Sociology

Tiwanaku has been known as one of the vital precursors to the empire of Inca acting as one of the archeological sites in western part of a place called Bolivia. In many cases, the name Tiwanaku has been associated with the term stone in the centre meaning that it is located at the worlds’ centre. Tiwanaku inhabitants did not have a written language; there fore they were not able to safe guard the real meaning of very essential names for instance what the name Tiwanaku meant.

At first, Tiwanaku expanded and brought their life styles and culture to eliminate the already existing cultures in the areas they dominated like the Yungas. Their culture was not a violent kind like any other cultures and this made them succeed socially because many could adopt to their culture without straining and this made other cultures independent to their cultures and way of life because they had ability to negotiate for agreements concerning trades .

Tiwanaku had strong religious beliefs and this could draw many people to their empire. They also had strong force that led in the expansion of the empire. They could take statues bases from other cultures and eventually taking them to Tiwanakus’ capital city from where they were put on subordinate positions to the Tiwanakus gods acting as a practical reminder of the Tiwanakus dominant power that held many other existing powers. The Inca worshiped the sun while the Tiwanukus worshiped the myths (idols). Tiwanukus’ culture was to be emulated by their followers while the Inca could take their time to teach their followers their administration from which they could go back to their native homes after being taught.

During war, Tiwanukus could tear enemies shortly after death and laying them to be seen by all this was done as a way of dedicating them to gods. According to their beliefs, it was not right to dedicate people originally from their society but only those from other societies. Trade promoted between cities inside the empire strengthened the Tiwanukus power. Ilama herds offered transportation of goods and symbolizing the gap between the elites ant the commoners. Food production acted as unifying factor and also as the strength of the empire. A drastic climatic change occurred which brought drought in return and food production became surplus leading to starvation and decline of the empire.

Should Great Powers Consider Terrorism to Be A ‘Considerable Threat’ To Global Order?
What is Modern Terrorism?
Before getting to understand the meaning of modern terrorism is it is important to try and understand what is meant by the word terrorism. The mention of terrorism usually elicits a lot of mixed reactions to different people. This is because; its definition usually differs from place to place depending on which side of the debate that one argues from. A terrorist in one perception can be viewed as a freedom fighter in another perception. Such contradictions are the ones which makes it impossible to have a single definition of terrorism. To coin up some of the definitions, terrorism can therefore mean the calculated use of violence or the threat of violence against civilians in order to attain goals which are political, religious or ideological in nature. This can be done through intimidation, coercion or instilling fear to people. (Aaron 19)

Modern terrorism can therefore be defined as the systematic use of hostile activities to create general fear in a population and thereby bring about a specific political objective with the use of modern technology of civilization and the network of Mass media, satellite TV. Such tools are mainly used to dissipate trauma imagery and disseminate fear to civilians.

Methods used by modern terrorists and their impacts
The modern wake of Terrorism began approximately during the second Half of the 20th Century. It is mainly rooted in Specific economic. Political and social conflicts. Though there is no clear time that indicates when the modern terrorism began, but there is one incident which experts indicate was the turning point. That incident occurred in March 20, 1995 during the Tokyo bombing where terrorists released e deadly nerve gas into the subway. The death toll in that tragedy was estimated at 10 and 5,000 injuries. The attack was mainly blamed on a religious terrorist group called Aum Shinrikyo.

Some of the methods that are used my modern terrorists involve great technologies which are usually backed up with worldwide networks and funded heavily.  They include methods such as the internet terrorism.  Also called cyber terrorism, internet terrorism came with the advent of modern high technologies including the computers which are more involved in the control of critical national infrastructure elements. In the advent of the Information Technology era complex national systems tend to pose a great risk for terrorists attacks. Such attacks are usually conducted using computer aided explosives. (Adams: 35) The internet has been linked to almost all the terrorist activities that have hit the world in the recent past. This is mainly because, the internet can be accessed anywhere in the world with little or zero regulation on what comes in and goes out. The internet has also billions of audiences all over the world meaning that a single message can reach all those people at a single time, unlike other mediums of communications. A scan conducted in the year 2004 revealed that there are thousands of websites which serve terrorists and their supporters.

The other method that terrorists use to accomplish their missions is through what is famously known as suicide bombing. Suicide bombing involves a person who has agreed to sacrifice his or her life to detonate a bomb which causes massive death and destruction in order to accomplish a certain mission for the sake of the organization. Suicide bombing has become extremely hard to deal with because there is no single way to identify them in advance unless there is a high technological investment in things like CCTV or bomb detectors. It is estimated that there are over 40% of active terrorist groups with people who are ready to volunteer to die for their cause. Other methods that they use include; assassinations, kidnapping and hijacking important people or even aircrafts.
( Acquaviva 87)

State actors of terrorism refer to coercive and violent activities which are directed by states to other states or other non-state actors. Non-state actors on the other hand refers to actors in terrorism activities who are not governments or states they include armed groups like the Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) from Nigeria. They also include terrorist organizations such as the Al-Qaeda among others. Over the recent past most of the Non- state terrorist organizations have taken a religious twist with many of them launching attacks on countries like America and its allies who they perceive as anti-Islamic. Some of the major non-state actors of terrorism include the Al-Qaeda which is the largest terrorist group in the world today and it is led by Osama bin Laden. Others are the Taliban who are Located in Afghanistan and Pakistan, the Islamist Jihad and the Alshabab who are factions of the larger Al-Qaeda Network. (Abuza 18) Some of the most brutal attacks that the world has ever witnessed have been executed by modern terrorists include: The 1974 September 8th where an explosion on the Trans World Airlines Boeing 707 in Greece killing 88 people, in 1983, A Lebanese suicide bomber attacked an American Marine Barracks in Beirut and killed 216 US soldiers, In August 1998, US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were bombed and 257 people were killed and 5,000 were injured. In September 11, 2001 Muslims extremists on a suicide mission hijacked four airlines and directed them to the word trade center and the pentagon. More than 2000 people were killed. Those are just but a few impacts that have been in the world over the last three decades only. Such attacks have greatly influence the actions of state actors. (AbuKhalil: 70) Most common reason that usually fire up state terrorism are usually championed by difference in ideology, political and even social factors the commonest forms of active state terrorism has occurred where democratic states go to war with non-democratic states which are mainly ruled by rogue leaders. A good example is Iraq under Sadam Hussein, Iran, and NorthKorea.(Dolnik2003)countries like the USA see such countries as threats to world peace and hence need to be controlled.

The nature of modern terrorism has changed over time from the old forms that the old terrorism had. First and foremost is that modern terrorism similarly to the old forms of terrorism, has been well planned and executed for example the September 11 attack on the twin towers was well planned.  This is because many people expected terrorism attacks to be conducted using weapons of mass destruction, but they used carefully planned simple tactics and operational surprise to affect one of the most deadly attacks in history. Modern terrorism usually has political motives which are accomplished using violent means for maximum damage and communicates a message to both their supporters and their enemies. (Aaron: 25)  

There are some differences that can be seen between new and old terrorism for instance the old terrorism were mainly politically motivated, this is because most of them seemed to support West Wing ideologies such as Marxism and Maoism and also Nationalism and separatism. Furthermore, the old terrorists were ready to negotiate this means that they promised to stop terrorism in exchange to concrete political compromises. This is not the case with modern terrorists. The old terrorist also did not feel any special esteem to religion on the contrary, to the new terrorists who fight in their gods’ name.

“So, the most striking difference of the "new" terrorists' attacks is the evolution of methods, put into use. Nerve gas attack in Tokyo and the use of civilian airliners as bombs on 11th of September prove that new terrorists will employ both traditional and unconventional means. As such, traditional methods to combat terrorism prove insufficient. This has created a new type of treat that is called "asymmetrical threat" (Rzayev 2005)

Asymmetrical warfare means a war between two conflicting sides which differ in military powers in a great way both tactically and strategically.( Crenshaw :77) Asymmetrical warfare is used to describe the conflicts that erupts in which the resources of two differing sides differs in essence and struggle and mainly attempt to exploit one another characteristics and weaknesses. Symmetrical warfare on the other hand is where two differing powers have similar military resources and power and usually rely on tactics that are overall similar with difference in  small details and execution/ terrorism can therefore be compared to both Asymmetrical and symmetrical warfare because, some terrorist organizations and states  usually apply similar tactics to effect their missions.
In conclusion, the world and more specifically the great powers need to consider terrorism to be a great danger to humanity. This is because a group of people rising up to put millions of innocent civilians in danger is unwarranted for even if it’s for a religious or a noble cause. The great powers and the world at large should therefore rise up and fight the common enemy which is terrorism and save the world from a possible apocalypse.

From time immemorial, every poet, author, philosopher has tried to find an answer to the purpose of the human life. To everyone, their findings, thoughts have responded in a different manner. In the doctrine, Existentialism is a Humanism, Sartre writes, “Man is nothing else but what he purposes, he exists only in so far as he realizes himself, he is therefore nothing else but the sum of his actions, nothing else but what his life is.” This is an apt thought to begin this essay. What is lacking in mankind is a purpose. What he pleases becomes his purpose. There is no greater thought or motive behind mankind’s existence, now. Everywhere is an aura of confusion and emotions that are adrift, which makes man’s actions being dictated by the same. Hence, it can be very well concluded with the help of Sartre’s statement, that human race is becoming adrift as time passes.

It is important to understand why the human race has become like this. Throughout our existence we encounter certain things or experience certain feelings which make us change our outlook towards life – be it the loss of a dear one or the various agitations around us. These tend to influence every soul. Of late, we have started compromising on our values and ethics to suitably adjust to a situation and scenario. These adjustments result in jealousy, dishonesty, hatred, anger, and other negativities. These negativities influence our thought processes subtly. Hence, it results in confusion and the feeling of restlessness. Like Sartre says, existence comes before essence, the need to exist for human race becomes such an important factor for survival, that it lets go of any complications that might come up in the process. Again as Sartre says, “….in reality and for the existentialist, there is no love apart from the deeds of love; no potentiality of love other than that which is manifested in loving; there is no genius other than that which is expressed in works of art.”

LESSONS FROM ARNOLD’S WRITINGS -
Even the literary works give importance to the confusion and the aimlessness of human life. This was rampant in the Victorian poets as that period saw a lot of changes both in the cultural and the literary realms. One example can be drawn from Matthew Arnold’s Dover Beach. This is essentially a poem in which a lover seeks out the companionship of his lady love. Dover Beach is a quintessential expression of melancholy which is the pre-dominant note of Arnold’s poetry. Arnold in this poem bemoans the loss of faith in religion. A sense of estrangement of man from God, from nature, from other men, and above all from his true inner self is the key note in this poem. This is very important to understand that the age the man lives in is the key factor for his thoughts and behavior.

Our generation has nothing much to do except to keep sailing in this confusion. While Arnold’s way to ease out this confusion is writing, mankind now is too burdened with the duties and responsibilities that it becomes difficult to come out of this confusion. As a result it grows.

LAMB AS A MELANCHOLIC -
Lamb is another pioneer poet of his age. Since Lamb belonged to the Romantic Age of English Literature, a very sweet and happy note in his writings is expected. But again, we observe the complete opposite. Lamb’s writings contain the melancholy and fear which can never be traced in any other Romantic work.

A reason behind the same is Lamb’s personal life. His work Songs of Innocence is actually a pun. The poems are anything but innocent. In fact it shakes up the strongest soul. Two poems in the compilation are worthy of mention. And again, these two poems should never be read but in unison. The Lamb and The Tyger are poems which talk about religion, about God and his different statures. While in The Lamb, Jesus is shown as the mild and meek one, giving shelter to everyone, giving out nothing but joy, in The Tyger, the almighty is shown as the fierce craftsman who has the capability of make such a an animal (the tiger)#. Such a duality in the nature of God makes one believe that how different is the human race then, since it is crafted by the same almighty. Hence, this duality often is the reason behind confusion in which the human race rests.

Lamb’s melancholy can be routed to his unhappy personal life. Thus, it can be concluded that personal emotions, happenings, accidents are very much the reason behind the melancholy of mankind.

There is inertia present in mankind now. It is clear that we have forgotten to react or to comprehend our actions. What we do instead is something which is more dangerous. We compromise at every situation, every day in our lives. What Darwin would have loved would be to evolve as a better race with the passing time. Strangely, we are not. But again, we haven’t become savages either, thus devolution is out of question.

What leaves behind is becoming adrift in the ebb and flow of life. We have accepted the lack of emotions, lack of activity and the lack of humanism in our day to day life. Every morning is like a task and every night is the mark of the completion of that task.

It is not possible to come out of it now, as we have gone too far in making such a life our routine or a habit. But again, small changes like thinking, feeling and acting responsibly will surely help. Human race might be adrift but it sure has learnt how to evolve in the passing time. What however has happened is that it has forgotten to do so. What is required is a revision of the lesson of evolution to come out of this state of inactivity and passivity.

Any bill that is introduced in the House for discussion must be aimed to address a danger or a sensitive issue and an example of these bills is the Military Domestic and Sexual Violence Response Act (H.R.840). This was a bill that was reintroduced in the house on 3rd February 2009 by Louise Slaughter after having failed to succeed in 2006. This bill is aimed at developing mechanisms and programs that would work to reduce all sort of violence targeted at military personnel and their families by improving services for these victims by using various methods to deter violence and  by strengthening provisions for prosecuting the perpetrators. This essay is particularly going to discuss in detail about the aim of this legislation and specifically on sex and sexuality and will also focus on what its advocacy groups say about it.

    The genesis of the bill is based on the fact that a substantial number of military spouses and female military personnel are vulnerable to domestic violence and sexual abuse by their fellow males in the military. Although there no reliable statistics on this, those that are available estimate that domestic violence and other sexual abuses perpetrated against females in the military service is two to five times than it is the case with civilians and they also indicate that one in every three women in military service encounters sexual violence while in line of duty and it is for this reason a legislation to solve this problem is in the making. In supporting her bill Slaughter cited a few facts that were based on the findings that were released by the Department of Defense (DOD) in March 2006 and March 2007 (Press Release). According to the 2007’s statistics, 2,947 sexual assault cases were reported and as per 2006’s statistics, 2,374 cases of sexual abuse were reported in the year 2005 a figure that was up that of 2004 by 1,700. Of the cases reported in 2005 according to the Assault Survey of the Service Academies, only 1 and 6 percent of males and females respectively reported the matter while slightly less than half of all females who were sexually assaulted never reported the matter for fear of victimization (Press Release).

    The bill was reintroduced after Slaughter realized that the existing mechanisms to fight this abuse were not strong enough to face the new emerging and hence the need for strengthening the existing ones. While appreciating the role the Department of Defense (DOD) was doing in improving services it offered, it was however noted that advocates entrusted with the role of protecting the rights of victims are denied resources that would enable them do a thorough job. It was also noted that DOD’s protection and prevention policies unlike those for the civilians are not codified and therefore they are not consistent. According to the National Sexual Violence Resource Center, the new registration also aims to ensure that military victims of domestic and sexual assault  can seek treatment  and counseling anywhere without their records being used against them should they happen to initiate charges against their victimizers. According to the National Sexual Violence Resource Center, this act “would establish an Office of Victims Advocate within the Pentagon and create confidentiality protocols to protect the rights of victims under military law.”

    This is a good legislation if it would be enacted as it would prevent women in military from being abused by their male counterparts. According to various reports that have been published recently, all of them indicate that rape is still a pervasive problem in the military landscape as even today similar incidences are being reported to happen in Iraq and Afghanistan. Domestic violence and sexual assault in military have been there since time immemorial but it is the high time that they should be stopped as they not only degrade women but also violate their human rights (Press Release). It has been a culture that has been running in the military for long where women are used as objects of entertainment thereby subjecting them to risky situation where sexually starved men could pounce on them at anytime. This claim is supported by Christine Hansen, the Miles Foundation’s executive director who alleges that sexual assault is seen as a rite of passage in military and therefore it is not easy to end this deeply entrenched culture (Tessier). If a report that was published in the American Journal of Industrial Medicine is anything to go by, this legislation probably will meet a lot of resistance from some top leaders in the army. According to this report, top leaders in the military service play a very big part in its perpetration and therefore they might use all means at their disposal to ensure it does not go through even if it means influencing legislators to reject it. Though the Pentagon seems to be determined to put in place mechanisms that would end this violence, it cannot not be said to be trying enough because recently according to Roston the Pentagon through the Department of Defense rejected a proposal that was championing for the establishment of an office that was geared to provide assistance to sexual assault victims. This was a recommendation that had been made by the Wellesley College Centers for Women, a taskforce on sexual abuse in the military. Though the government claims to be committed to fighting violence in military, the move to reject this proposal is construed by its supporters as a move to sabotage its enactment or to weaken it if it happens to come into force (Roston).

    One advocacy group that strongly supports the enactment of this bill is the Miles Foundation, Inc. which is both a victim service and advocacy agency and the other one is the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). These advocacy groups advance the argument that if this bill becomes a law it would enable sexual assault and domestic violence victims in the military service to be protected from being victimized by their seniors as at the moment they have to report the matter to their commandants before taking any other action. This deters victims from reporting the perpetrators as they might end up being victimized (Tessier). At the moment all victimization reports from doctors and nurses must go through these top officers and this can put victim’s career at risk for reporting the matter and that is why its advocacy groups strongly advocate for the creation of an office that would ensure there is centralized system to respond to victims needs and protect them from being victimized by their seniors. This bill has not yet been discussed much as after it was reintroduced it was referred the house subcommittee on Crime, Terrorism, and Homeland Security and since then nothing else has been talked about it. Unlike other bills on sex and sexuality which draws mixed reactions, this one has not yet met any opposition from any advocacy group and even those who seem to be apprehensive against its passage they are citing phrases that would render it useless if not removed but this does not mean they are opposed to it. For this reason it is quite hard to tell which side is stronger than the other but if the current mood is anything to go by then those in its support are far ahead (National Sexual Violence Resource Center).

    If the Military Domestic and Sexual Violence Response Act will succeed in becoming a law then the women in military service who are everyday exposed to domestic violence and sexual assault will no longer have to worry. Many women are constantly harassed by their male friends while on duty and have to live with the trauma of this assault. The existing laws somehow perpetrates this violence and sexual abuse as all victimization reports made by the nurses and doctors have to reach the top commandants before any other move could be made and this might be used against those who report by losing their jobs but with enactment of this bill that aims at putting in place provisions that would ensure these reports not publicized or used against the victims, the situation will definitely change.

Evidently, the coffee shop seems like the central meeting point for the young adults in this part of town. Why? One may wonder, for many different reasons perhaps, seeing as it is the setup, the ambience, the crowd and culture displayed in this coffee shop is appealing to this age cluster. On this particular day coffee shop is exceptionally full of clients. Probably the time; early evening on a Wednesday is a refreshing time for most college going and some working people to catch up on the highlights of the week and the day. Its location; it is situated in the heart of the city near the central park. It’s convenience on location allows all who love the aroma and the fresh taste of coffee in the city to sample the finest coffee and enjoy the ambience of the beautifully interior designed coffee house. It has inside sitting areas and a secluded outside sitting areas where each table is covered by a canopy. This is excellent for people who need fresh air and some quiet. It not only offers good coffee it provides the one of the best social meeting place for young adults  who can pay for the price of a good coffee house. “The meeting point” or the environment of socialization is very instrumental in the shaping the social patterns of a society. In the observation I gear to relate the norms and sanctions of groups or individuals within the environment of the coffee shop.

As I observed the culture and the norms of the human interactions in the coffee house it is important to note the definitions of norms and sanctions. Norms can be defined as a set of rules that govern a groups beliefs, values and behaviors, they can be the “social customs, ways, traditions and conventions” appropriate within a given culture (Dubois 1). Norms are the expectations of behavior with a certain cultural setting. Sanctions on the other hand are a restrictive set of formal rules or guidelines that are imposed on a group, nation or individual and they are meant to control the group patterns and behaviors. They can relate to boundaries outlined within certain norms enforced by the authorities appointed. Sanctions can be given to members of a club, a gang or a social place. Failure to adhere to sanctions will mostly result in some form of disciplinary action on individual and also best practices to this sanctions will receive approval or some reward. Folkways are more or like norms conventions followed by groups and the patterns they adapt to.

Within this social context there are different forms of interactions. It is easy to note that groups within this coffee shop both management and patrons have adopted certain social norms and cultures. The management and staff are friendly and inviting with eloquent American English and with the knowledge of the customers tastes and preferences, the young adult waiters and waitresses are trendy and easy to talk to one would confuse them for patrons. One can observe that most of these staffs are recent college graduates or college students on vacation. No wonder it is a very popular place for the young and middle aged adults. On the corner of the wall next to the cashier, one observes a well done wooden plaque with inscriptions of “our commitments as management to the customer” this are about five customer service commitments listed and one of them is being kind and friendly to customers. These are “injunctive norms” described as being accepted behavior by all and also there is a display of “explicit norms”; norms that have been written down or spoken openly (Straker 2009). Such sanctions ensure a good environment for staff and patrons. It would be considered a ritual or expected norm for any patron to be treated in a friendly manner by the staff as they entered and settled in the coffee shop. If waiters break the sanctions prescribed by management by being rude or ignoring a customer it would be expected that some sort of disciplinary action would be taken for such attitudes. It is also expected in such a place that super performance of staff would be rewarded as per the laid out sanctions.

Sociability is one of the norms observed visibly within the activities of the patrons. Collective groups sociable behavior; described as “seeking company of others” (Flanagan 1999 9) is what the social network of the coffee shop demonstrate, for instance among this setting there is a display of the young adults grouping together as they catch up on the latest “vibe”; others have their laptops browsing the web as they discuss topical issues among themselves. One will easily notice some individuals’ sited on corners enjoying their peace as they work on their laptops, the place is dotted with one or two couples possibly on a date. In the center of the coffee house, round tables are graced by collective groups of young ladies talking cheerfully together mostly likely having a “bonding” session. Such group and individual set ups adopt certain norms and the culture portrayed in this set ups portray different social patterns. These would be described as;

Descriptive norms; perceptions of how other people are behaving, implicit norms; not openly stated but one will find out when they transgress them. Subjective norms; expectations that valued others have about how we will behave. Personal Norms; standards we have about our own norms (Straker 2009).
If a young gentlemen would join the group of ladies bonding it would be considered uncustomary and unaccepted, because in this particular case the ladies seem to be having a ladies chat he would be breaking an implicit norm. Similarly the young adults talking together about the latest vibe would consider it intrusive if a strange middle aged or elderly person joined in along their conversation, it would be an unaccepted norm among them since they view such a person as not fitting in or out of place breaking a subjective norm. The persons doing their own work on laptops would expect the surrounding to be free of interruptions for his concentration this is particularly portrayed as personal norms.

Sociological findings portrayed in this set up reflect on theory and principle. It is worth noting that the culture displayed in this coffee house is predominantly of the modern of 21st century and the dynamics of human behavior.  Plato the great philosopher observed that human beings have social needs that have to be met within groups thus group formation because in isolation man can not meet his own needs (Graham 2007). A group of people catching up on the latest “vibe” meaning latest news around town; this is a term in urban slang, such groups will display similar norms, like wise, a group of ladies sharing information together will also have attributes that draw them together as friends.  The make up and set up within the coffee house which is trendy and fashionable is appealing to young adults and creates an atmosphere for socializing, interaction and personal development.

The human behavior displayed within this set up is greatly influenced by the prevailing culture of the time. The development of behavior is greatly explained by psychoanalytic theories which have contributed to understanding why human beings act the way they do in certain structures. Firstly, Personality development; a person will posses the Id, ego and superego thus explains how humans identify themselves and the networks they want to associate with, as explained Sigmund Freud (Black 1995). Young people will connect with others like them who share similar norms and appeal to their ego. Secondly the socialization patterns that are set for people; man will behave according to the standards and norms laid out in the society. And finally another psychoanalytic aspect that affects behavior is culture in which one grows up; culture shapes habits and is a basis for internalized values that have been institutionalized inside us.  

    Groups and individuals norms and attitudes that shape their socialization patterns are also governed through cognitive theories that have been shaped by their collective behavior. In understanding collective behavior, social networks group together to achieved certain goals, for collective behavior to succeed in positive social action and mobilization has to be a component of resource allocation and utilization The coffee shop setup provides for a place where resources are available; in this case finest blends of coffee and a suitable located meeting point this creates an opportunity for the growth of collective action.  It is also appreciated that this groups posses or hold closely similar cognitive functions that deal with behavior, firstly attitude; there is a link between attitudes and behavior issues like self awareness and inner strength. Secondly Freud illustrates that there is a link between language and thought. The dialect of man can not be separated from his thoughts persons from the same set up will have to understand each others dialects. There is also a display of game theory where parties in a group follow repeated norms according to the rule of thumb.

    Mutually accepted appropriate behavior between the staff of the shop and the customer are exhibited within the confines of respectable and guided relationship by particular norms. Any one who walks into this shop will notice that there are certain ways of doing things in that place.   Socialization is greatly fashioned by social norm and sanctions of human interactions within a particular environment. Sociability set ups function best, where, groups meet and agree within the confines of what they feel is the best suitable environment for their collective activities match their appropriate behavior. Coffee shops and other public social places appeal to different classes and cultural groups. The culture and orientation of an individual greatly affect their selection criteria as to what they will consider acceptable within their social norms. The clusters of persons within a particular common area posses self awareness traits that shape their personality and who they attract to themselves. Human interaction in the age of technology greatly influences cultural and social norms; these places high value on expected norms on those who interact over the internet.

Inequalities in education present negative impacts on the reputation of the schools and most importantly on the students.  In a society where unemployment is high for example, only students from reputable schools are given the opportunity to get employed, those who are from segregated schools are discriminated outright.  This scenario is not uncommon to Americans, the reason why many students strive to enter into reputable schools, and once enrolled there, they always brag about it.  They are looked up to with high regard and are thought and expected to excel in their respective fields. Our culture created a ranking system of schools and students; and considering the competitive nature of students or human beings in general, schools and students in this regard do compete.

On the students’ side, it is not proper to discriminate or shall I say to emphasize the ranking of, schools and students in the long run.  Students at an early age would be prejudiced in that they are not given any credit at all for instance in their opinions or participation in certain events in their community.  This is not a good ground for development.  It simply creates a pessimistic attitude on the part of the students from segregated schools.  Learning is not a matter of what school a student comes from but it is a matter of how well one knows his lessons, how much one learns from school and how he applies what he learns.  A comparison for example of the subjects and academic activities for instance would reveal that schools almost teach the same subject matters; only that students are exposed to different environments.  Second, true there are segregated schools, but it does not mean they do not produce good students.  Exceptional students remain exceptional wherever school they attend to.  Hence, there are students from segregated schools but are not given the opportunity to attend to popular schools, who are performing exceptionally well.

On another point however, Kozol is right.  There are top ranking schools all over the United States for example.  Many people look up to Harvard and MIT among others. This gives an implication that there is discrimination on the other end of the spectrum. The notable consequences of being in a state where there are not good schools are real.  The children who are out of school or are in segregated schools do not get good jobs, financially unstable.  The opportunities going to them are far behind than those who are exposed to good education.  Thus, they end up living in some hostile environments where homicide is common, illegal use of dangerous drugs is popular.  The same thing will happen to their children and their children’s children.

There would be less growth or development in terms of knowledge, training and employment opportunities to the extent that children who do not get good education would resort to unlawful means of obtaining livelihood (No Author, 2005).  This may sound discriminating, but it is a fact of life.  Kozol had the opportunity to compare the lifestyles of those who do not get education at all or if at all they are able to but of poor quality education; he remarked on their views way of life as a people.  They are exposed to crimes everyday, homicide or day to day street gang fights not being uncommon to them.  As a result, they would grow up with undesirable behavior or attitude, thus limiting their chances of obtaining good jobs and raising a good family.  In the long run, states, cities or places which offer poor quality education to students would likewise experience slow growth in technological, social and economic advancements – creating a vicious cycle.

    Education is something almost all would strive to obtain.  While there is indeed discrimination created by society itself, people who have not reached the highest standard of education have reasons of their own, and no one could be blamed for that.  What matters is literacy, how little it may be!

One might find it difficult to imagine how he or she can suffer from health hazards just using of a mobile phone. Health experts as well as mobile users have reported that indeed mobile phones have adverse health effects. Many experts who have researched on the effects of mobile phones do support that there is a correlation between cancer and cell phone use. Microwave emissions from cell phones have show a higher likelihood of causing cancer. Cell phones therefore cause cancer.

Evidences of cell phone as a cause of cancer
Despite the fact that the cell phone industry is protecting is image by telling people that there are no health effect related to cell phone use, there are scientific evidences that proves the opposite. A cell phone is essentially transit sound through waves and like other waves, they have adverse health effect. In the process of transmission, there are radiations transmitted and depending on how close an individual is to the cell phone, health risks correspond proportionately. Cell phones do transmit radiations in every direction as it is designed which implies that radiations can reach any part of one’s body (Sil 2009).

There are many studies that have been carried out to investigate whether indeed cell phone use cause cancer. Some of the researchers have shown that there is a connection between cell phone with different types of cancer like glioma, meningioma, and acoustic neuroma.  Since cell phone was invented, there have been fears regarding its health hazards. This has been proved by a number of studies that have been scientifically conducted.  Researches have proved that cell phones emit waves and just like other rays which normally pose health risks, cell phone waves pose health risk as well.  Consumers have founded fear on any gadget which emits microwaves since scientific evidence shows that close contact of the sensitive body organs like brain with these waves increases the likelihood of developing cancerous cells.  This fear has even spread to the use of other mobile related deceives like Bluetooth. This is because they are normally placed inside one’s ear and hence they are close to the brain than the actual mobile phone. Microwave energy as reported by the Journal of cellular biochemistry are more likely to cause cancer especially in case of multiple and frequent exposure. It is also reported that they are likely to cause fast aging of cells. According to Italian scientists, they cause cancerous cells to aggressively grow and spread first to other body organs (Worthington, 2009).

The relationship between microwave and cancer disease has been documented in early twentieth century, even during the Cold War. During cold war, it is recorded that U.S was irradiated by the Soviet Union and two ambassadors developed leukemia due to the effects of the radiation waves.  There were reports that other staffs also developed cancer. Another research by the university of Washington pin points out that brain cells are destroyed by microwave energy.  Dr. Lai shows that even small frequency of such radiations can accumulate and with time can lead to health hazards. He clarified that any form of wireless transmissions should be minimally used.  Motorola Company is reported to advise its consumers not to point a cellular antenna towards any exposed part of their bodies. Research portrays that cell phones give out large contents of radiation and more specifically through the keypads as well as the mouth piece. These radiations do get into the ear and ultimately into the brain which is easily affected by the radiations.

Apart from risk posed during making or receiving a call, use of belt clips has also been identified as another risky behavior to one’s health.  This can pose health risk to the kidneys and the liver and can result in cancer in these body organs. Current research shows that there are other effects which are related to cancer. They have adverse effects like nerve damage, hemoglobin leakage in the blood cells, headaches, and others (Worthington, 2009). In 1993, due to the increased fear in the market, Telecom industry gave out $25milion dollars to embark on research to prove that cell phones do not cause cancer. The research gave different results but it was confirmed that cell phone use poses a risk for development of cancer. Telecom has been fighting to prove that it does not cause cancer and they have run various advertisements to convince the public that cell phone use is safe.

Children are at higher risk when exposed to microwave radiations. In some of the European countries, parents are warned to be aware of the adverse effects of cell phones on their children. A researcher at the University of Utah found out that effects vary with the age in children.  A younger child is more affected than an elderly one because the radiations tend to get into the brain more easily (Consumeraffairs.com 2009). Cell phones affect the electrical activity and development in children as reported by a Spanish researcher. The society is therefore in for greater problems in the future because many children nowadays are on phone most of their times. Evidence shows that in January 2008, French health ministry issues a warning concerning cell phone use among children due to the health risks.

Most governments argue that there is no firm evidence confirming the relationship between cancer and cell phone use, yet the more the delay in acknowledging research findings, the more the effects spread especially to children. It is reported that Telecom Company collaborates with some scientist experts to hide the truth due to fear of loosing their customers. Currently, there are many cases pending in court which are related to cell phone adverse effects. Apart from cell phone use, research findings reveal that RF transmitters, which support cell phone communication, also cause cancer (Worthington, 2009).

In December 2007, there was a research carried out by Israeli researchers in the Journal of Epidemiology reported that rural dwellers have an elevated risk of tumors.  The research compared a group of rural dwellers to individuals living in the urban regions.  A publication in the International Archives Occupational and Environmental Health affirms that increased use of cell phones refers to approximately using it for 2000 hours. The 2000 hours translates to an equivalent of 10years that one is at work and minimum use for one hour per day. There were 2000 patients that were studied within the age bracket of 20 to 80. About 905 individuals from the group had brain tumors and one tenth of the group was reported to be frequent cell phone users (West 2009). The researchers reported that from the group, there were 85 individuals who had used mobile phones ever since they were young. In addition, the research conclusively warned that individuals, who had a habit of using cell phones more frequently especially before the age of 20, were at a very high risk of developing brain tumors.

The Occupational Safety and Health Department of the Communication Workers of America (CWA), reports that high radio radiations do penetrate the body and thus the molecules which come in contact collide causing heat which might result in burning of body cells. According to CWA, if the radiations are too high, they can even cause tissue or skin damage. In addition, CWA confirms that their scientific research shows that there are negative effects on health that have been pointed out to microwaves. These effects normally come about as a result of prolonged exposure to radiations and this is common for individuals who engage in long talks over the phone. Other problems attributed to microwave radiation are male and female reproductive system problems as well as brain damage (West 2009).

Tests conducted by the University of Stanford and the Integrated Laboratory Systems portrayed changes in chromosomes in the blood cells that were projected to electromagnetic rays. The research also portrayed some correlated cases of brain cancer from cell phone use. This research was undertaken with full support from the cellular telephone industry. According to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), there is a great need to look into the issue so as to reduce the use of cell phone or even curb it (U.S. Food and Drug Administration 2009).  In addition, there was an epidemiological research which looked into the issue and confirmed an increase in the rate of cases of certain cancers related to cell phone use. Some of these cancers were neurocytomas. They are characterized by growth in the periphery of the brain and this was found to be rampant among cell phone users as compared to those who did not use. Surprisingly, a research carried out among right handed cell phone users revealed that most of them had brain problems on the right side of their brains.

Radio frequency has been a great threat to individuals and broadcasting, aviation and other related fields are reported to be warning their staff to avoid exposing themselves for long periods since it can lead to antenna transmission. The earlier cell phones used to have antennas placed outside cars and there were no cases of complications. The current cell phone does allow direct contact with the skull and still, it is duplex which means that it leaves the transmitter on when a user is listening or talking therefore leading to increased exposure time (Consumeraffairs.com, 2009).

It is clearly evident that the use of cell phone poses great health risk. As much as many people especially in the cell phone industry are denying this fact, the scientific evidence clearly shows that cell phone cause cancer.   Telecom Industries could be denying because if they admit most of their customers will withdraw but they should instead focus on educating consumers on the risk posed by long time of cell phones and how they can protect themselves. Cancer is claiming many lives every year and therefore it is necessary to take an action to assist individuals protect themselves since this does not mean that cell phones will have to be withdrawn from the market.

Back in Europe, people did not completely understand how America was, the landscape, the inhabitants, not a lot was documented. During the war in America, the news about the land had to travel back to the mainland. No reliable source could be found, as there were little or no official records. The only records were the newspapers and accounts of private persons, who contradicted each other a bit too often. There was a demand to put in writing the account of events taking place, for the present as well as the future readers. Word had to travel from the American colonies, and it should be as historically correct as possible. This was the mandate at that time for the reporting of social events taking place at that time in colonial
America.

The magazine started as a venture to report the activities in colonies of Great Britain, not specifically America. Falling in the broad category of political journalism, the magazine started off with a few persons working for leisure. The magazine was to report to the people of Great Britain and Ireland about the social activities taking place in the colonies. Men and women who were interested about the colonies could read about them in the magazine and increase their knowledge on them.
War was going on in America, and it was to act as a historical events reporting magazine, telling tales of war and other conditions prevailing in America. After the writing of the articles there had to be written correspondence with people who had an expertise in the matter of writing to remove the inefficiencies from the writing of the articles. Care would be taken to give representation to all the colonies, and they should be equally represented in the magazine.

With all the talk about historical correctness about events in the colonies, and the lack of official documents on the colonies, there was the problem in the written content of the magazine as well. Care was taken not to publish anything that aught to make the position of the country unsafe, thereby treating account of public matters in a different manner. The published content was in 6 half sheets per month and then circulated throughout the colonies and back home. It was a courageous endeavor, worthy to record its name in the history books.

Dreaming. Fighting. Believing. Three words that keep the Trojanators move forward towards its goal on working hand-in-hand with various educational institutions in providing students achieve a better life.

The team, which is composed of four members that specializes in different fields, primarily aims to address the needs of the students from Carver Middle School in their needs for an after school program and CDTech in its goals to train their students for their respective careers after graduation.

The Dream
  In order for the Tronajator team to carry on with its plans, we are looking to keep an eye on the following: implementing an efficient and effective program that aims to motivate the children to stick to their dreams for a brighter future; focusing on an after school science and technology enrichment program through Carver Middle School Boeing program; and incorporating a learning environment that will entertain the learner.

As such is still a work in progress for various steps will still have to be undertaken for the project to go on full swing. First, the team will have to establish a good rapport between the school and the community. Next are the proposal for the project’s logistics and curriculum and finally, the financial aspect of this educational venture.

Every step must be thoroughly planned and even though the project reaches its ‘on-going’ status, the group will continue to think of ways to improve the system—all of which only aims to achieve the Trojanator’s goal.

The Fight
Statistically speaking, the education level in the community is far from the ideal: with one-third of the adult population who are high school undergraduates; 40% of the neighborhood’s residents belong to the poverty line and more than half of them are not even fluent in the English language.

As for the Carver Middle School, in specific, a lot are lacking: the students with their motivation to achieve, mentors who doesn’t engage on follow-up learning methods outside the institution; incentive measures to stimulate continuous learning; and skills to guarantee survival in the high school level. This might also be contributed to a low teacher-student ratio, thus minimizing the attention that a student needs to be able to secure an educational growth. But with CDTech’s and Trojanator’s in-lined goals, the team is projecting a high success rate.

For the project’s logistics, the team is eyeing the use of various CDTech facilities; twice a week after school hours since the center is just a few walking distance away from Carver. Volunteers from USC and the community will be maximized and the financial support will be coming from Boeing, Good Neighbor’s Campaign and other prospect contributors.

The neighborhood will also be playing a big part in this program for it is through them that the project will be getting a huge percentage of their volunteers and support. The community service will inculcate classroom learning in a manner that understanding theories and concepts is more informed because they are related to the reality.

In order to retain the student’s interest in the scheme, we came up with a more interactive and social method to further their learning experience: a study buddy system will be initialized; various exposure trips will be organized; guest speakers will also be invited for the purpose of inspiring the students.

The Belief
Introducing this program to the community is a great responsibility. With us getting involved with the students’ educational process is a make or break situation. The way we are going to handle the project will be a great factor for the students. The main goal is to inspire them, and the team is truly hoping for a positive result.

From the start, the group knows that this project is no easy task but with the help of various sectors, we believe that nothing is impossible and the fruit of such labors is priceless. From the creation of the curriculum to looking for the perfect center and up until the search for the project’s funding, everything is but just a labor of love.

Continuous improvement of the project and the team will be regularized to ensure that the never ceases to go onwards its mission: to be of help to the community in creating a brighter future.

    This essay critically summarizes and evaluates the Fourth Chapter “The sweet life” (Sorlin, 2005). The essay looks at the explicit themes and links these to the implicit or underlying themes discussed by the author with regard to Italian cinema in the 1950s and the 1960s in particular. The essay also sheds critical light on these themes.

    Although Sorlin (2005) encompasses his discussion between 1939 and the late 1990s, his main area of discussion remains the Italian cinema in the 1950s and 1960s. He discusses two themes side by side: (i) the cinematic development in terms of genres, production styles, expansion of audience in other countries, distribution patterns, production trends, and the like; and (ii) the social, economical, moral, and educational changes that were taking place outside the Italian cinema across generations. Specifically he focuses on the fourth generation which was specifically under influence of modernism in Italian life. Sorlin (2005) attempts to make several connections between these two sides of his discussion: how they are related to each other; how one influenced the other; and what came to be the outcome of these forces moving to and from these two integral themes of the discussion in the chapter. I have divided my analysis in terms of major themes and have discussed these themes critically by relating them to each other.

Social and Economic Changes in Italian Life
    To me, the discussion of the social and economic changes taking place in Italian life around the 1950s and the 1960s remain the most prominent theme throughout the chapter because Sorlin (2005) seems to connect major cinematic developments and generic themes with this bigger picture. Whether it is the serious social films such as Rocco and His Brothers (1960), or it is La dolce vita (1960), the major themes discussed are centered on these changes: the Italian “miracle” which was mainly caused by industrial and technological developments in the post World War II Italy resulting in the growing consumer society. Thus, how family values were seen differently by the fourth generation, their attitude toward social, material, and sexual needs of human nature are depicted in the genres of this particular period. Sorlin tries to make connections between the cinematic life and the life around it by discussing the characters of the films and showing their outlook to life in relation to the changes taking place in Italian life. He is successful in this basic attempt of his analysis since reading through his “The sweet life” clearly gives us the picture of the Italian life and its changing face. I will discuss this point in the next section, in particular references to the genres discussed by Sorlin.

Serious Films
    Serious movies in this period, such as Rocco and His Brothers, La dolce vita, 8½, and Bicycle Thieves were more concerned with social changes in Italian lifestyle. I would say these films depicted psychological changes in the fourth generation portraying how the youth, in the new world order, would situate themselves, and how differently they would approach the challenges in a time of changing family values and social features of society. These films had a deep impact on social life. They repeatedly brought forth themes that emphasized these changes in Italian life. For instance, new patterns of jobs, money spending, and expanding choices to look to other ways for entertainment are all depicted in these films and mirror the Italian society across different classes and the struggle that especially the poor made to make their way in this economic boom.

Comedies    The sharp contrast that can be seen between serious social films and the comedies shown in the particular period of Italian cinema is that the comedies (humor, farce, and satire mixed roughly) covered far wider scope of Italian life by focusing on a number of themes while at the same time taking these matter lightly as to entertain the public and to create their particular place in the industry. Therefore, in Don Camillo and Bread, Love and …, we see a number of themes taken and criticized which included the corruption in Italian politics and society, sexual outlook of men and how women fit in this design; robberies, and giving away the traditional morality. These themes were powerfully demonstrated in the films and backed up by quality of productions which became a sign of pride for the Italians because these films were shown in entire Europe as well as established their market very well in the United States. To me these comedies were more successful than the serious films because of their two main strengths: They were story-wise more creative and technically more potent than the serious genre. They show the reality of life more drastically than the serious films. For instance, these comedies were so brave as to part ways with traditional themes: they bade farewell to happy ending marriage theme. Moreover, it is in these films that we see the patterns of power shifting from men’s authority to the liberty of women who were now free to go about on their own. All these themes, to me, are the hallmark of change taking place in Italian life and were reinforced by this genre without being to critical yet taking all major aspects in consideration. 

Epic, Popular, and Modern Films
    The boom of films in the 1960s resulted in co-productions and financing of film projects in which a wider audience of Europe and United States was in focus and so it altered the essence of Italian life to some extent. Italian film makers were involved with French, Spanish, German, and some Latin American countries and together they came up with epic film series, popular films, and modern films which gave Italian cinema another outlook to the world cinematic entertainment. Italian films, La dolce vita, 8 1/2 , L’avventura, Rocco won several prizes and so the fourth generation was especially attracted to cinema by these pride-giving status of Italian films. The youth were also became interested in epic films because of growing education in them. The trend for film festival also kind of trained the audience about how to select a film for their taste. However, it was the modern films in Italian cinema that made the hugest profits among all the films in this period. These films were considered modern in that they gave “their consumers an awareness of their process of construction. Spectators were required to pay attention to the components of the film”; so that the experience was as interesting as a “work of fiction can bring” (127). Interpreting Sorlin’s account of what impact these movies had to the fourth generation, I see that these movies were according to their changing lives and their expectations from the new world (the economic boom); otherwise the “bewilderment” (as Sorlin states) would not become great appreciation of these films by the fourth generation because through these films they developed a sense of self evaluation which in only possible, to me, when someone is interested in something by heart. These films, in technical terms, we can see that these films focused on life in the ordinary sense (which made them close to the real audience); bringing out their problems, issues, and hopes on the screen. This was surely modern, I would agree with Sorlin, because other genres told a story, but these films talked to the audience and shared their issues through their stories. Although in later times, the cinema going decreased steadily, it was mainly because of other means of entertainment taking birth in Italian society. The modern films covered a huge milestone in developing the realist vision in Italian public with other movies taking their due share.

    In conclusion it can be stated that all the genres of films in Italian cinema were shaped by the outer social trends taking place in the 1950s, 1960s, and onward. These changes were focused in serious, comedy, popular, modern, and other genres as well as these films particularly made the public aware of these changes. Therefore, it would perhaps be a right statement to suggest that the Italian cinema and the fourth generation moved hands-in-hands in the process of social, psychological, economical, and moral change. Both benefited from each other and together contributed to the overall development of Italian life.

In the case study as the school psychologist, the client is in therapy to improve her social skills with peers through training sessions. However, the client is involved with a group of girls who share a cutting behavior and decides to engage in such activities to fit in. The school psychologist feels that the client is not suicidal. The client asks the school psychologist to keep it a secret and she will stop cutting her thighs.

    The ethical issues involved in this situation are confidentiality, beneficence, and nonmaleficence. Although the school psychologist did not discuss any specific confidentiality issues with the client prior to that session, the school psychologist stands by the fidelity principle as he gained the trust of the client. On the other hand, the school psychologist is compelled to report the self-harming behavior of the client under the beneficence principle, which states that the psychologist is responsible for protecting the welfare and the rights of the client as well as preventing harm (American Psychological Association [APA], 2003b).

The disclosure principle allows the school psychologist to report the behavior despite confidentiality issues if the situation calls for a report in order to protect the client from harm (APA, 2003a). This situation is one that requires the psychologist’s intervention to help rehabilitate the cutting behavior. However, to avoid the possible consequence of having the client lose trust in him and the therapy, the psychologist can give the client a chance to change and promise confidentiality as long as the client stops the cutting behavior. This agreement can be recorded to ensure that the psychologist is taking their arrangement seriously. At this point, the psychologist must closely observe the behavior of the client and incorporate advice in choosing her friends in the training sessions. Once the client does not keep her end of the deal, the psychologist must inform the client of the responsibility that binds him to report the situation. The resolution falls under the nonmaleficence principle where the psychologist’s decisions should be decided in consideration to the assurance that benefits outweigh the harmful effects (Pantilat, 2008).

8 December 2009WS4 Essay
    Gang violence is a problem experienced all over the world. The usual members of these gangs and the perpetrators of gang-related crimes are the youth. In the article Troubles in Smurftown: Youth Gangs and Moral Visions on Guam, it looks at the surge of gangs and gang-related problems in U.S. Guam and relates it to modernization. The changes in the tradition of the area somehow instigated the youth to look for a sense of honor and solidarity among their peers. Gang-related crimes and violence are the result of lack of guidance and attention from their elders, and a clear grasp of what’s right and wrong.

    Gang activity on Guam surged since 1993, and this has affected not only certain areas, but the island as a whole. According to the article, these island gang members are responsible for 60% of all the crimes in the area, most of which are involved in “burglary, robbery, auto theft, narcotics sales, petty theft, and physical violence (Schmitz & Christopher, 1997).” Gang warfare is also very common among rival gangs, especially with about 110 permanent gangs roaming the island.

    The cultural norms being violated in the situation presented by the article includes fighting and beating up children as young as 8 years old. Gangs in this area recruit even those who are very young, and because of gang rivalries, these children are oftentimes targeted. These gangs are also involved in burglaries, narcotics sales, and assault, among others. They don’t just violate cultural norms, they also break the law and disrupt peace and order in their communities.

    The one who has the power to label the behavior as deviant are clearly the adults living in this place. They are the ones who should oversee what their children are doing and guide them in their everyday activities to keep them from gangs. This is a deviant behavior because the society condones their existence and their activities. Young children aren’t supposed to be fighting or robbing, instead they should be in school studying for their own good. But because of modernization, the parents weren’t able to guide their children properly. They were engrossed in their jobs that they weren’t able to supervise them in their school and their lives. They were not able to tell them what’s good or bad, or at least advise them about the repercussions of joining a gang.

    Gang activity in Guam has surged since 1993, resulting to increased crimes like burglary, narcotics sales, and assault. Young children were the ones most affected, since they’re the ones who are forced by their peers to join gangs. At a young age, they’re already involved in fighting, and a life of crime. This could be attributed to the lack of support and guidance from they’re parents. They’re the ones who must look out for their welfare and tell them what they should do. Indeed, gang-related crimes and violence are the result of lack of attention and support from adults, which is why the youth has no clear grasp of what’s right and wrong.

Reference:
Schmitz, S., & Christopher, J. C. (1997). Troubles in Smurftown: Youth Gangs and Moral Visions on Guam. Child Welfare, Vol. 76(Issue 3), 18p.

WS5 Essay
    Our perception of our social status is dependent on how we see ourselves among other people. This results to our view of the consequences of our social status to our own lives and to the lives of others. In the article The Effects of Status Cues on Choices of Social Power and Influence Strategies by Anthony J. Stahelski and Carolyn F. Paynton, the effect of the social status on the influence over other people is analyzed. The findings of this research relates to the responses of my interviews of my wife and my father. Our social status compels us to set an example for other people in order to help them achieve a better status or to uplift one’s own.

    When I interviewed my wife regarding her perception of her social status and what she thinks are the consequences of the status, she responded with indignation. My wife, being a middle class Caucasian, thinks that the consequence of her status is that she needs to set an example for other white women to follow. Just like her, they should be able to understand different culture and not just judge others by their color or race. According to her, she needs to prove to everyone that she can make it as a woman, with the understanding that everyone is created equally.

    On the other hand, my second interviewee, my father, mentions that he wants to set an example to other males in the society. As an elder, he is compelled to help others somehow be like him, and motivate them to grow and became a leader. Right now, I think his actions are signs of the leadership that he mentions. Even though their isn’t a formal title of designation, the leadership he is pertaining to is the ability to influence people to be better. I think this perspective is similar to that of my wife, and that both of them understand that they need to set an example to everyone, regardless of the race, the color, and the beliefs among others.

    According to the article, people from different status often use influence tactics in order to convince others to do what he wants (Stahelski & Paynton, 1995). Our society is status differentiated so we can see a lot of these people influencing others, seemingly attempting to help them improve their own social status. My wife and my father may not realize this, but their attempt to set an example is actually their way of attempting to improve the social status of others. Somehow, our status or position in the society compels us to set an example for other people for their own improvement, or just to uplift one’s own.

Introduction
Feminism refers to the term that is used in the description of economic, cultural or political movement whose main intention is establishing more legal protection and rights for women. It involves sociological and political philosophies and theories regarding gender difference issues, and also a movement advocating for more gender rights for women that are specific as well as campaigns aimed at achieving women’s interests and rights. Despite the fact that both feminists and feminism were not widely known until in the 1970s, these terms have been in existence and were previously applied in public parlance (Citron, 2004).
Feminism waves

Feminism history can be categorized into three broad waves, feminism first wave took place in the 19th and in the early 20th  centuries, while the second wave of feminism occurred in 1960s and also in the 1970s, and finally the third wave started in the 1990s and is still the one prevailing to date. The theory of feminism surfaced from these movements of feminism. It is apparent in various disciplines like the feminist literary criticism, feminist history and feminist geography. Feminism has changed prime perspectives in a big way especially within the western societies, such changes range from law to culture. Activists of feminism have over time campaigned vigorously for the legal rights of women, which involve voting rights, property rights and contract rights. They also campaigned for the rights of women to bodily autonomy and integrity, for rights of abortion and women’s reproductive rights. The feminist activists were also keen in ensuring that girls and women were well protected by the law, they were protected from rape and sexual harassment, domestic violence, and they enjoyed equal rights as men in the workplace. Women are also supposed to be protected against misogyny, and against any other form of specific gender discrimination (Haag, 1996).

Feminism’s first wave was mainly focused on promoting equal property and contract rights for all women together with resistance of chattel marriage as well as ownership of women who are married together with their children by the men who have married them. But by the close of the 19th century, feminism activism was mainly focused on achieving political power, especially voting rights among women. However, there were still feminists who were very vocal in fighting for women’s economic, productive, sexual rights. In America, this wave is deemed to have come to an end upon the passage of 19th amendment to the US constitution in 1919, the amendment granted women voting rights in all states in US. The first wave of feminism paved way for the second one as the battle for treating women as equals with men went on (Citron, 2004).

The second wave was mainly focused on fighting cultural and social inequalities as well as political inequalities. This wave which started in the 1960s continues to exist ever since it started and coexists together with the third wave of feminism. Feminists comparing the second to the first wave of feminism suggest that while the first wave was mainly focused on women rights such as voting rights, the second feminism wave was much focused on issues such as bringing an end to discrimination against women. Feminist’s second wave saw women’s political and social inequalities as inextricably connected and thus encouraged the women to comprehend their personal lives aspects as politicized deeply and as mirroring chauvinist power structures. The second wave was a big achievement for the fight against oppression and discrimination against women. Cultural and social inequalities started fading away and thus women started to enjoy equal rights as men in several societies around the world (Haag, 1996).

Feminism’s third wave started in the 1990s; it arose in order to respond to the failures that were perceived in the second wave, it also arose so as to respond to the counterattack against movements and initiatives, which the second wave created. The feminism third wave seeks to avoid or challenge what it considers the essentialist femininity definitions arising from the second wave, which over emphasized the upper and middle class women in America and Europe experiences (Sowards & Renegar, 2004).

Post structuralist sexuality and gender interpretation is core to the ideology of the third wave. The feminists of the third wave frequently puts more emphasis on micro challenges, they also pose a great challenge to the paradigm of the second wave as to what may be good or bad for women. This wave also possesses inner debates between various feminists who are different. Some psychologists who are also feminists suggests that there are significant disparities between sexes, they therefore disagree with their counterparts who propose that such inherent differences do not exist between sexes, such feminists therefore contend that the roles of gender are as a result of social conditioning (Sowards & Renegar, 2004).

According to post feminism, it describes a wide range of perspectives responding to feminism. Even though post feminists are not against feminism, they firmly believe that women have already attained the goals of the second wave, while being critical to the feminist goals of the third wave. This term was largely applied in the second wave to explain criticism against feminism of the second wave. Various contemporary feminists perceive feminism to simply hold since women are people. They however suggests that views that are meant to separate the human race along sex lines instead of uniting them should basically be considered not as feminism but rather as sexist (Haag, 1996).

Socialist feminism links women’s oppression to the ideas of Marx concerning the labor, oppression and exploitation. These feminists believe that unequal standing of women in both domestic and work place spheres puts the women down. Socialist feminists perceive marriage, childcare, domestic work and prostitution as channels through which women are basically exploited and oppressed by a system that is patriarchal, which devalues the women together with all the substantial tasks they perform. The socialist feminists thus focus more of their energies on changes that are broad affecting the entire society instead of individual basis (Citron, 2004).

The fight for women’s rights and gender equality has come a long way and has so far achieved substantially. Women in several parts of the world are now protected by the laws governing various nations around the world. They are also granted similar rights as those accorded to men. However, the battle is far from over especially in Africa and other developing regions as well as in the greater part of the Muslim world where the rights of women are yet to be recognized leave alone to be entrenched in the constitution. Therefore, women in such regions need to be liberated from the exploitation and oppression they experience every day. This will ensure that women are properly integrated in the political, social, cultural and economic development of their societies.

Introduction
    The elderly in society play a very critical role and ought to be given the kind of treatment and approach that they desire and deserve. A closer look at the various ethnic and minority groups in the country will attest to this; the trend fairly pointing to their general neglect. To better illustrate this assertion and trend, this paper is devoted to the analysis of the African American ethnic group, with an emphasis on the elderly within this group and how they relate with other people within and outside of the group. This is with a view to bring to the fore the matters that are critical to the elderly, and how they view their treatment from society at large. More specifically, the paper gives a comprehensive description of the African American ethnic group, focusing on their cultural characteristics, their current social, political, and economic status, and the major historical events that have affected the elderly of this group. The paper also provides the responses to an oral interview with a 69 year-old African American woman who details what she has gone through; and gives other key information regarding the elderly in this group. Finally, the paper analyses the group on more specific areas and aspects, including the implication of the changing times on their way of life.
African Americans: Key Issues
    Although the proportion of African Americans in the country is one of the largest compared to other minority groups, an exact figure has not been arrived at. However, it is approximated that the African American population is around 12.5%, indicating that the group is the largest among minority groups in the country. African Americans reside mostly in states founds in the south of the country, and most can be found in cities and other urban areas. African Americans have never had a real taste of affluence as is with most other ethnic groups in the country. The group has always lagged behind in matters of economic development, and the group represents one of the least affluent in the country. In fact, poverty, disease, natural disasters, and illiteracy have become almost synonymous with this group (Belgrave, 2009).
    Matters critical to social life like security have also been greatly affected among members of African American communities, with the highest proportion of reported incidences of violent crime, armed conflicts, domestic violence, drug abuse, and drug trafficking associated with  black or African Americans people. The group, however, has had issues that range from cultural differences and even racial discrimination. These have greatly affected the way the people go about their daily lives. The elderly African Americans have had their share of historical injustices too. As the oldest surviving members of the group, some of the elderly have a real vivid memory of what they have experienced or what their parents before them went through in the past (Cantor, 2000).
    The most common historical event for most is the encounter with racism. The elderly still find it hard to believe that the American society has changed so much to such a level where a black or colored person could be the president. Racist ideologies still cloud the minds of many, while others are grappling with rapid cultural shifts. The days of slavery that marked the migration of most of the current elderly people from other native homelands mostly in Africa are also still affecting some to this day because it has shaped the way they relate to others and perceive issues in life. On a general scope, African Americans are perceived as a cultural group that is associated with negative social issues, and who are less likely to make it in life as far as development is concerned (David, 2006).
Oral Interview: a Reflection of the Entire Group
    The untold story of the elderly among the wider African American ethnic group provided a deeper insight into the real life people of this group in general and the elderly in particular experience. The first thing needed to find out from the interviewee whom I called up was what the most memorable event in her life was. In response, the lady, who identified herself as Mercy, almost chocked over the line but with more encouragement from me, she managed to give me a detailed story of her encounter with racism after having found her way into the country in the late 1940s in the company of her family. As a very young child of about eight, she can still recall how it was like having to move from her native home in Ivory Coast together with her farther and mother only to come face to face with slavery and racism. She could stop from time to time amid her agonizing narrative to sob, and had I not been on the other side of the line I would have been tempted to join her. This pointed to her painful experience then.
    After prodding her on, she went on to explain how her father had just come from the War, and was now hoping for a better life abroad. They were made to work under conditions which no-one even in Africa could agree to do. They received harsher treatment than dogs, and their lives were pathetic. As a young child, she had to do domestic chores to supplement their meager income. Daily, her father would tell her never to despair, but to remain focused. However, her mother could not endure the mistreatment from her boss. The tragic moment that changed the interviewee’s life forever was the day when her mother’s mistress set her dogs on her mother for touching the mistress’s white baby boy’s playing toy. The dogs tore her to pieces in the full view of Mercy who could do nothing to help. By the time the dogs were done, Mercy’s mother lay helpless on the floor and at the point of death. When an ambulance was called in by another Black worker, the medical staff in it refused to take her to hospital because she was black.
    On family matters, Mercy pointed out to me that her family was close-knit, except for occasional fallouts concerning petty issues which she described as normal. In fact, she added, it was the very nature of their oneness as a family that they had managed to steer through hard times. Although she has been in the country for over half a century now, she still maintains close ties with her extended family back in Ivory Coast. The family in the United States comprises her five children and two distant cousins. They also stay with two of their grandchildren who lost their parents. They relate well with other African Americans, having gone as far as establishing welfare groups, worship services, and other social events which they hold and take part in together. Mercy said that although she loves her African culture, she has been somewhat taken aback by some of the practices some Africans still engage in. She differs with them on matters such as remarriage, herself having refused to remarry after the death of her husband. However, she believes most African Americans are going too far in letting go of their cultural practices as they hastily emulate Western ways.
Emerging Trends
    What is revealed in this interview is essentially what the other members of the group experience, feel, and aspire for. Most African Americans have been witnesses to slavery and racism, and this has made many to often to have a tendency to seek the comfort of one another. They live almost as though they were a family, and maintain close ties with their extended families, friends, and other Africans in the country and elsewhere. They are wary of other ethnic groups, especially the whites who enslaved their forefathers (Cantor, 2000). Many changes are indeed taking place in the African American community. As people usually wont to adhering strictly to their cultural ways, many African Americans are now turning to Western culture and generally embracing modernity. They are realizing that some cultural practices are not beneficial at all, and are fast letting go of them. As modernity catches up with the group, they are likely to take on habits like use of hard drugs and excessive drinking (Cantor, 2000).
    To add to these, general social delinquency is likely to increase. That aside, there are trends that are likely to emerge, although others have already been witnessed. Although in the past discrimination has hampered the access of most Africa Americans to basic services like education, healthcare, and employment, the trend now is that a lot more African Americans are getting advanced education, and some are even performing better than their white counterparts (Cantor, 2000). More people from this group, both men and women, are playing a more substantial role in the political process. Rights movements have come to have a lot more participation from African Americas. Most African Americans are adopting western religious practices, with Protestants comprising the largest proportion of the group. Employment opportunities for African Americans have become more readily available as racial and sexual discrimination has ended and the cause of the black person given more attention. Generally, African Americans are finding easier access to better facilities just like any other American (Dorrien, 2003).
Future Implications to the Elderly
    Given such changes, the elderly in the coming days are likely to grapple with matters of pension and healthcare insurance which are not so much of a concern presently. In the future, more African Americans will be retiring from jobs, and many will be having access to healthcare insurance. The elderly will also have to develop the culture of saving for their own future because pension schemes are becoming more readily available to them. With more young people adopting Western ways of life, the elderly will have increased instances of family conflict and tumultuous relations that ever before (Cantor, 2000).

Implications for Service Delivery to the Elderly
    With increased educational opportunities, more African Americans will be in a position to get education. Even he elderly will not be hindered or limited. Medically, the increased economic welfare of the elderly due to increased incomes from pensions and part-time work will enable them to have access to better health facilities and better services. Socially, all African Americans have been known to be a close-knit group, preferring to live together with each other and working together for the benefit of the entire group (Zastrow, 2009). With the emerging trends, however, service delivery is going to be affected. With these present and anticipated changes in the way of life of African Americans, the elderly will need to find ways to rely a lot more on themselves and on their own efforts and not on help from family members. They will have to find part time work even after retirement to augment what social security offers them. The care for the elderly is likely to reduce drastically or end altogether as those who traditionally care for them find themselves with other more important matters to attend to. Today, the elderly are learning how to care for and rely more on themselves (Zastrow, 2009).
Political Implications
    Politically, the place of the elderly African American has for a long time been that of sitting by and watching events unfold, having no power to take part in active politics. Elderly African American women have especially experienced a lot of discrimination in matters of politics in the past. For many years, African Americans could not as much as take part in an electoral process even after the historical amendments to the US constitution in 1965 to allow every American to take part in local, national, and state elections. This trend, however, is changing and most elderly African Americans are seeking election to high offices, and some have secured them (Zastrow, 2009).
    In recent times, the elderly members of the group have worked jointly to seek better rights for their people, and in the recent past great achievements have been realized. With the new order of life, the elderly are expected to take part in more political advocating than ever before. They are to participate in election processes and actively participate in elections at all levels. Coalition building is more likely to expand considering that the African American elderly have such an ability to bind people together in a community system. As their participation in the political process is enhanced, they are to cause enhanced coalition building. As the largest minority group in the country, African Americans are bound to benefit politically from such political coalitions with other ethnic groups (Zastrow, 2009).
Conclusion
    The elderly among the African American communities, regardless of how advanced in years they might be, have been a part of the social fabric and their value can never be assumed or guessed. Just like any other age group or in the society, the elderly need to be made to feel they belong not as a result of proxy or compulsion but from freewill. Over the years, this group of people has been faced with different issues that have made their life both favorable and difficult. For such people, it would have been expected that all in society would treat them well and ensure their peaceful existence as their sunset days drag by. The elderly have been affected with emerging trends and changes in the way of life. They have had to grapple with healthcare insurance maters, pensions, and cultural shifts. On the whole, the African American elderly have been impacted greatly by events both in history and those that caretaking place now. Future trends are also expected to have such impacts.

Chapter 5 of Earl Babbie’s book, The Practice of Social Research, primarily expounds on Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement.  This particular phase in the conduct of an empirical research must be done to be able to proceed to the data gathering phase.

There is a need for a research topic to be conceptualized in such a way that the unit of meaning for a particular social phenomenon is clearly defined.  This will put focus on the research topic and will guide the research process to follow.  The researcher can operationalize the definition of the concept based on how the concept is actually used in the study or research.  A concept is a social construct.  It is what is based on how people in society use it as part of living.  The concept of anomie, for instance, as introduced by the French Sociologist, Emile Durkheim in his study on suicide in the late eighteenth century was after all based on the word anomy used three centuries before Durkheim used it.  Anomie as used by Durkheim was conceptualized to mean “state of normlessness,” anomy meant disregard for divine law.

In the process of conceptualization, indicators can be used to measure the presence or absence of what is being sought for.  In conceptualizing pain, for instance, indicators such as facial grimace and pain rating can be used.  When there is a need to group concepts, dimension can be used, for instance, the experience and the effect dimension of pain.  These are just two dimensions of pain; there are still other possible dimensions a researcher can include.  The operationalization task, though, already delimits the research.

After conceptualization, there is a need to specify the levels of measurements for the variables used in the study.  In research, a variable is a characteristic about each individual element of a population or sample.  The value of the variable will be the measure of the characteristic of interest, like a patient’s age upon admission at the hospital, his/her religious affiliation, his/her blood pressure, and his/her verbalized pain scale.  The importance of knowing the level of measurement can not be overlooked as it will guide the researcher in the analysis phase of the research.  There is an appropriate statistical treatment for a specific level of measurement a variable is used in the research.

There are four levels of measurements: nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio.  Nominal measures are variables with characteristics of exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness; merely offer names or labels for characteristics, either the same or different.  For instance, for the variable gender or sex, data like 10 males and 15 females; for the variable religion, 15 Roman Catholic and 12 Protestants.  Ordinal measures are variables we can logically rank-order like people in society are either in the upper, middle or lower class. Interval measures provide numbers that reflect differences among items; the actual distance separating those attributes does have meaning, like Fahrenheit temperature scale of 80 – 90 degrees, IQ scores of 100 and 110.  Lastly, the ratio measures are the attributes composing a variable, besides having all the characteristics mentioned previously, are based on a true zero point.  Examples of ratio are age, length of residence in a given place.

Reliability of a research technique can be verified when each time it is used on the same subject or object, the results will be the same.  Hence, there is consistency of the technique, it is reliable.  Prior to the use of the research tool, a reliability test can be done.    Once reliability is set, validity can also be established, which refeThere is certain score which tells the researcher that the tool has high reliability and can be used now for data gathering.rs to how an empirical measure reflects the way the concept is defined for the research being conducted.  There is also face validity to contend with, since individuals vary in their perspectives on a certain concept, they may not necessarily agree on a common meaning.  The same goes with criterion-related validity and content validity.  These can also be considered at this phase.