbal aggressiveness ( Reference, 2010). It may be referred as a disposition to learn the rest of the world, different cultures and traditions by comparing it to ones own psychocultural group. This kind of attitude restricts one to assume that their culture is greatest of all which negates the idea of giving more or equal significance to others culture and traditions. However, the above definition is a strong claim. In Japan, there is a group of people who cannot be distinguished physically from the rest of Japanese natives, yet are treated with hostility and disdain( Williams, p.242) by the majority. This is due to a long history behind it. Another good example of discrimination would be Jews who were brutally treated by Christians and Holocaust is world wide recognized brutal destruction of human being (Weinstein, 1980). Most societies in todays world consist of many ethnic groups such as New York which consists of people of almost of borders. Thus, most societies are known as plural societies. Britain, Asian, West Indian, Italian and German immigrants and considerably more ethnically distinct societies. 

After the colonization most of the states under the rule of Britain, France and other countries are known as post-colonial societies who are more over plural societies (Stone, 1985). Ethnic differences are usually due to unequal wealth, power, color, creed, religion and antagonism between groups. In most prevalent cases minorities are mistreated, and their members are disadvantaged because of discrimination against them. They have more sense fraternity, brotherhood and solidarity and live in close knits. In rare cases like South Africa, white minority over rules black majority. It would be a gross understatement if we associate minority with little importance.

Ethnocentrism refers to actions which happen to be undermining the opportunities open to other groups. An Indian might be refused for a job regardless of his qualification and experience which is given to a white. Frederick Barth (1969) asserts that ethnic groups create boundaries around one another which is often encouraged be less number of intermarriages between different groups, social contact restrictions, less or no trade. These are devices which strengthen the boundaries around ethnic groups so they dont merge. Many around the globe believe that human beings can be separated into biological races. As a matter of fact, unsurprisingly, the majority believes it. Thus, such believes are not always true. When anyone talks of a black guy, curled hair, black skin are the typical characteristics that come to our minds. Unfortunately its not the case always, black living in Australia are observed to have  blond wavy hair usually. Undoubtedly, the word of race is a modern invention but prejudice, discrimination, antagonism is what this world has faced in every era.

Prejudice is a practice of stereotypical minds. People categorize their experiences and judge others according to what they learnt about different things. Sometimes this behavior restricts people from giving a second thought to hat they have already set opinions for. They may be rigid and ill-informed. People tend to justify their actions with what they believe to be true and generalize a groups attitude and ay of thinking. A southern novelist Robert Penn Warren created a black American character named Sambo is one of his novel. In his words

He was a supine, grateful, humble, irresponsible, unmanly, banjo picking,  servile, grinning, slack-jawed, docile, dependent, slow-witted, humorous, child loving, childlike , faithful black servitor who sometimes might step out of character long enough to utter folk wisdom or bury the family silver to save it from the  Yankees . ( Warren, 1963, p.52)

Common Beliefs
Believing that ones religion is the ultimate truth and righteous and considering others religion wrong is a common practice of almost every person. Women still fighting for their rights is another example demonstrating ethnocentrism. Discrimination may be positive or negative still something that separates a minority from merging into the majority. Social classes, distribution of wealth and money defines a wide line which creates social discrimination and prejudice against classes. When you watch advertisements and see only slim and smart girls who are perfect in their looks is again a common prejudice. Reading a brochure and  you see  people of a specific color is not always a discrimination, yet  many at times it is. When cops find people with beard and a specific dress code suspicious, criminals and gangsters and involved in underground are all common practices in every society.

Such examples are seen and observed by us in our daily lives, many people face racism everyday. How much importance does anyone give to a dying butler as compared to an ill billionaire

Media and Ethnocentrism
Media has been responsible for creating stereotypic characters. Blond would be portrayed dumb-witted, Indian would be silly as always, and etc.

Traces of ethnocentrism can be found in the history of media. In most of the movies white Caucasian usually male would be given a leading role. Afro-American would be regards as lesser people of the society. Thus, it is not harmful but yes sometimes it creates a rigid behavior towards others. People start expecting the same attitude from those people for whom they have already set opinions.

In few cases ethnocentrism is seen a positive attitude. It makes a group more attached to one another, and live with solidarity, fraternity, brotherhood and help each other in difficult times. There are many minority groups who are afraid to go extinct, thus, they promote marriages with in their groups and  strongly discourage intermarriages. They would disregard anything that would go against their group. They will give jobs to their people first and help one another instead of others. Sometimes it is seen a negative attitude towards others. It spawns discrimination and less opportunities are offered to people of other ethnic backgrounds. Black people in the history of America suffered from racism, hostile behavior of the white Americans. Ethnocentrism along with itself engenders discrimination, racism, antagonistic attitude toward others. Such attitude towards minority, women and other weak groups shows unequal behavior. Women in media are portrayed as Sex objects. Megan Fox once asserted that she considered it strange to be shown naked in her undergarments in mens magazines. Women shown is mens perfumes, deodorants, undergarments and other advertisements are purely nothing more than sex objects. This is definitely demeaning the self-esteem of women. Not only that but other ethnic groups also suffer from racism. Women in particular suffers a great deal of discrimination. Be it any job, class, media, any place as compared to men she is given a specifically low or a certain attribute. There are glass escalators for men to jump up to any field or job they want. It is men holding grudges against women in particular who doesnt believe in giving equal importance to men. In US the media is particularly more ethnocentric as compared to the rest of the world even Canada. American News in special particularly puts a strong emphasis on their natives point of view and holds on to it. The news is biased and based on strong and overt patriotism. The sense of ethnocentrism in Canada is however, on a great level. Canada is considered to be a multi-cultural country having so many ethnic groups residing there for years and years. They have their strong base in Canada. True that minorities do feel discriminated by majority. A survey was conducted with the title of  Inter ethnic Attitudes in Canada  which carried out results. The results showed that there were many natives who would no feel comfortable around many ethnic minorities. No certain group was pointed out. The behavior varies from person to person. It cannot be generalized according to the studies of Berry and Kalin (1979) . And the other approaches says that it is generalized and the aggregated results are taken out no matter what an individual alone says because majority affects.

US on the other hand is a mixture of groups of people from around the globe. Today in New York , every 4th person is either Spanish or Asian. And the natives have embraced the fact that the place attracts so many groups to settle their and live. Although there are still people who do not welcome people who belong to other ethnicity. Many at times minorities have to suffer scorn, hostility and rigidness by the natives who think of themselves superior to them. Even in jobs, most of the Asians either drive cabs, own shops or work for Macdonald and etc. There are less Asian who are in counting of elites. Usually high-paid jobs and white color jobs are for the white native. And those of other minority group usually work under white people. This shows tolerance and how much equality they are given. This kind of behavior takes us long back to the rich history of civilizations. Colonization is one of the main factors that lead to the creation of oriental ism and ethnocentrism. When people who belonged to post-colonial world tried to come out of their comfortable shells and for better living and learning migrated to Canada, US, Europe and Australia and etc. In Canada back in 1960s and 1970s, the Indians were not given equal importance and even in white schools they were not given admissions and were scorned. They started coming altogether as one group and building their own way to live their comfortably. This is the origin of Ethnocentrism and since then it has been observed all across the world in every country. Because of this people of minority groups started thinking highly of themselves which never happened before and they strive together. There are many groups who promote their own culture worldwide. Media on the other hand promotes ethnocentrism. It will never give a pause to it.

On the whole ethnocentrism is positive as well as negative like every other thing. It is just that it varies from culture to culture. Minorities are usually suffer from rigidness and inequality. It shows that the majorities do not want the ethnic minorities to lead and enter into their lives and stand equal. Canada and US are two countries which are contemplated as multicultural. They are plural societies. Media on the other hand has created certain stereotypes which promotes the attitude of thinking in same way and considering lesser people to be  always lesser.

Work basically is a social phenomenon. Whether its about dealing with bosses, subordinates, other workers or customers, work is in other words done in relation to other people. In addition, work is a crucial and significant part of contemporary life, and is intimately tied to other aspects of our lives, and these other aspects affect our own experiences at the workplace, just as our work affects them. Have you ever hated a job, been inspired by an innovative manager, wondered why nurses always seem to be women or shopped online If so, the organization of work has affected your life.

       Most of the people who work spend 60 per cent of their time at their workplace and they are constantly interacting with their colleagues. So definitely the workplace has a deep impact on a persons psyche. However, the impact of it may be a positive one or a negative one. The sociologists view the employees as one segment or part of a society irrespective of what industry they belong to. It has a minimal bearing on the whole study of it. Employees being the part of the society have to face various problems in their day to day life. So a sociologist just studies the aspects related to the working life and not how the individuals personal life is affecting their work.

        Some of the common problems which are affecting the workplace are the sex discrimination, dominance, sexual harassment, age discrimination, racial discrimination, cultural discrimination and religious discrimination. These are all considered as the sociological factors affecting a persons work life. Many of the discriminating behaviors are legally damned and no one can apply it under any types of circumstances. Sociologists play the part of determining the source of these problems and finds solutions to these problems. Also, there are after effects of these problems and those are under performance, stress, anxiety, and depression. These after effects can cause people to take extreme steps. A sociologist studies all the behavioral aspects and their findings are extremely important for psychiatrists who deal with workplace issues.

Workplace issues
Gender discrimination
       Sexism in education is clearly associated with sexism in the workplace. When the women are expected to stay at home they are then unable to access the necessary educational resources to compete with the men in the job market. If by any chance they are able to secure a position, women may be less prepared educationally for the task, and thus draw lower wages.

   In the recent decades more women have entered the United States workforce. After the world wars two about 30 percent of women were employed outside the home, today at the start of the 21st century, the figure is well over 50 per cent (Crosby, 2007). Even yet the women are not treated equally on the job. Typically, they hold lower-paying, lower status jobs than men. Women though receive only 25 percent of the upper level positions in large corporations. Half of the employees in the prestigious United States firms are women perhaps only around 5 per cent of them hold senior positions.

        The glass ceiling effect has also been considered a possible contributor to the gender wage gap or the income disparity. This effect basically suggests that the gender provides a significant disadvantage towards the top of job hierarchies which becomes worse as a persons career goes on. The term glass ceiling implies that invisible or artificial barriers exist which prevent women from advancing within their jobs or receiving promotions. These barriers exist in spite of the achievements or qualifications of the women and still exist when other characteristics that are job relevant such as experience, education and abilities are controlled for. The inequality effects of the glass ceiling are more prevalent within higher-powered or higher income occupations, with fewer numbers of females holding these types of occupations. The glass ceiling effect also indicates the fewer chances of women for income raises and promotion or any kind of advancements to more prestigious positions or jobs. As the women gender are prevented by these artificial barriers from receiving job promotions or income raises, the glass ceiling effects increases over the course of a womans career.

       Statistical discrimination is also cited as a source of income disparities and gendered inequality in the workforce. Statistical discrimination is also cited as a cause for the income disparities in the workplace. Statistical discrimination indicates the likelihood of the employers to deny the access of women to the certain occupational fields or tracks because women are more likely than men to leave their jobs when they become pregnant or get married. Women are in other cases given the positions that dead-end or jobs that have very little mobility involved.

       Women in general are under represented in the higher status, higher paying occupations, such as university teaching, medicine, engineering and law. In contrast in lower paying jobs or occupations they are over represented such as public school teaching, secretarial work and nursing. In the stereotypical female jobs, referred to as women ghettos, women are subordinate to the positions of men. For example, the executives supervise secretaries who are likely to be females, and lawyers supervise paralegals, who are likely to be women.

       The transformation of both the genders work roles stand about in the technological, economic, cultural and social changes in the last half of the twentieth century. In the year 1950 just a small number of women worked outside their homes, but in 2000 nearly three quarters of it works outside. In the year 1950 the women were only employed in jobs such as the female oriented ones but by 2000 they were spread in across nearly the entire spectrum of occupations. The female gender thus started earning 59 cents for every dollar earned by men and 73 cents in the 2000s. Despite this progress the inequality still remains, as even in 2000 men were still more likely to get better jobs and to be paid better wages for those jobs.

       Wage discrimination is the discrepancy of the wages between the two groups due to a bias towards or against a specific trait with all other characteristics of both the groups being equivalent. In the cases of gender discrimination, wage discrimination exists between the male and female gender. Historically, gender inequality has favored men relative to similarly qualified women. The gendered income disparity can also be attributed in part to that of occupational segregation, where the groups of people are distributed across occupations according to the different characteristics in this case which is gender. Occupational sex segregation can be explained to be containing two components, horizontal and vertical segregation. With the horizontal segregation, the occupational segregation occurs as to where the men and women are thought of as to possess different physical, mental and emotional capabilities. These different capabilities make the genders vary in the types of jobs they are best suited for. With the vertical segregation, occupational sex segregation occurs as the occupations are stratified according to the power, income, prestige and authority associated with the occupation and women excluded from holding such jobs.

         Women who are in the same jobs as men usually earn less, even then when women possess the same skills, knowledge and training. Women basically make only 60 per cent or less than men in comparable positions (Kramer, 2006). Why do these disparities occur Sociologists explain this by the fact that women often must take time off to have and raise children interrupts their career path. As much as even Americans hate to admit this. Women in the United States still bear the primary responsibilities of child rearing. Conflicting demands may partly explain the phenomenon why married women with kids are more likely to leave their jobs than women who are single or without any children. Also the fact that men are believed to be the bread winners so the belief is that they should be the one to be paid more as compared to women and also men need to support their families too. Whatever is the reason for all this, paying women less than men is clearly discrimination.

How gender discrimination is affecting the workplace
       Discrimination in the workplace negatively affects businesses. A business basically self limits itself by neglecting or restricting advancement to the certain groups or types of employees. Employees are more likely to be looking for new jobs when they feel they are being treated wrong.

       The most evident effect of the gender discrimination issue in the workplace reflects in the performance of the company. An organization where the gender discrimination is widespread, compromises on the quality of the work of its employees. Surely the affected individuals cannot work under such stressful conditions. For those people whose rights havent been violated may also get very demoralized on witnessing the companys lack of concern to gender discrimination. Moreover, as the negative image of the companys discriminatory policies spread, its relationships with the present and potential clients may also be troubled. This is due to the fact that discrimination on the part of an employer is a sign of unhealthy business ethics as well as relationships. Also the gender discrimination may result in poor withholding and the company may loose potential employees due to its negative image. The effects of the discrimination are mainly two parts. Firstly, discrimination directly deals to the unemployment rate which increases with discrimination. Some companies with sex discrimination do not employ women as their staff, so these women loose their jobs opportunities. Secondly, discrimination results in work efficiency decline. If the company discriminates women, they dont have any female employees, this company then would loose work balance because women are more patiently and carefully, which is a mans weakness.

Dealing with Gender Discrimination
          Gender discrimination is a great problem. The government should constitute laws to avoid it. And the society should also set up some organizations or communities to help the victims of it.

          In order to reduce the level of gender discrimination in the workplace the employers should stop playing any favorites. If you offer certain benefits to the employees, make sure that these perks are available to everyone. For instance, if you want to provide a special flexible work arrangement for your senior older workers, avoid appearing discriminatory by being sure to offer this option to everyone. There is a need to create and post an antidiscrimination policy. Keep in mind that no anti discrimination policy will be taken seriously unless concrete actions are taken against the wrong doers. After youve assessed the situation and consulted a lawyer, think about how youre going to proceed. If you discover some kind of discrimination taking place, decide if you would want to start with a warning on counseling, or formally terminate the accused.

The EPA (Equal Pay Act) prohibits the discrimination on the basis of sex in the payment of wages or benefits, where the men and women perform work demanding similar skills, effort, knowledge and responsibility for the same employer under similar conditions. In this Act the employers may not reduce wages of either sex to equalize the pay between men and women. A violation of the EPA may occur where a different wage wasis paid to a person who worked in the same job before or after an employee of the opposite gender sex. A violation of the act may also occur where a labor union causes the employer to violate the law.

          In order to prevent gender discrimination in the workplace more and more employers are adopting a policy which is the zero tolerance policy towards all acts of discrimination. This consists of an official written policy against the discrimination that is written and circulated to all employees, as well as the training and education courses for all managers. In addition, the companies have to show that they are really serious about implementing and enforcing the new policy by creating disciplinary standards for the violations of the policy created.

   Another step which can be taken by the employers is that to conduct a regular survey every time a point of discrimination is seen. If the company realizes that discrimination is taking place and the company is going to be held liable, it can ease the amount of punishment handed down if it conducts a thorough in house investigation that terminates in the appropriate action taken against the person who has committed the discrimination, up to the height of even dismissing that employee.

Benefits of overcoming gender discrimination in the workplace
         Lower or completely nonexistent gender discrimination in a company holds the advantages of a greater degree of employee loyalty towards the organization. Workers are motivated to work hard and perform their work more efficiently and effectively. The competition gradually would increase if stringent policies against gender discrimination would be taken into practice as no quality work of any employee would go unnoticed and appreciated which would lead to a greater and efficient work next time and would eventually lead to a greater competition within the employees, men and women. The company would also be deemed among those who engage in fair practice. Recruitment level increases and there is a lesser turnover in the company.

       The sociological approaches show us that although the causes of the gender discrimination are quite straight forward, the way these play out to create discriminatory effects in the workplace are complex and context-dependant. The sources of these discrimination lies in widely shared cultural beliefs about the gender that tells us what the typical thinking is about what is expected from a man and a woman. Particularly important for workplace discrimination are the beliefs about mens greater status, competence and each of the genders particular specialized skills that are embedded in these widely accepted gender stereotypes. So gender discrimination is unfair and should be abandoned by means of lawful acts or stringent policies so that the company does not have to bare the consequences of it and loose talented employees.

Ethical Dilemma The creation of genetically modified products will boost food production and answer the issues of food shortage. However it is against ethical standards to modify the creation of nature and play as God. Even though it is against ethical values, should scientists pursue genetically modified products to solve food global scarcity

     In our growing society, there has been integrating ethics to professional work. As our environment develops, new questions are arising for inevitable confrontation. It cannot be anymore ignored and forgotten. (Bellah, Madsen, Sullivan, Swidler,  Tipton, 1991) Such issues would be the ethical considerations in the development in science and technology. It is unprecedented that the help that science and technology has given mankind is remarkable. Our society would be as complex as it is if not for the innovations. Life would never be the same because of the development.  It may be expressed that humanity has lived an easier life because of science and technology. However, in lieu new discoveries and inventions, some cultures and institutions are indignant. Therefore, there is a need for these advancements to be arbitrated with ethical considerations. Ethics is considered as the unchanging moral standard true for all types of culture. Some examples would be the golden rule that do not do onto others what you do not wish to undertake and always revere the almighty God. But, as mentioned, the ethical dilemma in science and technology is very complicated and arduous to resolve.

    One of the most famous men in ancient Greece was Aristotle. He positioned ethics within practical philosophy as correlated to politics (Capurro, 2005). It developed into an academic approach to consider doable philosophy as encompassing the three sub-disciplines, explicitly economics, politics and ethics. During ancient times, philosophy was considered as the major contributor for the creation of public policies. He reiterates that in a satisfying public policy, the needs of the society should be considered. (Capurro, 2005) The term needs refers to the general benefit or happiness, it does not necessarily mean as a whole. Hobbes, on the other hand, talks about the Leviathan which is a rational andartificial institutionin differ to the ancientbeliefs of Aristotle. The Leviathan is portrayed as the state which is reflected by the nature of the individuals in the society. He implies that the unisonof all the individuals comprises an independent form that governs the group. (Capurro, 2005)

However, in Kants perception of morality as contrasting to legality differs basically from the Aristotelian conception. Kant suggests that there should be a fundamental difference between policies with legality and morality. (Capurro, 2005) Furthermore, he portrays that there shouldnt be an absolute independency between legality and morality. John Locke, on the other hand, stated that the socially sound decision should meet the choice of the majority and not necessarily as a whole. He argues that it is very difficult and almost impossible to address a unanimous choice for society and therefore, should come up with a majority choice.  The theory of Locke in his social contract is retracted by John Stuart Mills despotism in the sense that he agrees that the choices government should make would be in accordance in the best interest of the population. (Capaldi, 2003) In the view of consequentialism, the ethically correct action should be an outcome of goodness for the whole society. (Singer, 2002)

Present societies, mostly in Western democracies, are essentially affected by contractual, moral and historical paradigms. Moral traditions, inclined with ethics, develop the foundation of the democratic constitutions. This is predominantly apparent for example, with regard to such ideas as human dignity or pursuit of happiness. In modern democracies, including supranational political structures does not anymore encompass the wholeness of neither the Leviathan nor the ancient polis.(Capurro, 2005) With modernity comes the new age of freedom. Explorations to the different fields of science are springing. It pegs the question whether where should be the boundary of the exploration should limit due to ethical considerations. (Bellah, et al., 1991) The beginning of Modernity ethical reflection is now practiced in the academic and political institutions.

Two Unappealing Choices
Biotechnology is the alteration or modification of a living organism to develop its feature through science and engineering. (Biotechnology, 2006) The problem with biotechnology is that the scientists that modify the creation of nature are considered to be playing God. It makes a fearful assumption that if living creatures can be restructured then so can man. Some argue that companies are genetically modifying their products only to increase their profits and revoke the welfare of others.

    In the defense of the scientists and corporation that are thrown with ethical issues, they come to a statement with their own ethical reasoning. They propose that the advancements that they create in the field of science should not be thwarted with ethics in public policy because their researches are independent and does not dictate the course of the society. (Biotechnology, 2006) Most of them claim that they have the freedom to explore the unknown and that the perception of the benefits of their findings from the general public is much more important than the ranting of a few. It pegs the question, wouldnt it be greater to pursue stem cell regeneration which can cure paralysis rather than revoke it due to the fear of its unverified expense. In the economic theory of cost-benefit analysis, there will always be losers in any given situation. The best outcome would that the winners would compensate the lost of the other side. (Bellah, et al., 1991) The choice of continuing genetically modified products would compensate global food scarcity but will revoke the ethical standards.  There is not much time to spare and must argue with ethical values in the expense food starvation.

    On the other hand, environmentalist and activists claim that too much advancement in the field of sciences will be harmful to the society. It is stated in the accounts of the scientists and corporations that the costs incurred in their researches are miniscule compared the immense benefit derived. However, their defense is that unquantifiable objects are actually being damaged in the process with are not valued in the process. Morality is one object that is being highly damaged in the process. (Bostrom, 2007) For example, consumers can enjoy large chunks of roasted chicken because of biotechnology and could explicate gluttony. In recent surveys, it was 44 of the American respondents said it is morally incorrect to genetically modify animals. Even in economic theory, there lacks a variable to complete the cost benefit analysis. (Bellah, et al., 1991) The choice of rejecting genetic modification of products would result to continuous food scarcity until an alternative ethical method is discovered.

Thesis The dilemma of the genetically modification of products should not be independent of ethical standards. Professional engagement should be incorporated with ethical values.

    The purpose of consideration and moral presuppositions arises mostly, but not entirely, to new discoveries and creations in the fields of science and technology. (Bostrom, 2007) There should be a sound and unbiased argumentation and to aid decisions that should facilitate politicians and society to get a clearer outlook of the minutiae of scientific, technical, and legal issues as seen from an ethical standpoint. Technological transformation is in large part accountable for the development of basic parameters of the human condition such as size of world population, life expectancy, educational altitude, physical standards of living, nature of profession, interaction, health and different human activities affecting nature. In the sense that technological revolutions hold such intense implication, there arise issues to focus on the strong ethical deliberation and feature centrally in public policy analysis. (Bostrom, 2007) Moreover, there should be a corresponding amount of effort given to these issues to ensure that mankind is still making the right decisions.

    In the contention of which argument is right in accordance to the thesis, the implications should be weighted. (Bellah, et al., 1991) In the side of the scientists, they believe that genetic modification of organism would answer food scarcity even if it is against ethical standards. The implication that they perceive is that it is correct to act even though it is against ethical values. It entails the notion for the greater good. However, it does not take in consideration the impact of their action to the society. If the world will partake in the genetic modification of animals, against ethical standards for the purposes of the greater good then it can indicate the other greater good actions which also against ethical values can be undertaken. If our ethical values are not followed then it will cause chaos and dispute to the society. The authenticity of our ethical values must be constantly abided for the people to adhere the concordance of lifes understanding to preserve peace. This is the importance of incorporating ethical values to professional work. It is to perceive that decisions are constantly affecting society as a whole and not partially. (Bellah, et al., 1991) Therefore there should be ethical judiciousness in the choices made.

    In the side of the environmentalists that genetic modification should be stopped, their actions can perpetuate food scarcity. However, their intention is genuinely to preserve the way of life. The argument might not solve the problem yet, but there could come a time that food scarcity will be answered by ethically sound actions. Therefore, genetically modified products should be decelerated to be examined thoroughly for ethical considerations. The genetic modification of products should be attuned to the ethical standards of society.

Bureaucracy is one of the main concepts in the study of sociology and political science. This concept refers to the manner in which legal rules in an organization are to be enforced by the administration. The term refers to the combination of various elements such as the structure of an organization, the rules and regulations that an organization sets in place in order to manage the day to day activities of an organization. Its antonym which is referred to as adhocracy refers to the form of organization where the bureaucratic rules and protocols are broken in order to achieve a set target which bureaucracy may fail to capture. It has often been suggested that bureaucracy is a thing of the past that has many limitations and so adhocracy is generally preferred to in many forms of organizations.

One of the main unique characteristics of bureaucracy is that it does not create policies but acts as a method of enacting them. The leadership in the organization is usually tasked with creating the necessary bureaucratic measures which are aimed at implementing the various rules, regulations and policies that they create. The term bureaucracy is believed to have originated from the concept of a bureau which was coined up in the 18th century to mean an office. It has often been described as a system which is characterized by a high degree of official-ism, proliferation and red tape. One of the most influential personalities in the use of this word Max Weber has been very instrumental in the study of this concept and is highly regarded as one of pioneers in using the word in the world of social sciences.

Its has been through the work of Max Weber that the concept has gained a significance and the fact that he portrayed it in much more positive terms makes his work a perfect exemplar to those who want to devise the concept in their organizations. Weber argued that bureaucracy can be a very efficient system with and he thus came to the conclusion that it is the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings (Garston, 1993). Weber provided a remarkable analysis of bureaucracy and some of the most significant analysis of the system included the historical as well as administrative issues that prompted its use and the role it played in the western civilization. Weber also went further to provide the most significant advantages as well as disadvantages that the system would have in the future world. He also went further to describe some of the principles that govern bureaucracy. With his principles, a bureaucratic official will generally be free and his appointment is entirely based on conduct. The officer is rewarded regularly and given a chance to advance in this fulltime post.  Although the officer is entitled to exercise their own sense of judgment, the decision will mainly lie with higher authorities. This ultimately has the effect of choking their abilities to do what they perceive as right.

Max Weber admitted that bureaucracy in practice would be less more productive and effective than his perceived type of ideal model. The reason why he thinks this can be so is the notion that almost all of his principles can be ineffective and the objectives that they are supposed to achieve be thus blurred. Overspecialization which at sometimes tends to cause rigidity, is a major downturn of bureaucracy. The slowness of carrying out procedures has also been a major downfall of bureaucracy. One of the major disadvantages of bureaucracy is that most of the rules are usually laid down and this fact alone makes it impossible to use common sense. Bureaucracy also leaves room for the formation of many rules which will mostly end up contradicting each other which makes decision making in the organization harder (Garston, 1993).

Casual sex which is herein defined as sex for the sheer sake of sex, with no serious relationship, or no strings attached--with at least one person (Sherman, 2004) and promiscuity (sex with multiple partners) has become prevalent in the US. This has in effect attracted widespread attention from both popular and academic literature. Indeed, some scholars believe that casual sex_and particularly short-term mating_is likely to have been a recurrent feature of human evolutionary history that have occasionally generated reproductive benefits for ancestral members of both sexes (Schmitt 2008). But it is in contemporary America that they have been so rampant.

These studies have shown that both men and women engage in short-term mating and promiscuity with glee. Though most studies conducted have since confirmed that men showed a greater willingness than women to engage in casual sex (Surbey  Conohan, 2000 Schmitt. 2008 Jonason, Li and Cason, 2006), the rate of womens willingness has also been going up. It is therefore a foregone conclusion that both women and men have equally indulged in casual sex and promiscuity. For example, Eisenberg et al. (2009) found that one-fifth of the participants reported that their most recent sex partner was a casual partner (i.e., casual acquaintance or close but nonexclusive partner).
Eisenberg et al. (2009), in confirming that casual partnerships were more common among men than among women put at the percentages at 29 vs. 14 for men and women respectively. Eisenberg et al. (2009) also asserted that the proportions of male and female respondents reporting a recent casual partner differed by race or ethnicity.

A report on Oprah.com respondents revealed that 74 of young women adults have had casual sex (Sherman, 2004). Of those, 12 percent have had casual sex with six to ten people and 15 percent with 11 or more (Sherman, 2004). Even more sobering is the revelation that about a quarter of these participants had lost their virginity to a casual sex and that about 14  claim to have had at least one experience of group sex (Sherman, 2004).

That casual sex and promiscuity are in the increase are highlighted by the fact that even adolescents are not so into romantic relationships as was the case before. Although adolescent sexuality is usually examined in the context of romantic relationships, recent attention has also highlighted sexual experiences that occur outside of the context of romantic relationships (Epstein et al. 2009). Epstein et al. (2009) call these relationships are non-relational (Epstein et al. 2009). It is clear from their study that non-relational relationships are highly characterized with casual sex and promiscuity. Epstein et al. (2009) participating in non-relational sexual activity appears to be quite common among adolescents and young adults, with over three fourths of college students reporting having had at least one such encounter.

There are a myriad of reasons behind these tendencies. But from the research I carried out, there are a few prime factors that have attracted most Americans to these tendencies. These reasons are not to be taken as being exclusive andor conclusive for there are many other reasons that compel both men and women to take part in casual sex and promiscuity. It is also worth noting that due to lack of space, I have not narrowed this discussion to gender sensitive factors that induce one to participate in casual sex and the same goes with age variation, like young and the adults, adolescents and teenagers.
Among the factors discussed here are 1)the difficulties associated with maintaining long-term committed relationships the need for more pleasure 2)the realization that sex has some therapeutic benefits based on empirical scientific research 3)that  sex is a way of expressing ones freedom and boosting egos 4) sex for sheer pleasure. In the end I discuss the consequences of these tendencies. Casual sex and promiscuity have had some ill effects on the participants. Chief among the effects is the possibility to contract sexually transmitted diseases such as gonorrhea, syphilis, Hepatitis, AIDS and many others.  Participants in casual sex and promiscuity have had to also endure some psychological traumas marriage problems.

In this paper I will postulate that indeed there has been an increment in the number of American who gratify casual sex and promiscuity in the US. This is especially the case among the young adults. It is also noted that, though the phenomenon has been rampant among men it is gaining momentum among the women as well. And while previous studies, both popular and academic, have only discussed the issue without offering recommendations to the attendant consequences, this paper will also highlight some of the factors that have induced these young adults, both men and women, into such acts.

These factors include such factors as need for more pleasure and sex as a form of expressing oneself and boosting of ego problems associated with long-term committed relationships. I discuss these factors in depth, and particularly the fact that most Americans are pushed by frustrations and difficulties associated with long-term relationships. With regard to the long-term committed relationships, this paper finds that though a good number of respondents get into casual sex and promiscuity due to the difficulties associated with long term committed relationship, they equally show greater appreciation for long term committed relationship. Apparently, this is the case even among the men who, traditionally, have been documented to be more willing than women to indulge in casual sex and promiscuity than women. This paper also finds that a sizable number of participants are compelled into engaging in casual sex and promiscuity by appetite for sheer pleasure.

More American men and women today seem to revel in casual sex and promiscuity more than any other time before.  This can be attributed to, among other factors, difficulty in long-term committed relationships the discovery of sexs health benefits need for pleasure that sex offers to express individual freedom and bolster egos. But there are consequences that have somehow curtailed its swift progress. These include such factors as sexually transmitted diseases like gonorrhea, Syphilis, AIDS and many more one is also psychologically traumatized and many others.

       Factors associated with Casual Sex and Promiscuity
Problems associated with committed long-term relationships
 More and more Americans are finding it difficult to carry on with long-term committed relationships.  Long-term relationships have become an eyesore to many Americans and this can be attested by the many divorce cases in the US. As such a good number of Americans are seeking solace in casual sex and promiscuity. Some have found it enjoyable others have engaged in them but have not really found any pleasure in them.

According Sherman (2004) and Jonason, Liand Cason (2009) young women in particular prefer casual sex because they consider it a protection from a broken heart. They prefer the freedom of no-strings-attached sex to the effort of maintaining a marriage or boyfriend-girlfriend arrangement (Sherman, 2004).  Sherman (2004) quotes a young woman, a 35-year-old social worker from Portland, Oregon, who puts Frankly, many folks are in relationships that are more work than reward, and that is not enticing to me. I am pretty happy with my life as a single woman, and sometimes casual physical contact is all I need to scratch my itch for that connection (Sherman, 2004). That is how frustrated some Americans are with committed relationships.

But again there is a deviation. Even as some respondents in Shermans study showed preference for casual sex to the hustle-bustle associated with maintaining a marriage or boyfriend-girlfriend arrangement, 5 percent of them admitted that they sleep with a man to see if hes worth getting to know casual sex can therefore be a platform to long-term committed relationship, in addition 46 percent have developed committed relationships from what started out as one-night stands (Sherman, 2004). May be this is an indication that marriage or a strong emotional relationship is not always out of question for those who indulge in casual sex and promiscuity and that may be casual sex and promiscuity is merely one of the means to attaining long-term committed relationships (Easton  Liszt, 1997).

And in a study by Epstein et al. (2009), it was established that some of the men explicitly stated that they were more interested in committed dating relationships than hookups. Epstein et al. (2009) further went on and gave an illustration from a man named Derek. When Derek met his girlfriend Sarah, she was scantily dressed and expressed immediate interest in him but he only took her number and decided not to pursue anything that night(Epstein et al. 2009). He said, I like to take my time and I didnt want a hookup (Epstein et al. 2009). He called her a few days later, and the two started dating (Epstein et al. 2009). They did not begin having sex, however, until both got tested for sexually transmitted diseases and HIV (Epstein et al. 2009).

Another study by Surbey and Conohan (1999) found that the possibility of forming a long term relationship elevated participants anticipated willingness to have intercourse with an otherwise unfamiliar individual. Indeed there is an affair known as the booty call that tries to bring about a compromise between long-term committed relationship and non-relational relations that is characterized with casual sex. Booty calls tend to utilize various communication mediums to facilitate sexual contact among friends who, for men, may represent low-investment, attractive sexual partners and, for women, may represent attractive test-mates (Jonason, Li and Cason, 2009). The relationship is a compromise between mens and womens ideal mating strategies that allow men greater sexual access and women an ongoing opportunity to evaluate potential long-term mates (Jonason, Li and Cason, 2009).

2. The scientific confirmation that sex has some therapeutic effect on participants
Easton and Liszt (1997) are self-confessed ethical sluts. They describe that ethical sluts as  discover that being openly sexual and intimate with many people is not only possible, but can be more rewarding than they ever imagined. Easton and Liszt (1997) who describe themselves proud sluts believe that sex and sexual love are fundamental forces for good- activities with the potential to strengthen intimate bonds, enhance lives, create spiritual awareness, even change the world.
Moreover they believe that all consensual sexual choices have these potentials- that any sexual pathway, consciously chosen and mindfully followed, can be a positive, creative force in the lives of individuals and their communities (Easton  Liszt, 1997).

3. Need for sheer pleasure that sex offers
Easton and Liszt (1997) are proud participants of casual sex and promiscuity. They describe themselves as ethical sluts. A slut, they say, is a person of any gender who has the courage to lead life according to the radical proposition that sex is nice and pleasure is good for you. A slut may choose to have sex with herself only, or with the Fifth Fleet (Easton  Liszt,1997). He may be heterosexuals homosexual or bisexual, a radical activist or a peaceful suburbanite (Easton  Liszt,1997).

A slut shares his sexuality the way a philanthropist shares her money because they have a lot of it to share, because it makes them happy to share it, because sharing makes the world a better place (Easton  Liszt, 1997). Sluts often find that the more sex and love they give away, the more they have- a loaves-and-fishes miracle in which greed and generosity go hand-in-hand to provide more for everybody. Imagine living in sexual abundance (Easton  Liszt, 1997).
       
That pleasure is a major motivator for indulging in casual sex has been widely documented. Schmitt (2008) asserted that perhaps the strongest personality predictor of short-term mating is impulsive sensation-seeking. This he notes is supported by Hoyle et al. (2000) and Zuckerman and Kuhlman (2000) who vindicate this proposition. They say that most people engage in casual sex and promiscuity mainly for the sheer pleasure of it.

While Sherman (2004) also found that the most common reason for the respondents to indulge in casual sex is pure pleasure (25 percent), she notes that a sizable number of respondents participate in casual sex merely for adventure (18 percent) this is also supported by Easton  Liszt (1997). Moreover, Sherman (2004) found that around half of the respondents revealed that compared to sex in a committed relationship, a fling (construed in the present study as casual sex) is more exciting, wonderfully freeing, or second-best to a relationship but better than nothing. Of course the other half said that it is worth it.

Wight et al. (2008) says that most studies have often overlooked the fact that sex is enjoyable for most teenagers and that many adolescents seek sexual relationships expecting them to bring intimacy, social prestige and pleasure. This also confirms the postulation that casual sex is a platform to a more committed relationship.

4. Casual Sex and Promiscuity as ways of expressing an individuals freedom and boosting egos
More and more Americans are indulging in casual sex and promiscuity to stamp their individual freedom and boost their ego. A few studies have proved this. Sherman (2004) in their study found that 9 of the respondents engage in casual sex for an ego boost the ego boost, and stress relief (8 percent). And in Wight et al. (2008) it was found that heterosexual experience is important for positive self-perception, particularly for males.

According to Easton and Liszt (1997) argue that all of us are ethical sluts or seek to be one and that in most of the world, slut is a highly offensive term, used to describe a woman whose sexuality is voracious, indiscriminate and shameful ( p.13). They are therefore incensed by the fact its analogous word stud, is used to describe a highly sexual man, is often a term of approval and envy (Easton Liszt, 1997).

The phrase ethical slut has therefore been reclaimed as counteract to its counterpart the stud. Easton and Liszt (1997) say that the latter has been glorified as opposed to slut which has been seen as profane. Easton and Liszt (1997) argue that ethical sluts are those who dream of freedom, those who dream of sex, and those who dream of an abundance of friends and flirtation and consensual conquest, those who would like to follow their desires and see where they take them.
Schmitt (2008) cite Eysenck (1971, 1976) whose study based on his three-factor model of personality has argued that extraversion is central to explaining individual differences in sexuality, including many facets of short-term mating. They argue that extraverts, for example, are more likely than introverts to endorse favorable attitudes about having multiple sex partners and to engage in sexual intercourse with more partners than introverts do (Eysenck, 1976 Eysenck and Eysenck, 1975). 

Consequences of Casual sex and Promiscuity
Despites all these gratifications of casual sex and promiscuity, Americans are aware of the consequences of these sexual behaviors. In the study of the young people who engaged in casual sex, Wight et al. (2008) found that a  substantial minority of young people, however, regret their early sexual encounters,  and one of the most important predictors o f such regret is coercion. Coercion is clearly important to subjective experience, as well as being associated with exposure to STDs, depression, other psychological problems and disempowerment (Wight et al. (2008).  In addition, stress in romantic relationships is associated with depressive symptoms and other psychological problems (Wight et al. 2008).

Indeed, exposure to STDs, depression, and other psychological problems (Eisenberg et al., 2009) are intrinsically associated with casual sex and promiscuity. And even the so-called ethical sluts advice that you need to protect yourself against HIV and against herpes, hepatitis, gonorrhea, syphilis, chlamydia, shigella, human papilloma virus, cervical cancer, unwanted pregnancy and a host of other nasties (Easton  Liszt, 1997). They therefore insist on safe sex, which arguably, is at variance with the fundamentals of casual sex and promiscuity. 

Sherman (2004) reported that while 49 percent of the respondents always use condoms, 36 percent employ them only sometimes, and 11 percent never do. Sherman (2004) says that this means way too many of casual sex participants put themselves at risk of potentially fatal diseases like AIDS Sherman (2004). In sub-Saharan Africa alone, 23 million adults are currently infected with HIV, with most cases traceable to instances of short-term mating (Schmitt, 2008).

It is also vital to understand that though a lot of women engage in casual sex and promiscuity, only a few of them are capable of truly casual sex, and that is about 25 according to a study conducted by oprah.com (Sherman (2004). Sherman (2004) in a similar question asking which statement best describes how respondents feel afterward after engaging in casual sex, 29 percent chose Try as I might to be detached, sex is never really casual for me. I always feel something more 33 percent selected Ive been had Sherman (2004).  And while 22 percent said you walk away feeling empowered, sexy, andor happy to be single 80 have regrets Sherman (2004). This is the case even among the empowered, sexy and or happy to be single.

Grello, Welsh, and Harper (2006) found that casual sex was a fairly common occurrence related to early sexual transition, engaging in first sex with a casual sex partner, drug use, and alcohol consumption. Depressive symptoms were associated with engaging in casual sex differently for males and females ((Grello, Welsh, and Harper, 2006). True, males who engaged in casual sex reported the fewest symptoms of depression, and females who had a history of casual sex reported the most depressive symptoms (Grello, Welsh, and Harper, 2006) but they still do have symptoms.

Schmitt (2008) says that behaviorsincluding variants such as promiscuity, infidelity, and the poaching of other peoples long-term partnersrepresent significant health concerns to individuals, relationships, and societies throughout the world. Citing (Bringle and Buunk, 1991 Gottman, 1994) Schmitt (2008) reasons that short-term mating can lead to relationship dissolution, sexual jealousy and violent retribution by aggrieved partners. It is also responsible for the contraction of sexually-transmitted diseases and infections Schmitt (2008).

More and more Americans are embracing casual sex and promiscuity as conventional ways of sexual life. Americans today, more than any other period or place, are not shying away from expressing their sexual lives. They compose music on their sexual escapades make adverts that must have sexual connotations openly discuss about their last night intercourse in public forums, just to mention a few.
This show of appreciation of casual sex and proximity has been attributed to the lows and the highs that characterize long-term committed relationships, the scientific confirmation that more sex is healthy, the desire for more pleasure in this stressful times and sex as a means to express ones individuals freedom and bolster egos. It remains to be seen whether the act of sexual intercourse shall jump out of the privacy of bedrooms cars, on couches in pubs, at a street corner. And while this is not entirely grave, there are consequences that have to be appreciated. These include sexually transmitted diseases and psychological problems.