Sociology

Firstly I would like to discuss what business ethics is concerned about. Business ethics is the moral and the principles that an organization has to follow in the business world. There are many business ethics that a firm would follow such as general ethics as posed by the ruling government and other ethics such as ethics in production, sales, finance, human resources etc. the corporate ethics have become one of the study subject in this 21st century. I would say that good business ethics are an essential requirement of every firm for their long lasting and profitable business. One can do well by doing good.
       
I am in the management team of one of the Research Consultancys firm which investigates issues concerning business ethics for several years now. Many companies consult us in relation to the ethical issues pertaining to their business. We have reviewed their businesses and ethics concerned with their business. These reviews have proved as beneficial to the organizations and have improved their businesses.
       
A big business organization has contacted our Research Consultancy firm to build a material on the review of ethical issues concerning their business. Its a large production firm with around 10000 employees doing business over 15 years in different parts of the world. It has many shareholders who believe in this company for their successful over years. Their products are of good quality and are of high demand in the market. They have registered everything and their products are ISI marked. They have good management team which has proved to be the best in carrying out the tasks efficiently and effectively.
       
So now this business organisation wants to review their ethics concerning their business. This review is basically to make their mark in the corporate world for being good and uncorrupted. They want to build their ethical material and publish to make more business and profits.
       
So our management team in the Research Consultancy firm took the task of reviewing their business ethics. We did a complete study of their organization. After several studies we found we listed out the business ethics and suggested them to follow. The business ethics is as described below.
     
We suggested them what ethics they should follow in human resource department of their organization. The ethics in human resource is nothing but everything about employee- organization relationship. An employee is a resource of an organization, so he should be treated in good manner. He should be given healthy salary, benefits, offs and good incentives as per industry standards for his good work. He should be bonded labored and should not be treated as if he has been confined just for joining the firm. His family issues should be taken care of to some extent. His personal interests should not be neglected. He should not be treated like a slave but as a part of the organization. Women employees should be survived from being ill-treated or sexual harassed. There should not be any discrimination based on sex, caste, religion, race etc. The employer should be an equal opportunity employer. Profits should be sometimes shared with the employees as they are one responsible of company making profits. The disabled and the poorer class should be employed. But business people are best at making money than making social policy says Milton Friedman in his essay The social responsibility of business is to make profit.
       
Next we suggested about the ethics they should follow while production. When coming to the ethics in production, company or organization should always strive for quality. They must produce products of high quality. Their quality should match their price. There products should not cheat consumers of their belief. The company should get good reviews from the consumers about their products. Using resources which is illegal to produce will result in the exemption and confinement. Such activities should not be practiced as it is unethical in businesses. The organization should not steal other organization production ideas and products and mane as theirs and sell with eh idea of making huge products. Their products should be marked with their company logo and this logo should not be able to duplicate as the unauthorized sellers and buyers may make use of the logo on their poor products to make profits. This spoils the companys image in the public. They should notify the consumers when such a thing happens.
       
Their production should not harm the animal kind and the environment. Many companies cause environment pollution such as air pollution, water pollution etc. They may let chemical substances into water and harmful gases into air while production. They must take care of our environment from being and make earth base place live in. They must take care no harm is made to human health by their products.
     
Finally we suggested about ethics in sales and marketing, which involves much of advertising and media is forms a major part of business ethics. A good product needs no much advertising as people advertise it among themselves. The advertisements should not be false or scams. Company should always adhere to what they advertise. No much of media hype should be given. Media may create demand for the product and retaining the demand can only be done when the product is good quality. No gimmicks should be done while selling as this creates a bad impression. Sales strategy should be kept away from the instinct of making profits.
       
After much study about the ethics involved in human resources, production and sales and marketing and figuring out the ethical concerns of the company in its human resources, production and sales and marketing parts, our Research Consultancy firm finally drafted a paper on how this company can make profits by following the business ethics in human resources, production and sales and marketing parts of the organization.
       
The employees when well treated and they will trust the organization and give their best to the organization. The employees are the important resource of n organization. This ethic when followed an organization will definitely make profits. The employees compensated correctly for the work they have done will boost confidence in them and work hard for the company. They refer their friends and the companys image gets better among people in the society.  So is the case in the production of the organization.
     
The ethical values such as producing good quality goods and taking care of environment will definitely raise the companys value ethically in the business world. So when coming to sales and marketing, false advertisements, illegal marketing, bait and switch should not be involved. Good and healthy advertisements of good quality products yields good results was what we suggested to this company.  If the advertisements given by the company are true, consumer will be happier and trust the company and its products. This builds good relationship between the company and the consumer.
       
The company which gave us contract to review the ethics of their business welcomed our ideas. It obeyed each and every concept we had put forward regarding business ethics. As a part of the management team of our Research Consultancy firm, I felt privileged reviewing their business ethics. Companies around the world are concentrating on business ethics and business ethics has now become a subject of study. Earning well by doing good is the theme of the story.

The question of whether physicians should aid patients in dying is obviously a controversial one with only a few states in America such as Oregon Montana and Washington having legalized the practice (Robinson, 2010, para 4). Ethical as well as religious reasons have been raised over this matter and the following is a discussion on the same more so with the view that it is a call for alleviating pain and suffering from terminally ill patients

Should physician-assisted suicide be practiced
Assisted suicide with the assistance of the physician entails a physician prescribing to the patient the means to attain his death. In such a case, the physician is not directly involved in administering death to the patient as with euthanasia (Braddock  Tonelli, para 2). If one was to argue on the basis that people have the right to make their own decisions regarding how they would like to experience death, then the question of the right for a patient to get assisted suicide should cease to be controversial. This is so because such persons are competent enough at that stage of life as far as their death is concerned and therefore the autonomy in this matter ought to be respected. Furthermore, controversies arise along jurisdictions with some arguing for the preserving life under all circumstances. But when the matter goes down to the individual level, there is a change of interest as the states denial of right to assisted death is limiting the liberty that an individual should have. Personal liberty and autonomy should therefore be effective even in assisted suicide.  

Persons who would like to terminate their lives often do so due to the suffering and pain they are going through. Such is the case with terminally ill cancer patients among other sicknesses. It has been argued that terminally ill patients who are competent enough can choose to end their lives by refusing to undertake therapy. If such is the case and if justice were to reign across the board, then it would be justifiable to have patients whose refusal to undergo therapy would not speed up their death be assisted to die by physicians (Braddock  Tonelli, 8).

There are controversies on what constitute to suffering, the much it can be dealt with and the means to alleviate the suffering. Suppose suffering meant purely pain, then physician-assisted suicide would not be among the best means out. But if suffering extends to more burdens including psychological ones, assisted suicide would come in handy as a compassionate means of eradicating suffering that is unbearable to patients (Braddock  Tonelli, 9).

Controversial matters have been arising on why assisted suicide should or should not be legalized in most states. The question that prevails here is whether people still practice assisted suicide illegally and via crude means or not. Some have suggested that pain relievers such as morphine have been administered and a closer look into this is an indication of another form of assisted suicide (Braddock  Tonelli, para 12). Taking this to be the case, allowing physician-assisted suicide would be a good means of bringing the matter in the open for discussion and via other arguments, a leveled ground would be reached between the agonists and the protagonists.

Even with much support of the issue, the antagonists in this matter may be failing to see some of the dangers and ethical reasons raised by those against assisted suicide. By taking a religious ground, assisted suicide does not have a place in many as it is the beliefs of many that life should be considered sacred and therefore taking it away is a contradiction to the beliefs (Braddock  Tonelli, 14). To a society that observes these religious beliefs and morals, the controversy around this hot debate should rest that assisted death is unacceptable.

Looking into this matter deeply, one cannot fail to see the dangers of misuse of this practice if it were allowed. Some arguments say that terminally ill persons are likely to be forced to accept assisted suicide by malicious family members. If physician-assisted suicide were to take this cause, then there is no doubt that allowing it is courting enormous problems in the end. In addition, the question of what kind of suffering would be classified as one requiring the intervention of assisted suicide is controversial. This raises the question of its misuse again since some people may choose to have assisted suicide out of unsound mind such as depression. It is therefore justifiable to only allow it (if it must be) to persons of sound mind (Robinson, 2009 para 8). Additionally, physicians should also consider whether their actions are in tandem with the Hippocratic Oath of never administering poison but rather ensuring benefit to the patient by all means (Braddock  Tonelli, para 18).

Conclusion
The controversies surrounding the legalization of assisted suicide are well founded with both sides presenting strong arguments for their representative stands. With most reasons surrounding the ethics of this matter, it is important for any given society to determine the worthiness of observing its ethics and the much they can be adjusted to fit under special circumstances such as in whether to or not to allow physician-assisted suicide.

Cell phones should be banned while driving. Everyone knows the reality that it is truly difficult to focus on more than one thing at once, especially if that one thing is concentrating on the road and its surroundings. Talking on a cell phone while driving is extremely unsafe and puts the drivers at a 4 times greater risk of an accident. According to a study from Harvard Center of Risk Analysis, using cell phones while driving contributes to six percent of crashes, which equals to 636,000 accidents 330,000 injuries 12,000 severe injuries 2,600 deaths every year and an amount of 43 billion dollars (Live Science 2009). Talking on a cell phone while driving can weaken the reaction time and make the responses of a driver similar to that of a drunken driver. If the conservation is stressful on the cell phone, then the reaction time will not be that much quick (Live Science 2009). Also, the person who is on the other side does not know what is happening on the road. Even hands free devices do not make the use of cell phones safe while driving because the driver does not concentrate on driving completely. The only way to keep everybody safe while driving is not using the cell phone at all.

Drivers who talk on the cell phones do not think that their act can affect other drivers, as well as people walking on the road. For drivers, talking on a cell phone may seem harmless, but they dont understand how unsafe it can be until they end an innocent persons life, which the driver can easily, avoid (Aiman 2007). The driver is responsible for the safety and lives of other drivers and people walking on the road while driving (Aiman 2007). Thus, they need to focus completely on the road while driving. Therefore, the usage of cell phones should be banned because cell phone conversations and driving are two things that will not go together.

The term juvenile delinquency was derived from two words, juvenile which pertains to minors and delinquency which means failure to comply to the norms and laws dictated by the society. Juvenile delinquency, in social science, refers to the acts of children (minors) which are considered as deviant or non-conforming to the legal and social norms. Any person       who committed crime and  whose age falls between 12 to 17  years old is considered as a juvenile delinquent (Siegel and Welsh,2009).

Once a juvenile is proven to be guilty of doing something against the law, he is immediately  given a sanction depending on the laws set by government of a certain country. Juvenile delinquents are given special considerations such as that they are not treated or processed by the law like adult criminals are. These children are usually send into special programs administered by the government where they could be rehabilitated and reformed (Kirk,Goldstein and Redding,2005).

Many theories were formulated to explain deeply why some adolescents are motivated to commit crimes while others, in similar circumstances are not. Theories regarding juvenile delinquency is divided into two, the choice theory and the trait theory. These two differs in such a way that the choice theory suggests that these delinquents commit crime just because they believe that their actions will be beneficial, their decisions are considered to be rational while the trait theory points out that these delinquents do deviant acts uncontrollably or rationally. A clear example for the choice theory are the delinquents who sell drugs for them to have enough money to buy their food. They have a choice of doing or not doing the deviant act, however, they still chose to do it because they have to in order to survive. As for the trait theory, delinquents who have abnormal mental and physical traits who committed crime uncontrollably are good examples of such (Siegel,2005).

Under the choice theory is the routine activities theory developed by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson. This theory states that  the volume and distribution of predatory crimes (violent crimes against persons and crimes which an offender attempts to steal an object directly from its holder) in a particular area and at a particular time is influenced by the interaction of three variables the availability of suitable targets (such as homes containing easily saleable goods), the absence of capable guardians (such as homeowners, police, and security guards), and the presence of motivated offenders (such as unemployed teenagers)  (Siegel,2005).

Studies show that the rate of juvenile delinquency is higher in an area having lame security, houses containing small gadgets that are easy to sell and large number of teenagers competing for small number of part-time jobs than in an area with strict security, houses with less saleable items and  small number of teenagers competing for jobs (Siegel,2005).

The psychodynamic theory originated by Sigmund Freud is one of the theories under the trait theory of juvenile delinquency. This theory states that  law violations are product of an abnormal personality formed early in life . In this theory, Freud emphasizes that there are three major components of personality of a person id,ego and superego. The id pertains to the needs and desires, the ego weighs the reality between the two other components and the superego dictates the feelings of morality. These three components are believe to play simultaneously. Abnormal personality traits are exhibited once one of these three components  become dominant over the others. The theory also states that an imbalance among these components caused by a traumatic childhood experience may result into a long-termed psychological problem. For instance, when a child fail to develop his superego which can be enhanced through proper interaction with the parents and others, his id may dominate meaning he can no longer weigh properly which one is the right thing to do and which is the wrong one. His actions may just be towards the satisfaction of his needs and desires  without considering the moral aspect of those (Siegel,2005).

In conclusion, the main factor which pushes juvenile delinquents to commit crime may be regarded  as the interplay of ones genes, a persons environment and the situation where a person is in to at a certain time.

The differing perspectives regarding geisha have caught the attention of the world after it was revealed among the Western world. What makes geisha interesting to non-Japanese is its association with prostitution which according to history began during the 17th century. The question as to how Japanese people view and accept geisha practices as part of its culture and history points to the concept that it possesses a form of prostitution but in a more modest way that is kept unchanged throughout many years.  The story of Sayuri as Golden recalled in his book The Memoirs of Geisha is a story of betrayal and deceiving as a Geisha though ended happily, her life had evolved with different men who wanted to become her danna (Memoirs). Despite that, Geisha culture as art-entertainment has been treasured as a uniquely Japanese tradition, which the modern Japan reinvents.

Geisha in the eyes of foreign nationals beginning World War II would refer to Japanese prostitutes who populated most of the cities of Japan during the American occupation. For this reason, the traditional concept that gave importance to the culture of ancient Japan had been exploited over a period of time in such a way that historical development as well as changing economic condition affected somehow this cultural practice of the people. For this reason, the term geisha evolved long time ago as a practice associated in prostitution in the perspective of both Japanese and non-Japanese people. But most importantly, it must understand that geisha practice is rooted in the history of the ancient Japan as early as 7th century and as per records, its importance is parallel with that of samurai in terms of the major role it played in the history of Japan.  Maske had stated, Geisha have been a source of fascination and fantasy for nearly 250 years, but they have also been misunderstood and misrepresented (quoted in Geisha). Nowadays, though it decreased in number, still many women continue its practice with a deep conviction and dedication to continue the long tradition of art-entertainment geisha in order to bring out its cultural importance in the eyes of contemporary world.

Brief history
Geisha in its literal meaning refers to art people (Sosnoski, p. 40). As opposed to the understanding of foreigners, geisha according to Sosnoki has a long and honorable history (p. 40), which Japanese people today keeps as part of their culture and history. Geisha traditionally refers to Japanese entertainer that served the imperial palace in the 7th century but later occupied small houses near temples and shrines to entertain customers through dancing and playing instruments.  The question as to how the traditional concept of geisha has changed will be determined by many factors accompanying the economic condition since the 17th century until the end of the World War II.  The challenge therefore in restoring the traditional geisha gives the modern Japan an opportunity to reinvent it in such a way that it would reflect the glorious and rich Japanese culture and history, though at some point its connection with prostitution cannot be denied.

The history of geisha recorded the two forerunners known as Saburuko that came into existence in 7th century and Shibyoshi of the 13th century (Immortal Geisha). During this period, young women of eighteen years of age were adopted into a licensed entertainment place where they were trained to learn Japanese songs and dances (Sosnoski, p. 40). Henshall (1999) referring to geisha of 17th century, described geisha as artistic person as they were trained in musical and dramatic arts in particular, as well as their general command of etiquette (p. 16).  Most importantly, Henshall emphasized that Officially geisha have not been classed as prostitutes, and were not, but in practice they have been known to provide sexual favours in addition to the entertainment covered by their fee (p. 16).

Throughout centuries, geisha evolved as a means to support these women financially. Feldman and Gordon recalled deplorable fate of these women from being recognized as skilled female performers who were thought to have a shamanistic ability to communicate with spirits and gods and regarded as professionals with privilege of being identified as belonging to the court (p. 243) into becoming sex objects. It is important to note as well that prostitution had existed during the pre-geisha period. It is stated that Saburuko (earliest form of Geisha) were the result of an increasing social displacement towards the end of the 17th century (Immortal Geisha), in which out of necessity to live, they traded their body as sexual favors to aristocratic customers.

There are many factors that contributed to the association of geisha with prostitution. Feldman and Gordon remarked that the ancient imperial Japan was weakened by the rise of samurai through which female sexuality began to be commercialized as a market economy developed (244). During this period that sexual labor of female entertainment was legalized and women were exploited. Similarly, Andressen recounted the negative side of the progressive Japan during the Samurai period in which according to him, One famous result of the growth of the affluent urban merchant class was the creation of pleasure quarters in the cities, the so-called floating world where men of various classes could shed their worldly cares (p. 72), referring to the place of Edo. The rise in the number of young women who engaged in geisha during the Tokugawa period was due to the fact that these women became geisha out of necessity (p. 17) as most of them were sold or indentured to a geisha house by country parents who usually  but not always  needed the cash (Henshall, p. 17).  This practice according to Henshall continued until World War II.

The earliest form of Geisha and the religious influence
The emergence of female Geisha or female entertainers during the ancient Imperial Japan prior to the rise of Samurai was influenced by its religious ideology and teaching, in particular of Buddhism and Confucianism. As Tokita and Hughes recalled, the role of women during the pre-Buddhism and pre-Chinese period was very important in celebration of rituals (p. 14). They composed the group of performers in the courtyards as musicians and dancers. The changes took place over a period of time. They quoted, Although in ancient times women were significant carriers of religious activities and performing arts, they became marginalized in the medieval period (p. 13). For this reason, women were replaced by men in performing religious and political rituals.  As they were banned from performing in public especially during the Edo period, most of them were demoted to the licensed quarters of prostitution (Tokita  Hughes, p. 13).  Thus, the emergence of all-male genre in entertainment caused the suppression of womens performance, which continued until the modern period. The attitude of powerlessness of Japanese women can be attributed to Buddhism teaching in which renunciation or resignation from oneself is a symbolism that she detaches herself from the things of this world (Pincus, p. 226).

The training for Geisha
The training for Geisha now and then has little discrepancy. Both include advancing her proficiency in terms of artistic ability which includes dancing, playing traditional musical instrument, singing, and even the art of entertaining and graceful actions. The training usually begins in childhood and takes many years before becoming a full-pledged geisha. ONeal noted that A Geisha is trained from her childhood to attract, please, and entertain men, particularly wealthy businessmen (p. 17).  According to him, a young girl is trained to learn basic skills such as music, the arts, voice, make-up, and hair in order to  become ever more desirable, more alluring, and more intoxicating to the men she will entertain (p. 17).

The Life of the Geisha
The life of a geisha is both sweet and bitter. Many stories of geisha since the ancient times recalled entering the profession against their will, which they eventually learned to accept in order to live. Cass cited the desperate condition of geisha during the Ming Dynasty. He stated, For most geishas, life in the education district consisted of sexual servitude. Male guests selected a geisha and paid for sexual intercourse with her, or paid for her presence at drunken, orgiastic parties. Nor could the life in the district provide economic independence for most geishas (p. 25). Geisha life appears like a hell as more women were forced to enter geisha area (even the most educated and intelligent of women were not exempted) during the earliest period of geisha, in which there was no way to escape.

Likewise, for a geisha of a young age in order to become a full geisha needs a sexual initiation by his danna or sponsor who pays for her virginity in a large sum of money and who provides her with all her necessity for a certain period of time. Her relationship with her danna is different from a lover because a geisha can have a lover while being cared for by a danna. Likewise, a geisha is expected to possess the ability to stir sexual favor with her guest without necessarily engaging in sexual intercourse. Basically, geisha generally know more about sex than housewives do. They provide Japanese men the satisfaction of their ego which is not given by their wives.

Duty of a geisha
History tells that art-entertainment has evolved in Japan prior to Buddhism and Chinese influence in which women were as significant as men in performing rituals through musical presentation. At the turn of centuries, geisha retained its musical inclination but revolved around entertaining guests at tea houses specifically, during the Edo period that a quarter was assigned to them to perform prostitution. Overtime, even the most educated and intelligent women of that period were succumbed to geisha usually by force.  Since then, geisha takes the duty of providing pleasure to guests through entertainment by means of musical presentation and by all means as possible.

Different aspects of Geisha practices
As a requirement, Geisha has to undergo several preparations in order to make herself beautiful and attractive to her guests. Each day, they create their face and costume to exaggerate illusion of femininity. The traditional geisha was established in 18th century in which the government created a mandate legalizing its practices along with tax imposition. This government action made the geisha popular especially among affluent people. Nowadays, after it was outlawed, the number of geisha had diminished in the record, there were less than 1,000 women keep the geisha tradition (Golden, p. 4). Despite this number, Golden acknowledged that these geisha receive good compensation for their service and skills. Most importantly, contemporary geisha struggle to correct the assumption of Westerners regarding geisha

The contemporary geisha
Today, the geisha have come to represent the epitome of Japanese elegance and has become the prevailing icons of Japanese womanhood. It can be argued that the contemporary geisha has deviated from the geisha that is part of the early Japanese history where the geisha served as entertainer to businessmen and politicians through their dancing and the wearing of beautiful kimono. The old reputations of geisha as prostitutes have been replaced by a positive identity. Richie and Iyer (2002) stated that the general impression of contemporary geisha is that they are rare, talented creature, someone to be approached slowly and with tact, a fragile and flower-like being who wilts at a glance, and whose favors, by reason of their supposed rarity, are to be treasured and sought after at any price (p. 192).    

Given this positive description of the contemporary geisha, it seemed that it is very logical to assume that the early geisha institution had collapse and that the geisha women had transformed to become icons of Japanese womanhood. This transformation on the geisha identity is depicted by Richie and Iyer in their description of the modern geisha. According to them, the contemporary geisha are expected to be especially knowledgeable. Richie and Iyer stated that the contemporary geisha are expected to understand some of the basic knowledge particularly in sports and even stock market (p. 192).

The contemporary geisha though still serving as entertainer in various district in Japan yet they are far from the prostitution image of the past. While some of the geisha may have transformed from being prostitute to a more descent individual in view of the task assign to them, many of them simply evolved to a high status and more money making job of entertainment.

How are they different from each other
The concept of different geisha may sprang from the varied understanding of what really the work the geisha was engaged especially during the early time. Ahmed (2002) contends that despite of the high respect afforded by most Japanese to the geisha culture, there was the concept of geisha as an institution of prostitution. Ahmed identified the original geisha women as skilled entertainer who performed dancing, singing, poetry, and formal tea ceremonies.  However, this positive reputation was marred by the notion of prostitution. Thus, according to Ahned, there are now all sorts of geisha

From the above context, geisha may be different from each other in view of the function they are doing. The identity earlier includes skills such as dancing, singing, and poetry, aside from those who may have been engage in prostitution. Differentiation of geisha therefore can be done through their function and skills.

Generally speaking, there might really be those geishas working as prostitutes, and there are those who find themselves as mistress. There are also the joro which is identified as criminals. Given these points of differences, each geisha can be differentiated by their talents and current condition in life.

Another differentiation may be done in the context of regional differences. Dalby (1983) for instance, stated that geisha in Tokyo are slightly different breed from their Kyoto sisters (p. 165). The difference between geishas of two cities is that geishas in Kyoto are respected and beloved while in Tokyo, they play limited role.

Japan has been identified as one of the leading destination for Philippine immigrants in the world. Existing statistical evidence however show that most of these immigrants are as a result of human trafficking mainly for the purposes of sexual exploitation (Valmero, 2009). Also clear from the available statistical evidence is the fact that majority of the Philippines in Japan are the main cause of increased criminology and commercial sex as well as lobar force abuse practices in the nation (Valmero, 2209). It is to be stated here that such human trafficking practices into Japan from Philippine has been closely associated with the presence of organized crime groups in Japan. This has also been claimed to be a direct result of the failure by the Japanese government to effectively implement the set international minimum standards of mitigating human trafficking across the globe. Though many see Philippines as major workers in the entertainment sector of the Japanese nation, it is evidently clear from existing statistics that many fall victims of human exploitation thus forced to indulgence into inhuman practices as a survival strategy (Amoyo, 2008).

Existing research data has shown that the trafficking of women and children is mainly conducted by non-governmental organizations and government agencies in collaboration with the mass media (Fujimoto, 2006). It is to be noted here that the major drawback to the fight against trafficking of Philippines to Japan is the governments failure to respect and effectively impose the Immigration Control and Refugee Recognition Act and the International Anti-Prostitution Law. This is because the government has been noted to treat victims of human trafficking as criminals rather punishing the facilitators of the illegal immigration.

This paper is a critical analysis on the claim of illegal Philippines work as entertainers in Japan. The author takes a look on the association of such immigrations with crime, human trafficking and the question of sexual exploitation. A discussion on the problem of immigration and the failure by the Japanese government and the international community to ensure fairness and justice to the victims of human exploitation in Japan is also given.

Philippines working as entertainers in Japan
Although many women trafficking victims come to Japan as tourists, many others enter the nation as entertainers. It is clearly to be noted here that such foreign entertainers trafficked into Japan usually posses a six month entertainer visa (Valmero, 2009). However, most of this end up staying in the nation for long times thus subjecting themselves to breach law illegalities. Statistics have evidently shown that most of the foreign entertainers in Japan are from Philippine. Indeed, it has been claimed that entertainers from Philippine constitute an approximated 60 percent of the total foreign entertainer population in Japan (Nuqui, 2010). Still clear from existing research result is that though most entertainers are meant to sign and dance in entertainment halls, Philippine entertainers mainly serve as hostesses in night clubs. Their duties include serving drinks and singing as well as talking to costumers (Castro, 2010). They are even in some cases forced to practice prostitution (Amoyo, 2008). It is here to be noted that most of this entertainers find themselves working in poor conditions which rarely match the employment contract signed with the recruiting agencies. They are usually given low wages and even heavy penalties imposed on them for failing to meet the set targets of the nightclub. It is due to this reason that many find themselves dating customers as a way of realizing enough income for survival in the nation (Amoyo, 2008).

It is to be noted that all this practices on immigrants are a major breach of the existing international laws. First and foremost, according to the Immigration Act, entertainers are not supposed to serve as hostesses (Castro, 2010). This means that the government of Japan is purposely neglecting the requirements of this law by allowing for the employment of foreign entertainers as hostesses in nightclubs. Another law is the international requirement for respecting Commercial Contract Laws. It is to be understood that most of entertainers from Philippine have been evidently claimed to be working in different conditions than they had signed in their contract with the recruiting agencies (Amoyo, 2008). This is a breach of the contract law which seeks to ensure fairness and justice between two parties. Equitable justice can only be realized if equity is used to address disputing parties. Still clear is the fact that they are also fined heavily for not meeting the set customer number. This is a major drawback to the economic advantage that forced the entertainers to immigrate to the Japan nation. All this mean that the Philippine entertainers are typically exploited for the sole advantage of the Japanese investors as well as exposed to immoral and harsh working and thus living conditions.

Reasons why Japan is a leading destination for Philippines
The most commonly cited reason for the ever increasing number of Philippine entertainer immigrants in Japan is economic hardships in Philippine (Lie, 1994). It is evidently clear to all that the search for better economic advantage is the leading cause of immigration in the world. The Japanese nation is far much sustained in terms of economic stability and prosperity than Philippine. This means that the Philippine government is not able to provide sustainable employment to all its population. It is due to this economic difference between the two nations that many Philippines go to Japan to seek for better earning employment opportunities and thus better lifestyles (Fujimoto, 2006).

Another reason is the geographical proximity between these two nations (Castro, 2010). It is evidently clear that both Philippine and Japan are found on the Pacific Ocean. This makes transportation of trafficked women and children quite easy. Still, in terms of distance, the two nations are close. This means that the cost of transport is low enough to be afforded by the victims thus meaning a potential increase in the number of Philippines immigrating into the Japan nation.

It has been evidently established that most of the Philippine entertainers in Japan are as a result of human trafficking (Nuqui, 2010). It is in fact from existing statistical evidence that over 80 percent of the entertainers in nightclubs come from trafficking involvements by nightclub operators (Castro, 2010). This has been further complicated by the growing number of organized crime groups in Japan who facilitate the trafficking activities. It is worth stating here that the legal processes of acquiring immigration permission to another nation are not that easy. However, it is only by following the underlying immigration rules that individuals can be assured of legal protection in the destination country. It is thus a direct result of the easiness of the achieving immigration status through trafficking that many Philippines find their way into the Japan nation (Valmero, 2009). Therefore, organized crime groups and their involvement in human trafficking are a reason for increasing numbers of Philippine entertainers working in Japan.

Involved conditions of employment contract are also a reason to be cited for the increased number of Philippine entertainers in Japan. It has been evidently established that both the recruitment agencies in Philippine and the corresponding promoters in Japan usually give lucrative employment contract conditions (Fujimoto, 2006). The human person is always out to get the best for ensuring a competitive social and economic advantage in the society. Based on this reasoning and the fact that most Philippines are faced with the problem of unemployment, the quest to realize such impressive economic advantage can be lead to increased numbers of those wishing to go to Japan. This is further complication with the fact that the immigration activities are usually marked with much mass media publicity. It is to be understood that the convincing power of a human being is mainly dependent on the ultimate claim for substantial success so far realized. With the many successful foreign entertainer success claims, many are convinced of potential security of contract. It is thus the lucrative employment contract terms given by promoters and agencies and the purported success stories in the mass media that are highly responsible for the ever increasing number of Philippine entertainers in Japan nightclubs (Fujimoto, 2006).

Lastly, it has been evidently claimed that the Japanese government has been less effective in combating the problem of illegal immigration (Amoyo, 2008). It is the sole purpose of every existing government not only to protect its citizens from both internal and external security threats but also to uphold and respect the human rights of other nations citizens as defined in the international human right laws. With a government that does less to eliminate organized crime groups in the community, then the acts of the crimes will always intensify. The ever growing strength and illegal control as well as corrupting of government responsibilities by organized crime groups is greatly responsible for the increasing number of Philippines trafficked to the Japan nation.

Effects of Philippines working as entertainers in Japan
The increasing number of Philippine entertainers in Japan has been attributed to the increase in the rates of criminology in the nation (Amoyo, 2008). Survival is the most basic need for every human being. It is to be noted here that most of the Philippines entertainers trafficked to Japan end up working in poor conditions. This could be the reason behind the ever increasing rates of crime in the Japan society. Statistical evidence has clearly shown that over 50 percent of the crimes committed in Japan involve Philippine immigrants (Fujimoto, 2006). Still to be noted is the fact that most of the Philippine immigrants are illegally exported into the nation by organized crime groups. Such could be due to the social and economic links existing between these two groups. This can easily enhance criminal activities in the society by shipping in more cooperate gangs for improving cooperation.

Increased Philippine entertainers have greatly compromised the societal norms, culture and value of the Japanese people (Amoyo, 2008). Discriminative employment for Philippine entertainer has been identified to be the main reason behind increased prostitution in the nation. These high rates of immorality in the Japanese society are evidently watering down the moral value and culture of the citizen. Such are indeed are great threat to the sustainable future of the society. It is also to be stated here that the increasing discriminative practices against Philippine entertainers in Japan nightclubs is loss of respect for both human rights and underlying international laws on immigrants (Amoyo, 2008). The Immigration Act clearly stated that foreign immigrants should not serve as hostesses in nightclubs. Contract laws on the other hand require for the ultimate respect for the provisions that led to its signing. It is thus a disrespect of the law that the Japanese government regards entertainers as criminals and deports them without giving them an opportunity to seek for legal justice.

Steps taken by the Japanese government to solve the immigrant problem
Due to the many critics on the governments concern for the welfare of foreign immigrants and the problem trafficking, the Japanese nation has engaged in finding a lasting solution to these social vices. The government in 2004 implemented the Japanese Action Plan of Measures to Combat Trafficking in Persons (Fujimoto, 2006). This action plan adoption led to the revising of the nations Immigration Act to allow for granting permanent residence status to victims of trafficking and abuse. The Penal Code of the nations constitution has also been revised to encompass more stiff punishments for perpetuators of trafficking. Such allows for punishment of the purchasers of trafficked persons as well as the traffickers themselves (Fujimoto). It also calls for high sentences of up to seven years if the transaction involves a child. The revised immigration laws on the other side allows the justice minister of the nation to allow trafficked victims to stay for a while in the nation before going back to the country for the purposes of cooperating with the police in investing of the case. The act also calls for the deportation of foreign found to be involved in the trafficking business and imprisonment or fining of those facilitating the issuance of forged documents to foreigner for the purposes of entering the Japanese nation (Valmero, 2009).

It is however to be noted that the Japanese government has not up to date enacted any law that seeks to sufficiently protect the victims of trafficking or human right abuse of foreigners. Such should not only include recognition, shelter provision and assistance in seeking for permanent residence status but should also ensure justice is done to those found to be victims of mistreatment particularly in the nightclubs employment sector. It is due to this concern that the author recommends for the need to have concrete rules and regulations in the nation to influence the just and fair respect for the underlying human rights regardless of the individuals originality. This should however not be misunderstood to be a call for allowing illegal immigrants unfair advantage but rather dealing with nightclub operators to ensure the reputation of the nations entertainment sector on the international market. This will not only give the sector a competitive economic advantage in the market but will also portray some sense of respect for human rights by the Japanese government.

Conclusion
It has been clear established that Philippine immigrants make the highest percentage in Japan. Indeed, it is clear from statistical evidence that Philippine entertainers make an approximated 60 percent of the total foreign entertainers population in the nation. Due to this high numbers of Philippine entertainers, they have been found to be major victims of exploitation both sexually and lobar-wise (Amoyo, 2008). They are in fact a major cause of increased levels of insecurity in Japan. It is due to all these that the Japanese government should put into place more effective legislation to aid in both combating trafficking and ensuring fairness and just treatment for all at workplace regardless of their originality.

Mass culture, more commonly known as mass society is a type of society controlled by a small number of  interconnected elites through persuasion  and manipulation  of the masses using the mass media. This type of society is often characterized by psychologically isolated people who are not responsible of carrying social obligations (McMullen,2009).

The people of this society may be interconnected but still, they lack a common purpose in life. In the field of sociology, the people living in a mass society is said to have a gesellschaft type of relationship. Gesellshaft is a type of human relationship in a society which is considered as mechanical since the people of such society only have impersonal associations with each other. This is far different from gemeinschaft which is defined as the social relationship characterized by people having unified goals and beliefs (Naremore and Bratlinger,1991).  

A good example of a gesellschaft is the relationship of the people living in a business capital of a particular country, the people living in this particular area usually are diversified and often interacts only because of their works or because theyre work calls for them to mingle around with others impersonally. It is very different from the people living in a small village in a rural area who are personally connected with each other and share unified traditional practices and beliefs (McMullen,2009).

Mass may be differentiated from the public in such a way that the term mass pertains to a group of people who are just feeding on information without even digesting it while the term public refers to a group of people  who, after feeding on the information, digests it and draws feedback  and conclusions from it as well (Strychacz,1993).

The mass media plays a vital role in a mass society. The use of this may either make or break the bonds of the people living in a certain society. In a positive view, the influence of mass media could mobilize the people to pursue a common goal but looking at it in a negative perspective, mass media could also destroy the peoples relationship just by using black propaganda, thus the usage of mass media in a society is a very critical decision that leaders should consider (Huyssen,1986).

Propaganda  may be divided into three categories black, gray and white. Black propaganda is used mainly to spread lies to destroy an image of a certain subject. Gray propaganda is released without having a goal of letting the people know whether it is fictional or not. While white propaganda is focused more on diverting the attention of the people from a bad news to a good one by magnifying stories pleasing to the listeners instead of dealing deeply into upsetting phenomena (Baughman,2006).

During the time of the World War I, the people lack bonds which were essential in the warfare. Such situation calls for the motivation from the mass media, however, the people then were afraid of  the effects of the mass media. The mass society theory  established by the Frankfurt school headed by  Adorno and Horkheimer back then is based only on the assumptions that the mass media is powerful and dangerous therefore must be eliminated, that the ordinary people do not have the capacity to process the information given by the media, thus they are mostly capable of being harmed, that autocratic leadership is the only way to restore the bonds between the people brought about by social chaos in the society and  that deeper understanding of the media messages might be disregarded which may destroy the traditions of the civilizations (Huyssen,1986).

Though the views and opinions of the people during the old times seemed to be more on the pessimistic side, some of their assumptions were in fact, still applicable in the modern times. The use of the mass media nowadays is abused at some points but of course,  we cannot sacrifice the benefits that we get from the mass media this days (Adorno,1996).

The transition on the type of messages presented by the mass media during the 2nd World War had faced many criticisms from various groups. During this time, fearful messages on wars were covered by unrealistic programs such as soap operas and fictional films. The critics argue that the mass media tries to divert the attention of the viewers by using idealistic concepts, and that this programs were mainly concerned more on the ratings and not on the information really needed to be disseminated by them, therefore it is pretty much obvious that what the media is up to is for the good of the  media corporations and not for the good of the people nor the society. The mass media during this time denied the problems faced by the society. That the people were living in a society which is a make-believed society and superficial (Lang,2009).

Modern mass society culture theorists believe that the important values and concepts are now being replaced by consumerism. Theodore Geiger , a Danish sociologist and a renowned critic of the mass society theory said on one of his works that  Today mutual dependence . . . exists among people, most of them strangers and personally indifferent to one another. What connects them are not the bonds of sympathy but the necessities of life (Lang,2009).

Various critics also commented that the mass society theory, unlike any other theory does not unify or organize the people in a society and thus, it cannot actually be considered as a theory. What the media only does is to advertise and is not even concern with the peoples welfare. The major issue being faced by the mass society theory is not the quality of the mass media in a given society but more on the functions and position that it holds (Lang,2009).

The mass media indeed had been of great influenced to the different sectors of our society for the past years. The scope of the media nowadays had broaden up to the extent that it can even influence or in a sort, brainwash the people as early as childhood. The mass media, like any other sectors in the society has its own advantages and disadvantages, as what was said, it could either make or break the bonds among the people, its just up to the people receiving mass media messages on how are they going to react to it.

Also, it is good that the government of different countries, now implement laws which could protect the people especially children, however, strict compliance to it by must be by media corporation must be observed.

Unemployment forms one of the most distressing family resource management issues due to its extended implications that affects all aspects of a family such as healthcare, social security and education among others.  Following the current high levels of unemployment in the nation, economic analysts have indicated the need to holistically assimilate a new approach for sustainability to be achieved.  Carlo and Matteo (2010) explain that most families living the middle and lower social classes are experiencing major hardships as the economy resilience from the recent recession appears to take much longer than expected.

Unemployment rates and key statistic in the US
While the definition of the term unemployment has always elicited heated debates as scholars fail to come to a conclusive standard definition, it has often been extended to reflect those people with poorly paying jobs that fail to meet their major basic requirements. According to the United States Bureau Labor Statistics (2010a), the current unemployment rates have been shifting upwards since the last quarter of the year 2007culminating to a cumulative job loss of about 6.7 million by the end of 2009.  The Department of Labor further indicates that by December 2009, joblessness increased in all 50 states to an average of 10.   The western states however recorded higher levels of unemployment rates which reached a high of 10.7 while those in the North recorded much lower rates of about 9.7 (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010b).  

It is worth noting that over the years, Latinos and Blacks families have suffered more unemployment compared to the whites (see figure 3).   The recent 13.4 unemployment levels for the blacks and 7.3 for whites appeared to rekindle the long time discriminatory outlook in the United States during and after the cold war (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010a).

Notably, the unemployment rates have been rising since the year 2007 and reaching a peak in December 2009.  As Andrew, Andreas and Steffen (2010) indicate, the greatest concern is that unemployment rates have been projected to continue rising in the year 2010.  Though the levels of the United States unemployment are cited to be much lower compared to other states, implications are very intensive to the Nation.

Causes and family implications of the current unemployment in the nation
From their analysis of the current unemployment status in the nation, Andrew et al (2010) indicate that the recent economic downturn is the main causative factor.  As industries and businesses sought to shield themselves from the realities of the recession, they embarked on cutting down costs in their systems.  As a result, massive layoffs were recorded as other industries were threatened with closure by the shrinking market for their products and services.

Following the high unemployment rates in the nation, Andrew and Andreas (Andrew, Andreas and Steffen, 2010) point out that most families are forced to forego key luxuries they used to enjoy previously.  To emphasize on the emergent implications, Andrew et al (2010) give an example of a family in Texas where all the members were laid off from their jobs and only left with a small family business to support them.  It is only the most essential family demands that are considered while others are left out in anticipation of the economy to improve.

James and Michael (2008) explain that the problem of unemployment, especially those that comes unexpectedly like economic recessions, have greater implications to families that lack external sources of income.   For many families living in the lower social classes such as the inner cities, they have been forced to fore go some of the life basics such as good shelter and decent meals.

To balance the highly limited resources available for family use in education, most families are shifting their children form private to public schools which are considered to be much cheaper.  However, this is done despite the poorer performance of public schools in the nation.  Notably, while more families equally fail to take their children for higher education, the concern is shifting to the long-term negative implications.  At a time that the nation crime rates had assimilated a downward trend, the reverse might be experienced in the near future (Andrew et al, 2010).

Notably, healthcare is considered as one of the most critical aspects to the United States families.  However, Carlo and Matteo (2010) indicate that over 85 million families are not insured mainly due to unemployment.  Similar to major luxuries, many families are therefore considering healthcare to be secondary.  As a result, major diseases and psychological disorders which could have been easy to treat are going not just untreated, but unreported in some cases.

Mechanisms and efforts to address the problem
While unemployment has indeed been the main cause of family resources management problems, key measures to address it have equally been established.  Following the increasing negative implications of the global recession, the current Obama administration passed an economic stimulus package of US  787 billion which was aimed at anchoring economic recovery of the United States (Carlo and Matteo, 2010).  Other mechanisms established to address the problem include use of unemployment benefits to unemployed, use of thrift saving plan for people who previously worked in the government and use of healthcare insurance scheme to holistically cover more people in the country.  Besides, the government also cooperates with private sector in providing employment to the people.

Conclusion
It is from the above discussion that this paper supports the thesis statement, unemployment forms one of the most distressing family resource management issues due to its extended implications that affects all aspects of their lives such as healthcare, social security and education among others.  It came out from the discussion that unemployment rates have been on the rise since the onset of the 2008 economic recession.  With this recession being the main cause of the present high rates of unemployment, the implications spans to all sectors of the family such as education, entertainment, healthcare and even shelter.  It is critical that greater cooperation is established between the government and private sector to address the current problem which has been projected to overflow to other issues such as crime.

Mediation is an informal and confidential manner of resolving of a disagreement with the assistance from a third party that is neutral (mediator). The mediator deals with the disputed parties to assist them conform to a mutually accepted solution to their differences. The mediator is not allowed to give subpoenas or provide witness. The mediator is also not supposed to force the parties to come to a solution of their differences, but only assists the part come to a solution that both parties are comfortable with. The paper is going to address mediation and the resolution of disputes and later talk about the importance of the mediators skills in resolving disputes among parties.

Mediation and resolution of disputes
There are many techniques of dealing with dispute management and resolution, which varies from minor to the major ones. Disputes may be avoided, negotiated, discussed arbitrated, resolved by the law or by violent force. Parties that fail to effectively negotiate and come up with a solution looks for a mediator to facilitate the process of mediation. Mediators play various roles and may enter a dispute at various levels of development or magnitude (Fisher 1995, p 86).

There are three general roles that are played by the mediators. There are authoritative mediators, social network mediators and independent mediators. Authoritative mediators are those people who hold some authority positions within the parties, for example a director or a manager. There are various differences within the authoritative mediators. They may remain neutral to the result, or may comprise vested interests in obtaining a specific settlement. Mediators of this kind are usually in a position to use their authority to enforce solutions.

Social network mediators are often respected members of the society who have healthy relationships with the parties. They are usually not neutral but fair. This kind of mediators is often concerned with maintaining healthy and long-term relations. Usually, the social network mediators remain with the parties once negotiations are over, and are involved in agreements implementation. They are usually in a position to draw on social and peers pressure to come up with agreements.

Independent mediators are well recognized by their impartiality and objectivity. They are interested in assisting the parties develop intended and mutually accepted solutions. These mediators generally lack previous relationships with the parties. The model of an independent mediator is mostly adopted in western countries nevertheless it is increasingly being adopted by other cultures.

Skills applied by mediators
All the types of mediators usually employ two comprehensive classes of skills contingent skills and general skills. Contingent skills are the ones employed to deal with the social problems that are likely to arise in the course of the negotiations. These skills may be used to tackle problems such as value clashes, imbalances of power, and patterns of interactions that are destructive, problems of communication, analyses that are differing, misinformation and strong emotions.

General skills are intervention types that are used by mediators in nearly all disputes. They comprise skills of entering the conflict, conflict analysis, mediation planning, parties interests identification, facilitation of the negotiations and assisting parties come up with proposals, creation of implementation plans and drafting agreements. A major activity of the mediator is to realize the causes of the dispute, and to come up with a hypothesis as to how the dispute may be dealt with.

According to Volkema (1999, p104), there are a number of aspects which determine the choice of strategies of mediation. These aspects include the level of the dispute and the abilities of the parties to resolve their conflicts, the power balance among the parties, the kind of negotiation procedures to be applied, the complexity of the issues, and the parties expectations from the mediator. In developing a mediation strategy, the mediator must know the stage, aim and focus of the intervention. It is the decision of the mediator on whether to put emphasis on the stage of general problem-solving, or on a particular issue.

Mediators may enter into the conflicts either by the parties request or through appointment by a legitimate third party. At this juncture, the mediator has four major tasks. The first one is that heshe must develop credibility with the disputed parties. The parties are supposed to have trust in the mediator himherself, the chief organization of the mediator, and the entire mediation process. Secondly, the mediator has to develop a relatively close and stress-free relationship with the parties.
The third task is that the parties must be well informed about the mediation process, because it is in due course the parties themselves to solve their conflicts. This information assists in building confidence within the mediation process. The final task is that after all these steps it is the responsibility of the mediator to secure the parties dedication to mediation. This dedication may vary from a formal written agreement to an informal oral agreement, depending on the situation.

Mediators may choose to instigate contacts with parties by letter, phone, or in person. Where there is some hindrance to contacting parties, it is vital a mediator to be introduced by a secondary party. The mediators entry timing depends upon the intended type of intervention. Interventions to gather data on the dispute can be performed at nearly any time. Interventions that are delayed may make the issues to develop more fully and the parties to have exhausted there ability and desire to carry on with the dispute. Interventions that are early may lead to more cooperative, less coercive and better relationships.

As Tannen (1994, p172) puts it, after entering the dispute, the parties and the mediator have to cooperate and come up with a mediation strategy that best fits their situation. There are six ways in which a mediator may assist the parties in coming up with a mediation strategy. The first one is that the mediator can assist the parties in discovering the interests that are to be compromised in the conflict and to give clarity on their required goals. Secondly, mediators can assist the parties identify a variety of possible, and acceptable results. The results may be a benefit to both parties a drawback to both parties or benefits one and harms the other.

Thirdly, the mediator should explain the fundamental types of strategies for resolving conflicts. The fundamental strategies are avoidance, competition, accommodation, a compromise that is negotiated, and a negotiation that is interest-based. The fourth fact is that the mediator can assist the parties to clarify the schedule that will direct their strategies choice. The choice of the strategies by the parties will depend on time constraints, the kind of their desired or current relationship with the rival party, their legitimacy and by the internal dynamics of the parties.

The fifth thing is that mediators can assist the parties in options weighing and coming up with a decision. The final thing is that the mediator can help the parties harmonize their strategies into a rational approach to the conflict.

Effective collection of data
Generally, mediators cooperate with parties for the conflict analysis. Analysis of dispute starts with collection of data guided by the mediator. There are six activities that can be done by the mediator to promote effective collection of data. The first activity is the mediator to provide a fundamental structure for understanding disputes. The mediator then decides on the effective methods of data collection. These data collection methods include direct observations, use of secondary sources like financial records and maps and interviewing of the parties.

Thirdly, the mediator may hand over the real work of data collection. Interview, for example, will be more revealing provided that the party identifies with the one interviewing them. Fourthly, these activities of data collection should be linked to the larger strategy of data collection. This strategy should comprise of an approach to discovering all the required parties to the dispute, a schedule for timing and order of the interviews and a schedule for building connection with the parties. The fifth activity is that the mediator should come up with an approach of the interview. The interviews can be structure or unstructured, unfocused or focused, joint or individual. And the last activity is that the mediator must come up with a decision on the types of questions to use for the interview and must listen keenly during the interviews.

Effective mediation process
According to Folberg and Alison (1984, p79), the opening statement of the mediator gives an introduction of the mediator and the parties. It also gives a definition of the role of the mediator, explains the procedures of mediation including the neutrality of the mediator, explains the format of the meetings, and proposes behavioural directions of the sessions. At this point, the mediator may respond to questions from the parties. Each of the parties then makes opening statements. These statements usually focus either on substantive issues and interests or some position that is non-negotiable.

Cultural dissimilarities may play a remarkable role in the commencement of negotiations. In cultures that embrace social network mediators, the starting of the mediation may involve conversations that are more informal and sometimes even drink or food. Authoritative mediators embrace arrangements that are more formal. This is usually a desirable way of showing regards in cultures that are more hierarchical. The styles of communication also differ across cultures.

The task to follow is the setting of the negotiation agenda. The parties will be required to discover the comprehensive topic areas that they are concerned with, identify appropriate contention issues, and come up with the order in which those issues shall be tackled. Disputes vary in the vagueness and complexity of their issues. Usually, disputes can be value-based or interest-based. The disputes that are value-based are less amenable to concession and integration, and therefore mediators should avoid explaining conflicts in terms of differences of value if possible.

The activity of issues definition is referred to as reframing. Mediators assist parties to reframe the issues in a manner that will bring about efficient solving of problems. Conflicts that are interest-based can be reframed by enlarging or focusing the issues while those that are value based can be reframed by regarding the issues as interests and avoiding the value elements.

Reaching a solution
Having come up with a range of solution options, the next thing required of parties is to examine those options. A settlement range of the party is defined by the gap between the target point and the resistance point. Their best possible outcome is the target point. The point of resistance is determined by those results that are more costly or not advantageous enough to be accepted, that is under the partys best alternative to a negotiated agreement. Bargainers that are interest based will go for the solution which avails optimum mutual benefits (Rosen 1992, p94).

After examination of the options, a final bargaining stage is entered by the parties. At this stage, the parties negotiate and come up with an agreement. Sporadically an agreement will have directly come from the stage of evaluation. However, there is usually various potential agreements, some aspects of disagreements, and some details to be arrived at after the stage of evaluation. There are a number of strategies that are used by mediators during this stage.

In a strategy known as incremental convergence, each party makes small dispensations until they attain a consensus. If positional bargainers make use of this strategy, the major task of the mediator is to ensure that parties are comfortable while making dispensations. Within the leap-to-agreement, the parties involve in some introductory bargaining, but then directly leap into a wider proposal.
In the strategy of agreement-in-principle the parties initially look for a consensus on general principles, and then look forward to use these principles in solving the current situation. This strategy is very necessary when one wants to avoid negotiation deadlocks. When the parties fail to obtain a substantive agreement, they apply a procedural strategy. This comes up with a substantive answer.
There are five mostly used forms of contingent mediator skills in handling special situations. These skills are pressure of the mediator, caucusing, power relation management constituency management and teams of negotiations. Caucusing permits the mediator to privately communicate with one party away from other parties. Causes may be applied by mediators to discuss private information, discover settlement range of a party, timing and setting of negotiations and discussing a negotiation strategy of a party.

Mediation is more effective when the power relations of the parties are symmetrical. When the power relation is asymmetrical, then the mediator has to ensure that there is a balance between parties powers. In the course of balancing these powers, the mediators avails the suitable underpinnings of power to the negotiator that is weak. In such instances, the mediator will help those negotiating to have an effective communication with their constituents (Bush and Joe 1994, p221).

Conclusion
Mediation is a field that is broad and rapidly growing. Today, there is a good number of professional mediation organizations, which are putting emphasis on mediation like that of divorce to a mediation of public policy. The paper has discussed in details the skills required by mediators in handling any kind of mediation. On a general point of view, a good mediator according to the codes of ethics is supposed to be impartial, primarily to avoid disputes of interest.

The aim of this topic
This paper will examine an in-depth critical analysis of domestic violence as a social concern. It arises from my involvement in the aspects of health or social care delivery. The paper will follow a coherent and logical plan which will round off the essay as well as tie up any loose ends. Moreover, the paper will critically analyze domestic violence and account for contemporary changes in social care. And finally, this paper is going to asses how far recent development in social theory (with regard to domestic violence) can contribute to understanding these changes.

Definition of Domestic Violence
The forms of domestic violence can encompass physical aggression (such as throwing objects, hitting, restraining, kicking, beating or shaving), or covertpassive abuse sexual abuse economic deprivation emotional abuse stalking domineering or controlling and intimidation. It may not or may make up a crime depending on the duration of specific acts, and local statues. Domestic violence can be defined as a pattern of offensive by both or one partners in a relationship that is intimate such as cohabitation, marriage, friends, dating or family. It can also be referred to as child abuse, spousal abuse, intimate partner violence (IPV) or domestic abuse.

As per the definition of The Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service in the UK in its Domestic Violence Policy, domestic violence is a range of abusive and violent behaviours that can be defined as behavioural patterns that are characterized by abuse of power and control by one individual over the other who have been or are in a relationship that is intimate. It can take place in same-gender relationships or mixed relationships and has deep impacts for the lives of communities, individual, families and children. It may be psychological, physical, sexual andor emotional (Dutton and Donald 2006, pp. 24).

Why domestic violence happened
Often, domestic violence is associated with mental illness and alcohol consumption that enables an individual to gain and sustain a total-control over the victim. When a man is not able to support his wife economically, and maintain control, he may turn to crime, misogyny, and substance abuse as a way to express his masculinity which will eventually resort to domestic violence. As Dutton and Donald (2006, pp. 28) assert, they are 3 approaches of examining the probable reasons for domestic violence between those individuals who have been or are involved intimately.

The first approach focuses on the traits of persons in a relationship. It studies characteristics that are psychological, and that are associated with the victim and the violent individual. An attribute by itself can not inescapably explain the traits of a victim or an abuser. All attributes combined will assist foresee which persons may become a victim of violence or may be predisposed to be violent. With regard to this theoretical approach, as Hampton, et al. (2006, pp. 39) observes, the traits that are associated with persons who abuse their spouses may encompass a desire for control and power self-esteem a manipulative nature and isolation from social power. These persons are normally not able to deal with stress have feelings that are extreme which are of possessiveness and jealousy, are not willing to be responsible for their own actions have certain psychological or mental disorders and depends on the victim excessively. Moreover, those individuals that are violent are likely to abuse alcohol or drugs.

Most abusers decide to behave violently in order to gain control and achieve what they want. Often, their behaviour instigates from a sense of entitlement which in most cases is supported by discriminatory attitudes such as homophobic, sexist, and resist. Domestic violence against partners is caused by abuse of control and power within a milieu of male privilege. Male privilege functions on societal and an individual echelon to sustain a situation of male-dominance, where men consider themselves as being more powerful than children.

What is the change as a result of Domestic Violence
It is not only complex to determine the cause of domestic violence, but determining its impacts on children is also challenging. These traits that are associated with domestic violence victims explain why individuals will remain in a relationship or be involved with an abusive person. The features that are associated with the victim of domestic violence may encompass self-blame mental-illness such as depression low self-esteem guilt isolation from social-support and feelings of shame. The victims of domestic violence may experience feelings of helplessness that will typically prevent them from terminating the relationship, as they believe that they are not able to break out the relationship, and decide to remain in the atmosphere that is violent after repeated failures of escape. Nevertheless, domestic violence can be deemed as a consequence between women and men that is deeply rooted in traditions that are patriarchal that encourages men to think they are entitled to control and power over their partners (Hampton, et al., 2006, pp. 56).

Why Domestic Violence happened to social care
Domestic violence has occurred across the globe, in diverse cultures, and it affect individuals across community irrespective of their organization. The rate of minors being assaulted by women is 78 per 1000 couples with comparison with that for men which is 72 per 1000. Most victims of domestic violence are women and children who usually reside together in a shelter. Most cases of domestic abuse and violence go unreported for trepidation of reprisal by the victimizer. It usually takes place within the milieu of traditional power relations. The perpetrators of that violence are usually responsible for the violence, despite any influences that are societal and that can be drawn so as to understand the milieu of the behaviour. Furthermore, domestic violence is a behaviour that is learnt other than the outcome of a dysfunctional relation, stress, substance use, or individual pathology. More so, perpetrators of domestic violence avoid being responsible for their bad behaviour. They blame their violence on something or someone else, minimizing their behaviour or denying that it occurred at all. The belief systems that are in our societies make it difficult for children and women and children to be assisted as they perpetuate attitudes that are abusive. These may encompass Treating domestic abuse as a matter that is private blaming the victim for the violence privileging men over the needs of children and women putting the family before the children and womens safety and tolerating the use of violence.

Violent men are likely to perpetrate violence while responding to their own possessiveness and sexual jealousy in order to demonstrate the authority of men and respond to their demands for domestic services. Most individuals who take drugs or drink too much do not abuse their families or partners (Jackson and Nicky, 2007, pp. 15).  

Why was the choice of domestic violence and children change
Despite the fact that most individuals argue that domestic abuse and violence is not due to the perpetrator loss of control over his behaviour. Indeed, abusive violence and behaviour is a choice that is deliberate, and that is typically made by the abuser so as to control the victim. Various tactics are used by abusers to exert their power and manipulate their victim. They include

Blame and denial Perpetrators normally make excuses for the unforgivable. Their violent and abusive behaviour will be blamed on their victims of abuse, a bad childhood, or even a bad day. The partner who is abusive may deny that the abuse took place or may minimize the abuse. Often, he will shift the responsibility on to the victim that his abusive and violent behaviour is the fault of the victim.
Dominance Most perpetrators like feeling in charge of their relationships. The decisions for the family as well as the victim will be made by them. They expect their victim to obey them with no query as they tell them what to do. A victim can be treated as the abusers possession, servant, or child.

Intimidation Various tactics of intimidation can be used by the abuser to scare his victims into submission. The tactics may encompass putting weapons on display making gestures or looks that are threatening hurting your pets smashing things in front of you and destroying property. Thereby, if the victim does not obey, the consequences will be violent (Jackson and Nicky, 2007, pp. 20)

Humiliation A perpetrator of domestic violence will do anything to ensure that the victim feels bad or defective in some way. If someone believes that heshe is worthless, he is less likely to leave. Public put-downs, insults, shaming and name calling are weapons of domestic violence that are eroded to make one feel powerless and erodes his self-esteem.

Threats Abusers of domestic violence scare their spouses into dropping charges pr threaten from leaving. He may threaten to kill or hurt his victim, other family members or even his children. Also, he may threaten to file charges against his victims, commit suicide or report her to child services.
Isolation A partner who is abusive will cut of his victim from the outside world so as to increase the dependence of his victim on him. He may hinder his spouse from seeing her family or friends, or even keep his victim from going to school or to work. The victim ought to ask for permission before doing anything, see anyone or go anywhere.    

Issues that cover legislative policy with regards to domestic violence and its effects on the child change such as behavioural or psychological change

It is widely accepted that the calls for domestic disturbance were deemed as the most dangerous type for responding officers, who arrived to an emotionally and highly charged situation. The FBI accepted this belief which turned-out to be flawed, in view of the fact that domestic disturbances was grouped by with all other types of disturbances such as brawls at bar. The statistics on the incidences of domestic violence assisted to elevate the public of the increase in activism and awareness of the problem. In most cases, the police had intervened nearly 85 percent of spouse-homicides (Jackson and Nicky, 2007, pp. 20).

Battered women and feminists advocacy groups were requesting the police to consider domestic violence as a serious crime and change the strategies of intervention. Legal actions were taken by these groups against police departments to allow them deal with domestic violence cases as a legislative policy. They argued that police officers assigned a low-priority to deal with domestic violence. Moreover, a mandatory arrest strategy for spousal violence situations with a possible cause should be adopted. A mandatory arrest policy was enacted for a domestic-assault without warrant, in cases whereby the officer has the possible cause and in spite of whether or not the crime was witnessed by the police officer.

Criminologists suggest that abusers, who have ties in the community and are employed, may at first fear punishment, although as a legal policy, they do not make it all through the criminal justice process. During investigation, if a victim is not co-operative during investigation, the prosecutor may decide to proceed with the case. Suppose the case is pursued through the criminal-justice system, the resulting sentence can be minor. Accordingly, any trepidation that the abuser should be dealt with may have diminished.

Critical Analysis
The National Family Violence Survey (2000) indicates that for each subsequent year between 2000 and 2005, women were the most perpetrators of child abuse. With regard to domestic violence to children involving external factors like physical abuse, A study by (National Family Violence Survey, 2000), in the United Kingdom indicated that 78 percent of most violence occurred at home. Approximately 40 to 60 percent of women and adults who abuse adults, also abuses their children. A girl-child whose fathers abuse their mothers more often are about 6.5 times likely to be abused sexually by their fathers with comparison to those girls from non-violent homes. Considering China alone, approximately 39,000 baby girls died during their first-year of life due to the fact that they did not get proper medical care that would be offered to a male-child. In Asia, about 1 million children who are or have been held in slavery-like conditions are working in the sex trade.

Teen dating violence can be defined as a pattern whereby one teenager is in charge of the behaviour of another teenager, who is in a dating relationship. In some situations there some differences as well as many similarities to traditional domestic violence. With regard to the theories of domestic violence, by imitating their parents, teens are likely to be isolated from the peers while attempting to control the behaviour of their girlfriendboyfriend. Nonetheless, teens can compare their relationships with that of their parents and make it abusive. This is because the relationship that is abusive maybe their first-dating exposure and has never experienced a normal-dating with which to compare it.  

Theories that explain domestic violence and its impact on children
There are various theories that explain the causes of domestic violence. These will encompass social theories such that deem external-factors in the environment of the offender such as social learning, family and stress, as well as psychological theories that deem the mental characteristics and personality traits of the offender. Despite the fact that there are various phenomena with regard to human experience, no single-approach seems to cover all cases.

Social theories
These theories as Barry and Hallett (1998) observes, look at the factors that are external in the environment of the offender, such as social learning, family structure and stress, and it encompasses rational choice theories.

Social learning theory This theory suggests that a child can learn from modelling after and observing the behaviour of others. The behaviour will continue if the reinforcement is positive. Children are more likely to imitate a behaviour that is violent if they observe it from their parents. If there are no negative impacts (such as a victim accepting the violence with submission) then that behaviour is expected to lengthen. Regularly, violence is transmitted from one generation to another in a manner that is cyclical.

Resource theory This theory was invented in 1971 by Goode William. Women are regarded as being the most dependent on the partner for the well being of the economy. This is due to the fact that they are the ones who take care of children, suppose they exit marriage, their financial burden will increase and thus, it is more difficult for them to leave. In view of the fact that they are dependent, they have few resources and fewer options to assist them change or cope with the behaviour of their partner. A lower incidence of conflict is usually experienced by those couples who equally share power, and are less likely to resort to violence, in circumstances where conflict arises. If one partner needs power and control in the relationship, the couple may resort to abuse. This may encompass blaming the spouse and making the situation light threats and coercion isolation intimidation economic abuse emotional abuse behaving as masters of the castle, and using children (by threatening to take them away).

Social stress When an individual (child) is residing in a family condition, with escalated pressures, hisher stress may also increase. Furthermore, tensions in a family may increase due to inadequate finances or other related problems. Stress does not always cause violence but may be a way of responding to stress by an individual. Couples and families that are in poverty are likely to experience domestic-violence, due to escalated finances and stresses about finances and other related aspects. Most of them contemplate that poverty hinders the ability of a man to live up with his idea of being a successful manhood, thereby, fears losing respect and honour. The theory further suggests that when he is not able to support his wife economically, and maintain control, he may turn to crime, misogyny, and substance abuse as a way to express his masculinity.

Psychological Theories      
Generally, approximately 80 percent of elf-referred men as well as court-referred men these studies of domestic violence have displayed diagnosable psychopathology, which are normally personality disorders. In general, estimates of personality disorder in the population would not be less than 15 to 20 percent in their range. The chances of psychopathology in these mean will approach 100 in situations where the violence becomes chronic and severe (National Family Violence Survey, 2000).

Psychological theories usually focus on the mental characteristics and personality traits of the offender. Personality traits will encompass poor self-esteem, sudden bursts of anger, and poor impulse control. Most theories suggest that other personalities as well as psychopathology are factors that lead to the abuse of the child and cause himher to be as mire violent as adults. Abusers of domestic violence have a high incidence of psychopathy.

A psychological profile of men who regularly abuse their wives was suggested by Dutton and Donald (2006, pp. 27) arguing that they have the most intransigent and severe of the personality disorders, regardless of its benevolent-sounding name (borderline personalities). These borderline personalities occur early in life.  Psychological theories are limited he further reveals that other studies have shown that at not most 10 percent fit this psychological profile. McCue (2008) argues that psychopathy, personality traits or mental illness are lesser factors, while social factors are vital.

Roles played by social welfare institutions to reduce domestic violence (such as the safeguarding children
The Canadian Advertising Foundation ruled out in 1977 that a national ad campaign that featured the sister to Nicole Brown Simpson Denise the slogan Stop violence against women was indeed depicting only men as aggressors, thereby providing an unbalanced message and actually contributing to gender typecasting.

The American Psychiatric Association research and planning committees for DSM-V (12) canvassed a sequence of new Relational disorders which encompassed Marital Conflict Disorder With Violence, Marital Order Disorder, or Marital Conflict Disorder Without Violence. Partners with marital-disorders seek clinical attention because the couple a long-standing discontent with their marriage and go to the clinician on their own initiative, or are referred by a shrewd health care professional. Moreover, a serious case in violence is normally a wife being battered by her husband. In these situations, a legal authority or an emergency room is often the first to notify the clinician. The National Advisory Council on Violence Against Women (2000) insists that domestic violence is a major risk in for death or serious injuries and in most cases, women and children are at a risk of being killed or injured. Clinicians diagnosing a Marital Relational Disorder ought to encompass actual assessment of potential violence as often as they normally assess the potential for suicide in patients who are depressed. Furthermore, for clinicians in the social welfare institutions to safeguard the children, they should not relax their watchfulness after a battered-wife does not leave her husband, because the greatest period of risk for women is that that takes place immediately after a marital separation. Standardized questionnaires and interviews can be supplementing the earlier assessments of potential violence, which have been and valid aids in a systematically exploring domestic violence. Due to the fact that domestic violence remains a risk in a marriage, it is essential to treat it. The social welfare institutions cannot just watch and wait. The urgent clinical-priority is the safeguarding of the children because more often, they are at risk. Clinicians ought to be aware that if they support the assertiveness by a wife that has been battered might result to more beatings.

The role of social institutions and organizations to reduce domestic violence, thus affect the legislative policy of the state

Each jurisdiction and agency in the United Kingdom has its own SOPs (Standard Operating Procedures) when it comes to handling and responding to domestic calls. In general, it has been agreed that if the victim has marks of abuse that are recent and visible, the abuser is detained and charged with the correct crime. Though, this is not a rule but a guideline. Several things have to be considered by law-enforcement officers when making an arrest that is warrantless, and they include could the abuser be lying are there any signs of physical abuse could the victim be lying were there witnesses who is the primary aggressor is it recent and was the victim assaulted by the alleged abuser.
Along with ensuring that the victims are protected, the social welfare institutions ensure that the rights of the alleged-abusers are not violated. For instance, as in the case of reciprocated combatants, it is departmental strategy that both participants be detained and the truth can be established later. This philosophy of mutual combatant is being replaced by the primary-abuser philosophy where both parties have injuries that are physical, as a legislative policy, the law enforcement officer will determine who is the primary aggressor and arrests only himher. Various social welfare institutions have researched its consequences and found that when both participants are detained, it had an adverse effect on the victim. These victims will be unlikely to trust or call law enforcement during the next occurrence of domestic violence.  

How the impact of domestic violence on children has changed the political initiatives that have taken in place to stop this problem reduce and treat safeguarding

There is a strong association between abuse in all their forms and exposure to domestic violence as well as higher rates for many conditions that are chronic. The sturdy evidence originates from studies by National Family Violence Survey (2000) which illustrate associations between exposure to neglect or abuse and higher rates of chronic conditions in their adulthood, shortened life span and high-risk health behaviours. Evidence of correlation between violence against children and physical health are accumulating. Thus, it is necessary to put in mind the impacts of domestic violence on children and its psycho- physiologic sequelae on women, who are mothers of young children and infants.

Interpersonal violence related stress disorder such as PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) can traumatize the best efforts of a mother while interfering with the response of a child to traumatic events such as domestic violence. Service agencies and practitioners tackling the domestic violence needs ought to consider the victims as parents and evaluate the well-being and safety of children in their homes. The National Family Violence Survey (2000) concur that exposure to abuse or violence represents a public health issue that is more costly and serious, and that should be addressed by the health care system.

The Duluth Domestic Abuse Intervention Project was the first multi disciplinary program that was designed to tackle the issue of Domestic violence. It coordinated those agencies that were tackling domestic circumstances, by putting together miscellaneous elements of the system, from probation officers who supervised abusers, to shelters for battered women and police officers in the streets. This political initiative programs became a model for those jurisdictions that sought to address domestic violence more effectively. In many areas probationcorrection agencies typically supervise the offenders of domestic violence more closely, by paying close attention to the safety issue and needs of the victim. Most victims leave the offenders, only to return. Legal assistance can help a victim of domestic violence to establish an everlasting independence from hisher abusive partner. Legal aid can only be provided by public service that minimizes domestic violence. It can offer a fundamental safety planning support the economic position of a family through spousal or child buttress assuage fears set by the batterer with regard to loss of custody, and assist victims of domestic violence to secure government benefits.    

How domestic violence has become a child protection concern, when and the implication. This will show that domestic violence is of concern to the state
The retort to marriage violence is usually a combined-effort between probationcorrections agencies, law enforcement agencies, social service agencies, and the courts. In view of the fact that domestic violence is nowadays a public concern, the role of each has evolved. In the past domestic violence to a child was deemed as a family matter and did not involve the intervention of a criminal justice or government. Police-officers were reluctant to intervene by arresting the participants. They choose to simply ask one of the partners to leave or counsel the family. The courts were unenthusiastic to impose any momentous sanctions on the victims of domestic violence, more so, because it was deemed as a transgression offence. Feminist groups and advocacy groups have initiated activism, which has resulted to an enhanced understanding of the effect and scope of domestic violence on families and children, and has led to alterations in the criminal justice systems. The voids in the justice system have been filled with the aid of several projects, as it pertains to the protection of children. The Hope Card Project attempted to antidote numerous problems through the issuance of an Identity Card to children that have been abused. The card identified the parties to be protected from domestic violence and offered more resources to children in the course of a program for services. A few jurisdictions allowed an offenders photograph to be taken during first-hearing in the presence of both parties. Also, the officer could retrieve a booking-photogram from their local jail or take a photograph in the field  

Impacts of domestic violence on legislation policy of children protection in the UK
In the UK, the effect of inter-parental conflict and domestic violence is deemed as a problem of social concern. Estimates by Parton (1997) indicate that between 240,000 to 963,000 UK children are typically affected by domestic violence. Since 1930s, it has been identified that dispute between parents has a potential deliberating impact on children. Some children respond negatively while others show no or little negative impacts. Recent changes in the legislative policy are such that the definition of momentous harm originating from exposure to marriage violence has been comprehended to encompass impairment suffered from hearing or seeing the ill-treatment of another.  Inter-parental conflicts comprise psychological risks for children. The legislative policy emphasizes making alterations to the external features of a childs life such as support or courses to engender a parenting that is more positive. These interventions have vital role to play in some situations as they do not directly deal with the children needs in the milieu of inter-parental conflict. In accord with the current UK legislative changes, age appropriate interventions that deem the effect of inter-parental association on children as well as the perspective of a child of conflict taking place between adults are fundamental if the needs of children are to be tackled

Apply the theory of social change on the changes that appeared on the legislative policy with regarding to child protection
The commission findings into the state of child protection and child abuse services in the legislative policy in the UK made a noteworthy contribution to understanding this highly emotive and emotional subject. Child protection practice and legislative policy in Britain has been motivated by child abuse inquiries basing on the theory of social change. These inquires defines the extent of child abuse the law, legal practice and regulation moving towards prevention promoting a child friendly society financial implications of child abuse and developing a Child Centered Professional Response. The legislative policy ensures that the government will review other policies as well as development of financial targets and indicators in order to look at the factors that are external in the environment of the offender, such as social learning, family structure and stress (Barry and Hallett, 1998).

Conclusion
Abusers of domestic violence are good at manipulating and controlling their victims. Battered and abused children are always confused, depressed, ashamed, drained and scared. Despite them being isolated from their friends and families, they require assistance to escape through picking up the warning signs and then providing support. One can assist them to begin healing by helping them to escape from an abusive situation. Social welfare institutes have a role to play in order to minimize domestic violence and this has an effect to the legislative policy of the state. Therefore, the impact of domestic violence, especially on children, has changed the political initiatives in place so as to stop this problem. Lastly, domestic violence is of concern to the state as well as a public concern.